Different types of biological control agents.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"306",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Modern Approaches To Quality Control",title:"Modern Approaches To Quality Control",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Rapid advance have been made in the last decade in the quality control procedures and techniques, most of the existing books try to cover specific techniques with all of their details. 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These organisms are not only responsible for potential loss of revenue due to heavy crop damage and reduced food supplies but also significantly damage the machinery, equipment and property as well. They are prevented, destroyed, repelled or mitigated using different types of pesticides such as insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides and fungicides. Such chemical control methods are neither always economical nor effective and are generally associated with unwanted health, safety and environmental risks.
Therefore, in the recent decades, elevated awareness on the impacts of pesticide use on the human health and environment has fostered to decrease the reliance on chemical controls. Furthermore, the development of pesticide resistance is also indicative for the need of change for pests management with emphasis on the human health and environment. In this regard, biologically based technologies could be more convectional to solve the urgent needs in pest management. Biological control or biocontrol is particularly the use of animals, fungi, or other microbes to feed upon, parasitize or interfere with a targeted pest species. When the chemical pesticides were not appropriate for controlling the specific pest, the use of biological control came as a practical solution to the pest problem. The biological control method is innovative and sustainable way to control pests. This method leaves no chemical residues and has no harmful impact on the humans or other organisms. If the method is successfully implemented following introduction, it may provide a permanent control with favaourable cost–benefit ratio. A commonly accepted definition of biological control is:
The organisms used to feed on, parasitize, or otherwise interfere with targeted pests are called as the
Biocontrol agents | Examples |
---|---|
Predators | Ladybugs, Dragonflies, Lacewings, Pirate Bugs, Rove and Ground Beetles, Aphid midge, Centipedes |
Parasitoids | Ichneumonid wasps, Braconid wasps, Chalcid wasps, Tachinid flies |
Nematodes | |
Bacteria | |
Viruses | Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis (CPV), Granulosis (GV), Entomopox viruses (EPN) |
Fungi |
Though the biological agents controls the pest populations with the use of natural predators and minimizes their impact on economic and environmental practices, however, this control method can offer a few distinct advantages as well as disadvantages.
Entomologists consider biological control as an option when the widespread and repetitive usage of chemicals develops resistance in insects. It is a great deal of concern in the recent years.
Extensive application of chemicals is the primary reason for undesirable ecological side effects. Agrochemicals cause many environmental adverse consequences. They may contaminate the groundwater; some may enter the food-chains as a consequence producing a threat to the health of human and other organisms. Besides, the spraying of pesticides is also unsafe for the user. Frequent use of chemical causes inefficacy and is an important part of agricultural enterprise cost [3, 4].
Besides the known adverse consequences of pesticides use, it is not possible to uproot chemicals from the pest management. However, pest mortality caused by chemicals should be added/included to natural causes of death rather than considering the death as substitutive. And here the importance of natural enemies becomes more comprehensible, as the eradication of one pest species could lead to enormous increase in other pest numbers [4].
Therefore, the increasing concern of adversities associated with pesticide use is resulting in a more environmental friendly and sustainable agriculture. Several acceptable regulations are imposed with chemical restrictions or bans, especially in the developed nations. And here natural control method is gaining more attention for pest management at the better prices in market. Such factors hopefully create a favorable condition for the widespread of biological control methods [5].
Biological control has several advantages as a pest control method, especially when it is compared with insecticides. The most pivot benefit is that such control methods are environmental friendly and do not add any pollutant into the environment. Kok [6] stated that biological control method may be applied whenever required as it does not pollute the environment.
Another most important advantage of this method is its selectivity i.e., specific pest target strategy. Unlike the chemical/other control method, this method controls the pest meant to target and do not harm the other species or plant. Therefore, danger of damage to non target plant species is restricted. Weeden and Shelton [7] have confirmed that this natural control method do not arise any new complication, like conventional pesticides. However, the side effects may not be totally excluded, though it rarely appears [8]. When discussing the balance of agricultural ecosystems, selectivity plays a vital role because a great damage to non target species can lead to the restriction of natural enemies’ populations. Once the natural enemies are introduced into the environment, they reduce the target pest population and sustain their own population as well. Therefore, after initial introduction very little effort is required to keep the system in balance. How successfully a Biological control agent (BCA) can be deployed in an agricultural ecosystem, so as not to damage non target pests, depends on appropriate host specificity tests which determine the potential host range [6].
Another interesting advantage of biological control method is the ability to self-perpetuate. According to Kok (1999), biological control agents will increase in their number and spread. They are self-propagating, dispersing, and self-perpetuating too. This becomes important in relation to the economic feasibility of biological control [9].
An important advantage of biological control method is that the pest is unable or very slow to develop resistance [7]. It is generally not possible for a target pest to develop mechanisms of defense when attacked by a natural enemy [10]. Some examples of defense mechanisms that could develop by pests are escape behavior and repellent chemicals. However, as Van Emden [8] states that “
The adopted and established biological control methods in a specific area can be kept in a place for longer time than the chemical or other control methods which require repetitive application [6]. Hence, biological control methods are also cost effective as they are needed to be applied only once. The effectiveness of biological control methods is higher than the other control methods and is based on self-perpetuation and self-propagation as mentioned earlier. A small number of biocontrol agents can grow to very high densities and provide continuous control of a pest over a large area. When the cost of deployment of biological control agent is considered in contrast to pesticide applications, biological control is generally less expensive than the chemical control [11]. The financial benefit of biological control is greatest in cases when there is no other option. Another interesting point regarding the cost efficiency of this method is that the yield benefit of biological control is probably less than yield achieved by agrochemicals, but the primary cost of biological control agent is generally lower than chemical pesticides [9].
There are several cases where we also find the breakdown of successfully implemented biological control programmes. The story of the Cane toad introduction in Australia and
Therefore, there are also serious disadvantages that restrict the popularity and use of biological control agents to the growers promoting the chemical use. The most important disadvantage is the probability of revenue stability. Reichelderfer [9] well mentioned that the biological control agents are highly proned to environmental conditions rather than the chemical control. As a consequence the pest population is highly fluctuated. And this is a challenge for the growers in relation to the product quality, to the crop yield and obviously to the price of product on market. Moreover, if the annual harvest of a crop is not stable, it will affect grower’s income stability.
Another important disadvantage is the incompatibility with conventional pesticides by the growers. Growers are characterized by lack of patience and chemical control is one of the quick fix to any pest population [6]. Hence, the growers prefer the potent pesticides rather than the biological control method which is a slow process and requires lot of time and patience producing long term effect. Van Emden [8] states the limitation of biological control over subsequent use of pesticides, “
Due to the reliability of natural enemies on environmental conditions biological control is often unpredictable. It is well reported in the biological control of whitefly in glasshouses, that a sudden change in weather or a period of extreme hot or cold may lead to a breakdown of the system” [8]. The introduction of natural enemies in a new environment needs to carry out extensive research work to achieve the desirable results against climatic constraints.
Another disadvantage of biological control is that it does not exterminate the pest. As Weeden and Shelton [7] points out that:
Selectivity is a major advantage of biological control method, however, it could also be disadvantageous. Since, natural enemies are species specific, the other pests which are not affected could cause damage, so that the benefit of bio control technique could be extremely eliminated. Reichelderfer [9] has stated that
Though this method of control is cost effective, a lot is expensed for its successful implementation in the environmental system. Butt [3] mentions that the lack of infrastructure which facilitates transfer of new technologies and research knowledge to the growers is a major inhibitor factor to its commercial perspective. It is not easy and sometimes expensive too for implementing biological control in field because it requires high qualified scientific staff [7]. The growers generally choose the easy applications of pesticides. There is also relatively less investment in biological control research in compare with chemical pesticides.
Variability in the production batches is also one of the significant disadvantage. “The variation and changes in behaviour of natural enemies that can be caused by rearing conditions are manifold” [15]. This variation arises due to lack of appropriate rearing procedures and often leads to incompatibility. The application of appropriate rearing procedures and the production of high quality biological control agents ultimately increase the cost production of natural enemies. Due to this cause, quality measures in mass rearing are often not applied by companies and consequently production of good quality natural enemies becomes challenging [15].
Even though the biological control method is environmentally safe as it provides less risk of residues in food chain, there are risks associated with disruption of biological control agents in the natural food chain. Kok [6] has reported that “
Table 2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of biological control over chemical/other control methods:
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Specific to a particular pest | Can sometimes fail in its specificity |
Self-sustaining system | a slow process |
Cheap after startup | Expensive at startup |
Works most of the time | Does not completely destroy a pest |
Higher recycling potential | Requires expert supervision |
Capability to withstand polluted water | Often unpredictable |
Low toxicity level | |
Slow development of resistance |
Advantages and disadvantages of biological control over chemical/other control methods.
The use of biological agents to control pest population has long history. Biological control has been in practice since ancient times, however, they were not scientifically validated. During ancient times, Chinese, observed that ants were effective predators of many citrus pests. They multiplied and increased the populations of ants and took their nests from surrounding habitats and placed them into their orchards. Thus, the use of natural enemies to reduce the impacts of pests is just a modern adaptation of the original ideas from the history. In this chapter we will discuss the theories of biological control and examine their approaches and applications in the modern pest management.
67% of biological control successes which occurred on islands later occurred in continental areas.
All the successes in tropical areas were strengthened by the fact that initial biological control successes occurred on tropical islands. Success is the consequence of latitude and is reinforced on a physiological basis that is explained comparing the Heterodynamous insects and Homodynamous insects as below:
Heterodynamous insects
are unable to continuously reproduce throughout year.
generally have disconnected generations, i.e., all their stages may not be present at any one time.
require conjunction between natural enemy and pest.
Homodynamous insects
are capable to reproduce throughout year.
have synchronized or connected generations and all their stages may be present at any one time.
are easiest species to control with biological method.
Pemberton & Willard [16] gave the theory that multiple parasitism was destructive. Natural enemy species may be pulled down by superior natural enemies when in competition.
The above theory of Pemberton & Willard was disapproved by H. S. Smith who stated that biotic potential is solely an indicator for the success of a parasitoid and competition between parasitoids for the same host will subsequently result to increased host mortality rather than natural enemy individually.
Multiple parasitism could be detrimental under two theoretical situations:
Parasitization of host (with overlapping generations) giving rise to disconnected generations because of the eliminated host stage.
Parasitization of host by incapable parasitoid that may lead to reduced intraspecific competition between individuals of the host species at high densities.
Advantages of multiple parasitism.
Enhanced effective biological control may be achieved over complete geographical range of the host.
Increased death of the host with a single natural enemy alone.
Higher chances of introduced natural enemy to utilize other hosts when primary host population is low.
Invasion on all host stages (sequence theory).
Biological control could be controlled by adding and subtracting predators.
Larval ectoparasitoids (e.g., Diglyphus spp.) and larval-pupal endoparasitoids (e.g., Chrysocharis oscinidis, Ganaspidium utilis) may interfere with each other when present in a cropping system. Larval ectoparasitoids which parasitize the leafminers, also indirectly harm the living endoparasitoid larva, already present in the leafminers, thus, leading to the death of the endoparasitoid. However, the endoparasitoids do not parasitize the leafminers with ectoparasitoids because if they do so, the parasitized hosts will not pupate, so the endoparasitoids can complete their life cycles. Therefore, numerous species may be needed to biologically control the leafminers in various crop systems.
Turnbull and Chant [17] again gave the theory that single species introduction is best for biological control.
To gain a desired level and effective biological control result of 2nd or 3rd natural enemy species are valuable.
The lack of predictive theory is a major problem to implement biological control as the outcome of introduced natural enemy, with no prior history of classical biological control efforts, may not be assumed or predicted for new exotic species.
Howard and Fiske [18] more elaborated the above theories. The authors stated that biological control would be more efficient if only one developmental stage of the pest species is attacked. Biological control should be achieved through a variety of natural enemies attacking several developmental stages of the host, making a sequence of natural enemies for satisfactory control.
Curtis P. Clausen (1951) highlighted the time factor theory for introduction of biological control agents. He stated that an effective natural enemy might be expected to show evidence of control at the point of release within a period of 3 host generations or 3 years and concluded the following:
A fully effective natural enemy is always easily and quickly established.
If failure occurs, it indicates that the control will not be fully effective even after establishment is achieved.
Further, the colonization of exotic species, to be used as biological control agent, may be discontinued after 3 years, if it fails to establish.
Hyperparasitism can significantly decline the ability of parasite to control the host. Therefore, their elimination prior to the parasitoid introduction must be of prime consideration in introduction phase of biological control agent.
Geographic races should be neglected.
The use of biological control suppresses the pest populations, making them less damaging than they would be. They play an important role in limiting the densities of potential pest and include natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. There are three general approaches to biological control; importation, augmentation and conservation of natural enemies (Figure 1). These have been accepted as an effective, environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable method of pest management. Each of these techniques can be used either alone or in combination in a biological control program.
Three general approaches to biological control.
Importation of natural enemies, is also called as
The import of pests either accidentally, or in some cases, intentionally in any countries where they are not native is continuous. However, due to a lack of natural enemies to suppress their populations, these introduced organisms of exotic origin may become pests, In these cases, importation of natural enemies can be highly effective [19]. Following the identification of the country of origin of the imported pest, a search may be conducted to explore a promising natural enemy. If the natural enemies are identified, their potential impact on the pest in the native country may be evaluated and imported into the new country for further study. Natural enemies are imported into the country under permit by the concerned authorities. The introduced natural enemies are first placed in quarantine for one or more generations to ensure the accidental importation of undesirable species (diseases, hyperparasitoids etc.). Further permits are required from concerned authorities for shipping to different states and field release.
The alfalfa weevil,
Manipulation of natural enemies for enhancing the effectiveness of biological control is termed as augmentation. This can be adopted by one, or both, of the two general methods as given below:
mass production and periodic colonization; or.
Genetic enhancement of natural enemies
The first one mass production and periodic colonization is most commonly used. The natural enemies are produced in insectaries, and thereafter, released either inoculatively or inundatively. Augmentation is used where populations of a natural enemy are not present or cannot respond quickly enough to the pest population. This approach, therefore, does not provide permanent solution for the suppression of pests, as the outbreak of pest may occur with importation or conservation methods.
The use of the parasitoid wasp,
When we are to introduce any biological control attempt, conservation of natural enemies is key element for successful effectiveness. The factors which may limit the effectiveness of natural enemy must be identified, further modifying them to enhance the effectiveness.
This approach may be adapted by two ways as follows:
reduce the factors which interfere with natural enemies or
provide the resources that natural enemies need in their environment
Several factors are responsible for reducing the effectiveness of a natural enemy. Pesticide applications may directly kill natural enemies or have indirect effects through crop reduction in the numbers or availability of hosts. Cultural practices such as tillage or burning of crop debris may be detrimental for natural enemies by killing them or reducing their population by destroying the habitat. In orchards, frequent tillage may generate dust deposits on leaves, killing small predators and parasites and further, increasing certain insect and mite pests.
A study revealing the biological control of California red scale,
Therefore, conservation ensures that the ecological requirements of the natural enemy are reached out in the cropping environment. To be effective, natural enemies may need access to; alternate hosts, adult food resources, overwintering habitats, constant food supply, and appropriate microclimates [24]. In a study reported by Doutt and Nakata [25]
Biological control is an interesting science. This control method is constantly incorporating and introducing new knowledge and techniques. This part will deal with different ways by which efficient biological control may be adapted to meet the current pest management challenges.
Augmentation generally involves mass-production and periodic colonization of natural enemies. This has imparted to its commercial development. Recently, there are hundreds of commercially available biological control products for pest invertebrates, vertebrates, weeds, and plant pathogens.
The practice of augmentation not only differs for importation and conservation or in making a change in an agro ecosystem to improve its efficacy. Rather, this approach seeks to adapt natural enemies to fit into existing systems.
Inundative release of
Developed countries such as China, generally follow a simple, low labour cost, innovative technology for agricultural production and pest management systems. They highly use the
Implementation of biological control in western countries have to face socio-economics issues for its implementation [28]. Current in large-scale production agricultural systems, some incentives are there on the efficiency and economy of scale. Large industries have developed around the application of agrichemicals, including application equipment manufacturing, distribution and sales, as well as application services. Therefore, biological control products have to compete strongly with pesticides, they should be as effective as pesticides and they should have the capacity to be applied quickly on a large scale with conventional application equipment. So it is expected that the biological agents must have many characteristics same as pesticides.
In Western country such as Europe, commercial marketing of three products utilizing the European native,
When the refrigerated
The land disturbance studies and its effects on insect community dynamics as well as the emergence of the discipline of landscape ecology have imparted the way to think about the conservation of natural enemies. Since last 20 years, ecologists have recognized the central role of disturbance in the structuring of ecological communities [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Among the various ecosystems, the terrestrial ecosystems is highly disturbed one and this ecosystem experiences one disturbance event every several years (e.g. fire in grasslands), however, in agricultural ecosystems multiple events occur in each growing season (plowing, planting, nutrient and pesticide applications, cultivation and harvest) and their outcomes may be anticipated from an ecological point of view [33]. Highly disturbed systems exhibit reduced species diversity and short food chains, resulting to well adaptation of the species (i.e. pests) which have only few natural enemies to reduce their populations. Therefore, the role of additional disturbance events, such as pesticide applications, is needed to be initiated that controls the initial negative symptom, may also precipitate its reoccurrence.
Due to increasing reliance on mechanization and pesticides, diversity in farmlands has rapidly disappeared and the impacts on natural enemies must be studied and understood [34]. Increased habitat fragmentation, isolation and decreased landscape structural complexity destabilizes the biotic interactions which serve to regulate natural ecosystems [35, 36]. Therefore, this current systems of crop production (mechanization and use of pesticides) shape the physical structure of our agricultural landscapes [37].
The goal of an ecological approach to conservation biological control is just to modify the intensity and frequency of disturbance to a point where the natural enemies can effectively function. This requires its occurrence in field, farm and larger landscape-levels. Few modifications of tillage intensity and frequency (reduced tillage or no-tillage) in fields leave behind increased plant residue on the soil surface and have a positive influence on the predators (ground beetles and spiders) as well. Similarly, intercropping may be also modified, changing the microclimate of crop fields will make them more favorable for the parasitoids [38].
When taking at the farm level, the presence and distribution of non-crop habitats can be dangerous for natural enemy survival.
Now at the landscape-level, the physical structure of agricultural production systems can have an impact on the pest and natural enemy diversity and abundance. Ryszkowski et al. [34] has reported in his study in the mosaic landscapes that natural enemies are highly dependent on refuge habitats than are pests and the greater abundance of these refuges in the mosaic landscapes resulted in their higher diversity, abundance and ability to respond to prey numbers. Further studies have also revealed enhanced parasitism of true armyworm,
Earlier, conservation was endeavored with introduction of one species at a time, concentrating to fulfill the needs of natural enemy in a particular system. Though it is a useful approach, now it seems possible that basic ecological theory could inform the design and management of landscapes to conserve and enhance the effectiveness of entire communities of natural enemies.
Biocontrol is a progressive and environment friendly way to control the pest. It leaves behind no chemical residues that may have a harmful impact on humans or other organisms. Importation, augmentation and conservation of natural enemies form the three basic approaches to biological control. Specified techniques underlying these approaches are developing at constant and are modified to meet the switching requirements of pest management. Modifications and improvements in rearing and application techniques and genetic advancement of natural enemies have increased the effectiveness of biological control agents. Further, application of new ecological theory is transforming the research need at conservation of natural enemies. For its successful implementation with full potentiality, continued refinement and adaptation of approaches and applications are necessary. Additional burden from the consumers and the expanding organic market requirements for biological control, come up with advantageous conditions for future development of the biological control agents in agriculture.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
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\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
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\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
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