Biomarkers identified by using integrated bioinformatics tools, associated with various types of cancer such as lung cancer, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3405",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Fertility",title:"Soil Fertility",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soil Fertility book presents nine chapters written by renowned soil fertility experts from Africa, Asia and South America. 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Hereditary mutations, toxin exposure, radiation exposure, alcohol usage, smoking, and radical lifestyle changes are all known to cause cancer. Early detection of cancer results in good therapy. The traditional diagnostic procedures of X-ray, CT-scan, and tissue biopsy are unable to detect it at an early stage, resulting in a delay in treatment that has resulted in the death of several people globally due to cancer [1, 2]. Substantial advances in cancer biology have resulted in the discovery of various biomolecules that are especially linked to cancer progression and development, and therefore referred to as “biomarkers.” Biomarkers are basically alterations which are cellular, biochemical, and molecular changes that can be used to identify or monitor a normal, abnormal, or just a biological process. They are utilized to test and evaluate pathogenic processes, normal biological processes, and the pharmacological response to a treatment intervention objectively. Biomarkers could be classified based on their chemical nature and functionality that can be identified using transcriptomics, metabolomics, genomics and proteomics (Figure 1) [3, 4].
Analysis of potential biomarkers using different integrated bioinformatics analysis assay platforms such as DNA based from FISH assay platform, RNA based biomarkers from micro arrays, protein based biomarkers from proteomic profiles and metabolites based on biomarkers from metabolomics profiles which led to screening of various kinds of cancer resulting in identification of potential candidate genes for prognostic therapeutic approach.
Usually, living cells have a finite life span, and their genome deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA) transcribes into ribonucleic acid (RNA), which upon translation results in the creation of proteins that participate in numerous physiological and metabolic processes required by the body. Any change in these mechanisms, such as a mutation in DNA, causes disruption which leads to a dreadful disease namely, Cancer. The detection of mutations in DNA can be used to predict Cancer risk [5]. Consequently, measurement of RNA, protein, and metabolite expression levels can provide important information about illness progression and profiling. There are more than 200 types of cancer reported, however in this chapter, we gathered and presented information about various biomarkers associated with top 5 types of cancer in the world, which can be exploited in designing of sensitive and effective diagnostic technology for early detection of cancer. Basically, various types of biomarkers associated with different types of cancer and their identification using integrated bioinformatic analysis will be discussed. Besides, a brief insight on integrated bioinformatics analysis tools and databases have also been discussed.
Biomarkers have been generally known to play crucial role in the association with different cancer resulting in therapeutic aspects. These could be constructed with the help of advanced integrated bioinformatics analysis tools which could provide an ease to identify biomarkers which could be treated as potential candidates to treat diversities of Cancer. We have listed biomarkers associated with various types of cancer using integrated bioinformatics approaches in Table 1. The mechanistic insight regarding how the databases can be utilized to extract and identify various biomarkers associated with respective cancers have been depicted in Figure 2.
S. No. | Type of cancer | Biomarkers identified | Investigators | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Lung Cancer | TOP2A, CCNB1, CCNA2, UBE2C, KIF20A, and IL-6 | Ni et al., 2018 | [6] |
2 | CDC20, ECT2, KIF20A, MKI67, TPX2, and TYMS | Dai et al., 2020 | [7] | |
3 | DDX5, DDX11, DDX55 and DDX56 | Cui et al., 2021 | [8] | |
4 | NDC80, BUB1B, PLK1, CDC20, and MAD2L1 | Liao et al., 2019 | [9] | |
5 | UBE2T, UNF2, CDKN3, ANLN, CCNB2, and CKAP2L | Tu et al., 2019 | [10] | |
6 | UBE2C, AURKA, CCNA2, CDC20, CCNB1, TOP2A, ASPM, MAD2L1, and KIF11 | Liu et al., 2020 | [11] | |
7 | Gastric Cancer | CST2, AADAC, SERPINE1, COL8A1, SMPD3, ASPN, ITGBL1, MAP7D2, and PLEKHS1 | Liu et al., 2018 | [12] |
8 | FN1, COL1A1, INHBA, and CST1 | Wang et al., 2020 | [13] | |
9 | COL1A2 | Rong et al., 2018 | [14] | |
10 | LINC01018, LOC553137, MIR4435-2HG, and TTTY14 | Miao et al., 2017 | [15] | |
11 | UCA1, HOTTIP, and HMGA1P4 | Zang et al., 2019 | [16] | |
12 | Liver Cancer | PBK, ASPM, NDC80, AURKA, TPX2, KIF2C, and centromere protein F | Ji et al., 2020 | [17] |
13 | miR1055p, miR7675p, miR12665p, miR47465p, miR500a3p, miR11803p, and miR1395p | Shen et al., 2020 | [18] | |
14 | BUB1, CCNB2, CDC20, CDK1, KIF20A, KIF2C, RACGAP1 and CEP55 | Li et al., 2017 | [19] | |
15 | Breast Cancer | TXN, ANXA2, TPM4, LOXL2, TPRN, ADCY6, TUBA1C, and CMIP | Wang et al., 2019 | [20] |
16 | ADH1A, IGSF10, and the 14 microRNAs | Wu et al., 2021 | [21] | |
17 | TPX2, KIF2C, CDCA8, BUB1B, and CCNA2 | Cai et al., 2019 | [22] | |
18 | CDC45, PLK1, BUB1B, CDC20, AURKA and MAD2L1 | Wu et al., 2020 | [23] | |
19 | Colorectal Cancer | SLC4A4, NFE2L3, GLDN, PCOLCE2, TIMP1, CCL28, SCGB2A1, AXIN2, and MMP1 | Chen et al., 2019 | [24] |
20 | BLACAT1 | Dai et al., 2017 | [25] | |
21 | HMMR, PAICS, ETFDH, and SCG2 | Sun et al., 2021 | [26] | |
22 | hsa-miR-183-5p, hsa-miR-21-5p, hsa-miR-195-5p and hsa-miR-497-5p | Falzone et al., 2018 | [27] |
Biomarkers identified by using integrated bioinformatics tools, associated with various types of cancer such as lung cancer, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer.
The schematic representation of extraction of datasets from the GEO database then the identification of DEGs followed by its functional analysis and subsequent qPCR validation leading to identification of small molecule known as biomarker for treating Cancer.
Lung cancer is the most common cancer-related death around the globe. Despite great attempts to enhance treatment approaches in previous decades, the clinical outcome of traditional therapies such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy remains poor when compared to other major forms of cancer such as colon, prostate, and breast cancers. The challenges in making an early-stage diagnosis of lung cancer and the high recurrence rate after curative treatments are the main reasons for the lack of improvement in prognosis [28]. To improve the clinical result of lung cancer treatments, it is critical to identify and validate diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Therefore, here in this section of chapter we have reviewed studies led by certain researchers for identification of the lung cancer biomarkers using integrated bioinformatics analysis. There are mainly 2 types of the lung cancer. In 80–85% cases, the type of lung cancer is non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The main subtypes of which are adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and large cell carcinoma. These subtypes generally begin from different types of the lung cells that are grouped together as NSCLC and their treatment and prognoses are almost similar. The other type is small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and around 10–15% of all lung cancers are SCLC and it is sometimes called oat cell cancer. SCLC grows and spread faster than NSCLC.
In a study by Ni et al., four GEO datasets GSE18842, GSE19804, GSE43458, and GSE62113, were extracted form Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database into which the limma package was used to assess differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between NSCLC and normal samples, and the RobustRankAggreg (RRA) programme was used to undertake gene integration. Furthermore, they established the protein–protein interaction (PPI) network of these DEGs using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes database (STRING), Cytoscape, and Molecular Complex Detection (MCODE). Funrich (http://www.funrich.org)and OmicShare (https://www.omicshare.com/tools/)were also conducted to ensure functional enrichment and pathway enrichment analysis for DEGs. Besides this, they used the gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) and Kaplan Meier-plotter (KM) online datasets to analyze the expressions and prognostic values of top genes. Hence, it led to the identification of a total of 249 DEGs including 113 upregulated and 136 downregulated after gene integration. Followed by this, they established a PPI network with 166 nodes and 1784 protein pairings resulting in TOP2A, CCNB1, CCNA2, UBE2C, KIF20A, and IL-6 to be considered as possible important genes, whereas they further added, the mitotic cell cycle pathway to play a crucial role in NSCLC advancement resulting in its employment as a novel biomarker for NSCLC diagnosis and to guide synthesis medication [6].
In another study by Dai et al., 6 key biomarkers associated with non- small cell lung cancer in which GEO2R were analyzed to examine three microarray datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus collection along with the enrichment analysis which was performed using Gene Ontology and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. Further, the String database, Cytoscape, and the MCODE plug-in were then used to build a PPI network and screen hub genes using the String database, Cytoscape, and the MCODE plug-in. Kaplan–Meier curves were used to examine overall and disease-free survival of hub genes, as well as the association between target gene expression patterns and tumor grades. To verify enrichment pathways and diagnostic effectiveness of hub genes, researchers performed gene set enrichment analysis and receiver operating characteristic curves. A total of 293 differentially expressed genes were discovered, with cell cycle, ECM–receptor interaction, and malaria being the most prevalent. The PPI network identified 36 hub genes, six of which were reported to have important roles in NSCLC (non- small cell lung cancer) carcinogenesis: CDC20, ECT2, KIF20A, MKI67, TPX2, and TYMS. The target genes discovered can be employed as potential biomarkers to identify and diagnose non- small cell lung cancer as per their investigations [7].
Similarly, in another study by Cui et al., they used integrated bioinformatic analysis of multivariate large-scale databases to assess the potential of DEAD/H box helicases as prognostic indicators and therapeutic targets in lung cancer. They were able to discover four biomarkers with the most significant changes after analyzing the survival and differential expression of these helicases. The unfavorable prognostic factors DDX11, DDX55, and DDX56, as well as the good prognosis factor DDX5, were discovered. MYC signaling is adversely linked with DDX5 gene expression, but favorably associated with DDX11, DDX55, and DDX56 gene expression, according to pathway enrichment analysis led by them. Low mutation levels of TP53 and MUC16, the two most frequently mutated genes in lung cancer, are related with high expression levels of the DDX5 gene. High levels of DDX11, DDX55, and DDX56 gene expression, on the other hand, were linked to high levels of TP53 and MUC16 mutation. The levels of DDX5 gene expression in tumor-infiltrated CD8 + T and B cells are positively correlated, but the other three DEAD box helicases are negatively correlated. Furthermore, while each DDX has a unique miRNA signature, the DDX5-associated miRNA profile is distinct from the miRNA profiles of DDX11, DDX55, and DDX56. The discovery of these four DDX helicases as biomarkers could be considered useful for lung cancer prognostication and targeted treatment development [8].
In another study by Liao et al., they have identified candidate genes associated with the pathogenesis of small cell lung cancer analyzed using integrated bioinformatics tools. GSE60052, GSE43346, GSE15240, and GSE6044 were the four datasets that they downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus. R software was used to examine the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the SCLC and normal samples. For each dataset, the limma software was utilized. The DEGs from the four datasets were combined using the RobustRankAggreg package. FunRich software and R software were used to conduct functional and route enrichment analyses using the Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes databases, accordingly. The DEGs’ protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was also built using the STRING database and the Cytoscape software. Molecular Complex Detection in Cytoscape software was used to find hub genes and important modules. Ultimately, the Oncomine online database was used to assess the expression values of hub genes. Following the integration of the four datasets, 412 DEGs were discovered, comprising 146 upregulated genes and 266 downregulated genes. The increased DEGs were mostly involved in cell division, cell cycle, and microtubule binding. The complement and coagulation cascades, the cytokine-mediated signaling pathway, and protein binding were all heavily represented among the downregulated DEGs. Based on a subset of the PPI network, eight hub genes and one major module connected to the cell cycle pathway were discovered. Eventually, in comparison to normal tissue, five hub genes were shown to be substantially expressed in SCLC tissue. The cell cycle route may be the one that is most closely linked to SCLC pathophysiology. As a result, follow-up studies in the diagnosis and therapy of SCLC should focus on NDC80, BUB1B, PLK1, CDC20, and MAD2L1 [9].
In another similar study by Tu et al., GEO2R was used to search the mRNA microarray datasets GSE19188, GSE33532, and GSE44077 for differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The DEGs were analyzed for functional and pathway enrichment using the DAVID database. STRING was used to create a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network, which was then displayed in Cytoscape. MCODE was used to analyze the PPI network’s modules. The Kaplan Meier-plotter was used to analyze the overall survival (OS) of genes from MCODE. Total of 221 DEGs were found, with words linked to cell division, cell proliferation, and signal transduction being the most abundant. A PPI network with 221 nodes and 739 edges was created. The PPI network revealed a substantial module containing 27 genes. UBE2T, UNF2, CDKN3, ANLN, CCNB2, and CKAP2L all have high expression levels and have been linked to a poor prognosis in NSCLC patients. Protein binding, ATP binding, cell cycle, and the p53 signaling pathway were among the enriched functions and pathways. DEGs in non- small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) have the potential to be useful targets for diagnosing and treating the disease [10].
In another study by Liu et al., in this prospective investigation, which included 46 tumors and 45 controls, the gene expression profile GSE18842 was acquired from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. They used functional enrichment analysis and KEGG analysis using upregulated differentially expressed genes (uDEGs) and downregulated differentially expressed genes (dDEGs), respectively, after screening differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The STRING database was used to create protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks between DEGs and their corresponding coding protein complexes, which were then examined using Cytoscape. The Kaplan–Meier approach was used to confirm the survival of hub genes. In the TCGA database, the gene expression level heat map of hub genes between NSCLC and neighboring lung tissues was plotted using the GEPIA webserver. After gene integration, they found 368 DEGs (168 uDEGs and 200 dDEGs) in NSCLC samples compared to control samples. They built a PPI network for the DEGs with 249 nodes and 1472 protein pairings on the edges. Survival study confirmed that ten undefined hub genes with the highest connectivity degree (CDK1, UBE2C, AURKA, CCNA2, CDC20, CCNB1, TOP2A, ASPM, MAD2L1, and KIF11) were related with lower overall survival in NSCLC. The GEPIA web tool was used to verify the expression dependability of hub genes. The findings suggested that UBE2C, AURKA, CCNA2, CDC20, CCNB1, TOP2A, ASPM, MAD2L1, and KIF11 are inherent critical biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis, and that the mitotic cell cycle pathway is a likely signaling pathway contributing to NSCLC progression, according to KEGG analysis. Such genes could be useful diagnostic biomarkers, as well as a new strategy to designing targeted NSCLC treatments [11].
Despite a substantial drop in incidence and death in North America and most Western European countries in recent decades, gastric cancer (GC) remains the fifth most prevalent malignancy worldwide and poses a serious medical burden, particularly in Eastern Asia [29, 30]. The fact that most patients are discovered at an advanced stage, even with metastatic illnesses, and thus miss out on the potential for a curative resection, accounts for the poor 5-year survival in GC [31, 32]. Substantial progress has been made in comprehending the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and molecular mechanisms of GC, as well as in implementing new therapy alternatives like as targeted and immune-based therapies, not all patients react to molecularly targeted medications developed for specific biomarkers [32, 33]. Hence, due to molecular complexity, poor prognosis, and significant reoccurrence of GC, new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers are urgently needed [34, 35]. Microarray and high-throughput sequencing technologies have advanced in recent years, allowing researchers to decipher important genetic or epigenetic changes in carcinogenesis and discover promising biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis [36]. Nevertheless, integrated bioinformatics methods have been used in cancer research to overcome limited or inconsistent results due to the use of different technology platforms or a small sample size, and a large range of valuable biological information has been revealed [37, 38, 39].
Hence, here we have reviewed a few studies to ensure the role of biomarker identification associated to gastric cancer using integrated bioinformatics analysis tools. In a study by Liu et al., they have considered TOP2A, COL1A1, COL1A2, NDC80, COL3A1, CDKN3, CEP55, TPX2, and TIMP1 which are nine hub genes that may be linked to the etiology of GC. Hence, CST2, AADAC, SERPINE1, COL8A1, SMPD3, ASPN, ITGBL1, MAP7D2, and PLEKHS1 were used to construct a prognostic gene signature that performed well in predicting overall survival. An integrated analysis of several gene expression profile datasets was used by them to find differentially expressed genes between GC and normal gastric tissue samples. Furthermore, protein–protein interaction network and Cox proportional hazards model studies were used to identify key genes related to the pathophysiology and prognosis of GC resulting in their constructed gene signature to be considered as a potential candidate for the biomarker to facilitate the molecular targeting therapy of GC [12].
In a study by Wang et al., they discovered promising biomarkers that could be used to diagnose GC patients. Four Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets were obtained and examined for differentially expressed genes to look for possible treatment targets for GC (DEGs). The function and pathway enrichment of the discovered DEGs were then investigated using Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. A network of protein–protein interactions (PPI) was created. The degree of connection of proteins in the PPI network was calculated using the CytoHubba plugin of Cytoscape, and the two genes with the highest degree of connectivity were chosen for further investigation. The two DEGs with the highest and lowest log Fold Change values were also chosen. Oncomine and the KaplanMeier plotter platform were used to investigate these six important genes further. A total of 99 genes that were upregulated and 172 genes that were downregulated across all four GEO datasets were examined. The Biological Process phrases ‘extracellular matrix organization,’ ‘collagen catabolic process,’ and ‘cell adhesion’ were primarily enriched in the DEGs. The categories ‘ECMreceptor interaction,’ ‘protein digestion and absorption,’ and ‘focal adhesion’ were considerably enriched in these three KEGG pathways. According to Oncomine, ATP4A and ATP4B expression were downregulated in GC, while all other genes were increased. Upregulated expression of the identified important genes was substantially associated with worse overall survival of GC patients, according to the KaplanMeier plotter platform. The current findings imply that FN1, COL1A1, INHBA, and CST1 could be used as gastric cancer biomarkers and treatment targets. Additional research is needed to determine the role of ATP4A and ATP4B in the treatment of gastric cancer [13].
In another study by Rong et al., their research outlines an integrated bioinformatics approach to identifying molecular biomarkers for stomach cancer in cancer tissues of patients. In large gastric cancer cohorts, they reported distinct expression genes from Gene Expression Ominus (GEO). Their findings found that 433 genes in human stomach cancer have significantly distinct expression patterns. Bioinformatic studies and co-expression network design were used to confirm the different gene expression profiles in gastric cancer. They identified collagen type I alpha 2 (COL1A2), which encodes the pro-alpha2 chain of type I collagen whose triple helix comprises two alpha1 chains and one alpha2 chain, as the key gene in a 37-gene network that modulates cell motility by interacting with the cytoskeleton, based on the co-expression network and top-ranked genes. Immunohistochemistry on human gastric cancer tissue was also used to investigate the predictive function of COL1A2. When compared to normal gastric tissues, COL1A2 was substantially expressed in human gastric cancer. The level of COL1A2 expression was found to be substantially related to histological type and lymph node status after statistical analysis. There were no links found between COL1A2 expression and age, lymph node count, tumor size, or clinical stage. Finally, the unique bioinformatics used in this study led to the discovery of improved diagnostic biomarkers for human stomach cancer, which could aid future research into the crucial change that occurs during the disease’s course [14].
In another study, the goal of their research is to find an lncRNA-related signature that can be used to assess the overall survival of 379 GC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. The univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to assess the correlations between survival outcome and the expression of lncRNAs. Overall survival was found to be substantially linked with four lncRNAs (LINC01018, LOC553137, MIR4435-2HG, and TTTY14). These four lncRNAs were combined to form a prognostic signature. There was a strong favorable link between overall survival and GC patients with low-risk scores (P = 0.001). Subsequent research found that the predictive usefulness of this four-lncRNA pattern was unaffected by clinical characteristics. These four lncRNAs were linked to many tumor molecular pathways, according to gene set enrichment analysis. Based on bioinformatics analysis, their research suggests that this unique lncRNA expression pattern could be a helpful diagnostic of prognosis for GC patients [15].
The researchers wanted to see if there were any long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) that were linked to the pathophysiology and prognosis of GC. The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database was used to retrieve raw noncoding RNA microarray data (GSE53137, GSE70880, and GSE99417). After gene reannotation and batch normalization, an integrated analysis of various gene expression profiles was used to screen for differentially expressed genes between GC and neighboring normal stomach tissue samples. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database validated the presence of differentially expressed genes. To identify hub lncRNAs and explore possible biomarkers related to GC diagnosis and prognosis, researchers used a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network, Gene Ontology term, and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway, as well as survival analysis. After intersections of differential genes between the GEO and TCGA databases, a total of 246 integrated differential genes were identified, including 15 lncRNAs and 241 messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Three lncRNAs (UCA1, HOTTIP, and HMGA1P4), 26 microRNAs (miRNAs), and 72 mRNAs make up the ceRNA network. Three lncRNAs controlled the cell cycle and cellular senescence, according to functional analyses. The survival rate of HMGA1P4 was statistically connected to the total survival rate, according to a survival analysis. They discovered that HMGA1P4, a miR-301b/miR-508 target, regulates CCNA2 in the GC and is implicated in cell cycle and senescence. Ultimately, three lncRNAs’ expression levels were shown to be elevated in GC tissues. As a result, three lncRNAs, UCA1, HOTTIP, and HMGA1P4, may play a role in GC development, and their possible functions may be linked to GC prognosis [16].
Liver cancer is among the most frequent malignancies in the world, and it is the second largest cause of cancer death [40, 41]. Due to advances in detection and therapy, people with liver cancer still have a terrible prognosis. Most patients are already in severe stages of symptoms and miss the opportunity to undertake radical resection due to the lack of distinct clinical signs in the early stages. As a result, understanding the pathophysiology of liver cancer aids in early detection, treatment selection, scheduling of follow-up appointments, and prognosis evaluation, all of which can help patients with liver cancer live longer [42]. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are improperly expressed in a range of tumors and are linked to the pathogenesis of cancers, including liver cancer, according to growing evidence. As tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes, miRNAs play a role in the development of liver cancer. As a result, more research into miRNA expression patterns and consequences could lead to the discovery of new diagnostic or therapeutic targets for liver cancer. Hence, here in this subsection of this chapter we have reviewed certain researches which provide a potential aspect toward identification of biomarkers associated with cancer in relevance to liver utilizing integrated bioinformatics analysis.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection has long been known as a major risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), accounting for at least half of all HCC cases worldwide. Yet, the underlying molecular mechanism of HBV-associated HCC is still unknown. Hence, in an investigation led by Ji et al., they retrieved three microarray datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) collection, including 170 tumoral samples and 181 adjacent normal tissues from the liver of patients with HBV-related HCC which were subjected to integrated analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Following that, the protein–protein interaction network (PPI) and function and pathway enrichment analyses were carried out. The expression profiles and survival analyses of the ten hub genes selected from the PPI network were carried out. Overall, 329 DEGs were discovered in which 67 were upregulated and 262 were downregulated. PDZ-binding kinase (PBK), abnormal spindle microtubule assembly (ASPM), nuclear division cycle 80 (NDC80), aurora kinase A (AURKA), targeting protein for xenopus kinesin-like protein 2 (TPX2), kinesin family member 2C (KIF2C), and centromere protein F were among the ten DEGs with the highest degree of connectivity (CENPF). Overexpression levels of KIF2C and TPX2 were linked to both poor overall survival and relapse-free survival in a Kaplan–Meier study. Therefore, the hub genes identified in this investigation could be useful in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of HBV-related HCC. Furthermore, their research identifies a number of important biological components (e.g., extracellular exosomes) and signaling pathways that are involved in the progression of HCC caused by HBV, providing a more thorough understanding of the mechanisms underlying HBV-related HCC [17].
In another study by Shen et al., they created nine co-expression modules and discovered that in liver cancer, miR1055p, miR7675p, miR12665p, miR47465p, miR500a3p, miR11803p, and miR1395p were differentially expressed. These miRNAs were found to have a strong link to the prognosis of patients with liver cancer. MiR1055p and miR1395p may be considered separate prognostic variables among them. As a result, seven miRNAs could be used as predictive indicators in the case of liver cancer [18].
In another study by Li et al., The GSE19665, GSE33006, and GSE41804 microarray datasets were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found and function enrichment analyses were carried out. STRING and Cytoscape were used to create the protein–protein interaction network (PPI) and perform module analysis. There were a total of 273 DEGs found, with 189 downregulated genes and 84 upregulated genes. Protein activation, complement activation, carbohydrate binding, complement and coagulation cascades, mitotic cell cycle, and oocyte meiosis are among the DEGs’ enhanced activities and pathways. A biological process study found that these genes were primarily abundant in cell division, cell cycle, and nuclear division. BUB1, CDC20, KIF20A, RACGAP1 and CEP55 were found to be involved in the carcinogenesis, invasion, and recurrence of HCC in a survival analysis. Finally, the DEGs and hub genes discovered in this work contribute to our understanding of the molecular pathways underlying HCC carcinogenesis and development, as well as providing candidate targets for HCC diagnosis and treatment [19].
Breast cancer is becoming more common over the world, and it is now considered a serious disease among women. Asia has recently emerged as a high-risk location for breast cancer, ranking first among female malignant tumors [43, 44]. Breast cancer therapy has improved recently as a result of constant efforts and advances in contemporary medicine, and the death rate of breast cancer has decreased dramatically. Recurrence and metastasis of breast cancer, on the other hand, have remained unaddressed and have become the most difficult clinical difficulties [43, 45]. To better understand the functions of tumor-related genes and the roles of tumor cell signaling pathways, researchers are turning to genetic studies. Together bioinformatics and system biology are strong multidisciplinary topics that combine biological information collecting, storage, processing, and distribution, summarize life sciences and computer science, and collect and analyze genetic data [46, 47]. Hence, here in this chapter we have reviewed a few studies led by researchers to identify most prevalent biomarkers associated with breast cancer utilizing integrated bioinformatics approaches.
In an investigation by Wang et al. they have analyzed gene expression profiles of GSE48213 using Gene Expression Omnibus database. Further, validation was done using RNA-seq data and clinical information on breast cancer from The Cancer Genome Atlas. In their study, they identified the gene co- expression network which revealed four modules, one of which was found to be strongly linked with patient survival time. They found that the black module which was found to be basal, was made up of 28 genes; the dark red module which was found to be claudin-low, was made up of 18 genes; the brown module which was found to be luminal, was made up of nine genes; and the midnight blue module was made up of seven genes which was investigated to be nonmalignant. Due to a considerable difference in survival time between the two groups, these modules were clustered into two groups. Hence, TXN and ANXA2 in the nonmalignant module, TPM4 and LOXL2 in the luminal module, TPRN and ADCY6 in the claudin-low module, and TUBA1C and CMIP in the basal module were identified by them as the genes with the highest betweenness, implying that they play a central role in information transfer in the network. Therefore, TXN, ANXA2, TPM4, LOXL2, TPRN, ADCY6, TUBA1C, and CMIP are eight hub genes that have been identified and validated by them as being linked to breast cancer progression and poor prognosis to be considered [20].
In another study by Wu et al., Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in breast cancer were discovered using three data sets from the GEO database. The functional roles of the DEGs were determined using Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway studies. They also used the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA), Oncomine, Human Protein Atlas, and Kaplan Meier plotter tool databases to look at the translational and protein expression levels, as well as survival statistics, of DEGs in patients with breast cancer. Using miRWalk and TargetScan, the corresponding change in the expression level of microRNAs in DEGs was predicted, and the expression profiles were evaluated using OncomiR. Finally, RT-qPCR was used to confirm the expression of new DEGs in Chinese breast cancer tissues. ADH1A, IGSF10, and the 14 microRNAs have all been identified as promising new biomarkers for breast cancer diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis [21].
In another study by Cai et al., the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database was used to obtain GSE102484 gene expression profiles. The most potent gene modules related with the metastatic risk of breast cancer were found using weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), which yielded a total of 12 modules. 21 network hub genes (MM > 0.90) were kept for further analysis in the most significant module (R2 = 0.68). The biomarkers with the greatest interactions in gene modules were then investigated further using protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks. Five hub genes (TPX2, KIF2C, CDCA8, BUB1B, and CCNA2) were identified as important genes associated with breast cancer progression by the PPI networks. Furthermore, using data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and the Kaplan–Meier (KM) Plotter, the predictive value and differential expression of these genes were confirmed. The mRNA expression levels of these five hub genes have excellent diagnostic value for breast cancer and surrounding tissues, according to a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve study. Furthermore, KM Plotter revealed that these five hub genes were substantially related with lower distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS) in the patient group. Five hub genes (TPX2, KIF2C, CDCA8, BUB1B, and CCNA2) linked to the likelihood of distant metastasis were extracted for future study and could be employed as biomarkers to predict breast cancer distant metastasis [22].
In another study by Wu et al., there were a total of 215 DEGs found, with 105 upregulated genes and 110 downregulated genes. The enriched keywords and pathways were primarily linked to cell cycle, proliferation, drug metabolism, and oncogenesis, according to GO and KEGG analyses. Cell Division Cycle 45 (CDC45), Polo Like Kinase 1 (PLK1), BUB1 Mitotic Checkpoint Serine/Threonine Kinase B (BUB1B), Cell Division Cycle 20 (CDC20), Aurora Kinase A (AURKA), and Mitotic Arrest Deficient 2 Like 1 were identified as hub genes from the PPI network (MAD2L1). These hub genes’ resilience was confirmed by survival analysis and expression validation tests [23].
CRC (colorectal cancer) is one of the top causes of death among cancer patients around the world. Older age, male sex, lifestyle, inflammatory bowel illness, and a previous personal history of CRC are all risk factors for the disease. A positive family history is also substantially linked to a higher lifetime relative risk of CRC diagnosis. CRC, on the other hand, is an indolent disease in its early stages, becoming symptomatic only when it evolves to more advanced stages. Numerous attempts have been made to develop adequate screening technologies, but they remain intrusive even now, resulting in reduced attainment rates among large community [48]. Recent breakthroughs in our understanding of the molecular underpinnings and cellular mechanisms of CRC have resulted in the widespread use of particular molecular diagnostics in clinical practice. The patient’s risk is stratified and therapy is decided based on the test results. Conversely, current research into biomarkers associated with colorectal cancer could usher in a new age in diagnosis, risk prediction, and treatment selection. Here, we have reviewed a few investigations led to ensure its attainment using integrated bioinformatics analysis [49].
In an investigation led by Chen et al., they analyzed 207 common DEGs in colorectal cancer using the integrated GEO and TCGA databases into which they constructed a PPI network consists of 70 nodes and 170 edges and identified 10 top hub genes. A prognostic gene signature which includes SLC4A4, NFE2L3, GLDN, PCOLCE2, TIMP1, CCL28, SCGB2A1, AXIN2, and MMP1 was constructed by them which revealed overall survival in patients suffering from CRC. Hence, it could be considered as a good potential candidate for further treatments [24].
In a study by Dai et al., they discovered nine differentially expressed lncRNAs and their putative mRNA targets using integrated data mining. They evaluated key pathways and GO words that are associated to the up-regulated and down-regulated transcripts, respectively, after a series of bioinformatics investigations. Meanwhile, qRT-PCR was used to validate the nine lncRNAs in 30 matched tissues and cell lines, and the results were largely compatible with the microarray data. They also looked for nine lncRNAs in the blood of 30 CRC patients with tissue matching, 30 non-cancer patients, and 30 healthy people. Finally, they discovered that BLACAT1 was important for CRC diagnosis. Between CRC patients and healthy controls, the area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity, and specificity were 0.858 (95% CI: 0.765–0.951), 83.3%, and 76.7%, respectively. Furthermore, BLACAT1 exhibited a particular utility in distinguishing CRC from non-cancer disorders. The findings suggest that significantly elevated lncRNAs as well as associated potential target transcripts could be used as therapeutic targets in CRC patients. Conversely, the lncRNA BLACAT1 could be a new supplemental biomarker for CRC detection [25].
In another study by Sun et al., The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) mRNA microarray datasets GSE113513, GSE21510, GSE44076, and GSE32323 were collected and processed with bioinformatics to discover hub genes in CRC development. The GEO2R tool was used to look for differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The DAVID database was used to conduct gene ontology (GO) and KEGG studies. To build a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network and identify essential modules and hub genes, researchers employed the STRING database and Cytoscape software. The DEGs’ survival studies were done using the GEPIA database. Potential medications were screened using the Connectivity Map database. There were a total of 865 DEGs found, with 374 upregulated and 491 downregulated genes. These DEGs were mostly linked to metabolic pathways, cancer pathways, cell cycle pathways, and so on. With 863 nodes and 5817 edges, the PPI network was discovered. HMMR, PAICS, ETFDH, and SCG2 were found to be strongly linked with overall survival of CRC patients in a survival analysis. Blebbistatin and sulconazole have also been discovered as potential treatments [26].
Falzone et al. used the mirDIP gene target analysis in a sample of 19 differentially expressed miRNAs to determine the interaction between miRNAs and the most changed genes in CRC. DIANA-mirPath prediction analysis was used to identify miRNAs that can activate or inhibit genes and pathways involved in colorectal cancer development. As a whole, these studies found that the up-regulated hsa-miR-183-5p and hsa-miR-21-5p, as well as the down-regulated hsa-miR-195-5p and hsa-miR-497-5p, were linked to colorectal cancer development via interactions with the Mismatch Repair pathway and the Wnt, RAS, MAPK, PI3K, TGF-, and p53 signaling pathways [27].
Various integrated bioinformatics databases have been utilized for the identification of prognostic biomarkers in the treatment of various kinds of cancer. Some of which have been enlisted in Table 2 along with database links. The biomarkers associated with different types of Cancers identified with the help of integrated bioinformatics tools depicted in Figure 3.
S. No. | Name of database | Link/URL |
---|---|---|
1 | Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/ |
2 | GEO2R | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/geo2r/ |
3 | DAVID | http://david.abcc.ncifcrf.gov/ |
4 | STRING | http://www.bork.embl-heidelberg.de/STRING/ |
5 | Cytoscape | http://www.cytoscape.org/ |
6 | GEPIA | http://gepia2021.cancer-pku.cn/ |
7 | TGCA | https://tcga-data.nci.nih.gov/tcga/ |
8 | Kaplan–Meier (KM) Plotter | http://kmplot.com/analysis/ |
9 | DIANA-mirPath | http://www.microrna.gr/miRPathv3 |
10 | mirDIP | http://ophid.utoronto.ca/mirDIP |
11 | GOplot | http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/GOplot |
12 | clueGO | http://apps.cytoscape.org/apps/cluego |
13 | MCODE | http://baderlab.org/Software/MCODE |
14 | GTEx | https://gtexportal.org |
15 | Oncomine | http://www.oncomine.org/resource/login.html |
16 | Human Protein Atlas | www.proteinatlas.org |
17 | miRWalk | http://mirwalk.uni-hd.de/ |
18 | TargetScan | www.targetscan.org |
19 | OncomiR | http://www.oncomir.org/oncomir/search_target_miR.html |
List of databases used for data mining.
Mechanistic insight of extraction, construction and identification of biomarkers associated with different kinds of cancers with the help of integrated bioinformatics tools.
The microarray data collection is done using the GEO database which refers to Gene Expression Omnibus. It could be easily accessed via online medium using http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/link. The GEO database is basically being used to obtain high-throughput gene expression profiles of PTC (Papillary thyroid carcinoma) and normal thyroid tissues. Independent datasets are chosen, and they are all based on the specified platforms, including the relevant tissues. As per our review of various studies which are aforementioned in this chapter, various microarray datasets have been collected using the GEO database and then processed with bioinformatics to discover hub genes. Several new technologies have emerged for the analysis of gene expression and for the identification of cancer biomarkers. One such technology is RNASeq technology which is nowadays considered to be the most up to date technology to analyze gene expression. Into this technology, with the use of NGS (Next generation genome sequencer) the gene expression profile analysis carried out. The first stage in the process is to convert the population of RNA to be sequenced into complementary DNA (cDNA) fragments which is present in biological sample (a cDNA library). This is accomplished using reverse transcription, allowing the RNA to be used in an NGS procedure. After that, the cDNA is fragmented, and adapters are attached to each fragment’s end. The functional elements present on adopters which allowed sequencing. The cDNA library is evaluated by NGS after amplification, size selection, clean-up, and quality verification, yielding short sequences that correspond to all or part of the fragment from which it was formed. The extent to which the library is sequenced is determined by the intended use of the output data. Sequencing can be done in one of two ways: single-end or paired-end. Single-read sequencing is a less expensive and faster method of sequencing cDNA fragments from only one end (approximately 1% of the cost of Sanger sequencing). While paired-end approaches are more expensive since they sequence from both ends, but they provide advantages in post-sequencing data reconstruction. After completing the RNA sequencing technology workflow, the data can be matched to a reference genome if one is available, or built from scratch to provide an RNA sequence map that encompasses the transcriptome. A bioinformatics workflow is developed to discover various alternative biomarkers via LC- MS/MS technique (liquid chromatography coupled tandem mass spectrometry). Further, open Mass spectrometry Search Algorithm is used against the customized alternative splicing database along with the preferred cancer plasma proteome for the identification of respective biomarker [50, 51].
The GEO2R program which could be easily accessed via http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/geo2r/link, is used for the detection of these differentially expressed genes which are known as DEGs. Further, R package Limma is been utilized to screen out these DEGs.
Followed by the screening of DEGs, the enrichment analysis using GO and KEGG pathway is performed using the database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery, commonly known as DAVID database (http://david.abcc.ncifcrf.gov/). This process includes biological processes, cellular components, molecular function and KEGG pathway analysis. Further, the GOplot package of R could be used to display the results of analysis and the pathway analysis results can also be analyzed using the clueGO plug-ins of cytoscape software 3.7.2. [52].
After the enrichment analysis, the PPI network is being built upon using the STRING (http://www.bork.embl-heidelberg.de/STRING/) database which refers to Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins, to uncover DEG associations based on minimum prescribed interaction scores. Followed by this, using the Cytoscape (http://www.cytoscape.org/) database, the PPI network is then analyzed and visualized. Additionally, MCODE is also one such bioinformatics tool utilized to screen the PPI network’s main module.
At last. The Cancer Genome Atlas (https://tcga-data.nci.nih.gov/tcga/), was utilized to examine the association between important gene expression and survival of patients with PTC (Papillary thyroid carcinoma). RNA expression data from hundreds of samples from the TCGA and GTEx projects was analyzed using the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis tool (GEPIA) (http://gepia2021.cancer-pku.cn/). Additionally Oncomine, Human Protein Atlas, and Kaplan Meier plotter tool databases could also be used to look at the translational and protein expression levels, as well as survival statistics, of DEGs. Apart from this, miRWalk and TargetScan, were used to predict the corresponding change in the expression level of microRNAs in DEGs and the expression profiles were evaluated using OncomiR. Finally, RT-qPCR has been used to confirm the expression of new DEGs. Hence, the constructed biomarkers could be treated as potential candidates for various kinds of Cancers.
The development of biomarkers for early detection cancer screening and therapy monitoring has biological as well as financial hurdles. The majority of existing cancer detection tools only detect late stage or fully grown cancer, not premalignant or early abnormalities that can be resected and treated. Despite the fact that a screening test may detect cancer just at preclinical stage, it is not suitable for follow-up, and hence may miss micro metastases, limiting the benefits of early identification and treatment [53]. Additional barrier to the development of cancer biomarkers is the fact that cancer is a diverse illness, with several biologically distinct phenotypes that respond differently to treatments. Between cells of a single macroscopic tumor, the nature of its heterogeneity can be found. Biomarker development may be hampered by this variability. As a result, developing biomarkers using genomic and proteomic methods could help to solve the variability challenges [3]. An even more issue is that pre-neoplastic lesions are far more common than aggressive malignancies in several organs, such as the prostate and colon [54]. This addresses the possibility of whether any screening strategy should focus solely on early lesions or should additionally consider the tumor’s behavior. In the last two decades, detailed and comprehensive knowledge of cancer at the cellular and molecular levels has increased dramatically and exponentially, resulting in significant improvements in the characterization of human tumors, which has catalyzed a shift toward the development of targeted therapies, the foundation of molecular diagnostics [55, 56]. Omics technology may serve as the foundation for the development of novel cancer biomarker and/or panels that have significant advantages over currently utilized biomarkers. Omics has enhanced the number of potential biomarkers such as DNA, RNA, and other protein biomolecules that may be studied. The previous idea of single biomarker discovery has lately been supplanted by multi-biomarker discovery of a panel of genes or proteins, raising the question of whether heterogeneous and complex cancers can have a single fingerprint.
Biomarkers in association with cancer are used in oncology and clinical practice for risk assessment, screening, and diagnosis in combination with other diagnostic methods, and most importantly for determining prognosis and treatment response and/or recurrence. Cancer biomarkers can also help with cancer diagnosis at the molecular level. Clinicians and researchers must have a thorough understanding of the molecular aspects, clinical utility, and reliability of biomarkers in order to determine whether or not a biomarker is clinically useful for patient care and whether or not additional evaluation is required before integration into routine care. Biomarkers, through simplifying the integration of therapies and diagnostics, have the potential to play a key role in the development of customized medicine.
Research in the field of cancer-specific biomarkers have provided a promising source of novel diagnostic tools. Various groups have reported that altered cancer-associated biomarkers can be exploited to diagnose and monitor various cancers with greater sensitivity and specificity. Assessment of genomic and transcriptomic biomarkers found to be potentially very sensitive approaches for discriminating between cancerous non-cancerous (benign) conditions. Besides, this one could detect cancers at a much earlier stage by quantitative analysis of potential biomarker associated with specific cancer. Given the possible diagnostic power of genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic biomarkers, these are currently one of the most promising areas of research in the field of development of cancer prognostic and diagnostics devices.
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
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\n\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
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Whizar-Lugo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9829",title:"Biosimilars",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c72171c1d1cf6df5aad989cb07cc8e4e",slug:"biosimilars",bookSignature:"Valderilio Feijó Azevedo and Robert Moots",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9829.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69875",title:"Dr.",name:"Valderilio",middleName:"Feijó",surname:"Feijó Azevedo",slug:"valderilio-feijo-azevedo",fullName:"Valderilio Feijó Azevedo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1834,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19013",doi:"10.5772/21983",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",totalDownloads:10483,totalCrossrefCites:132,totalDimensionsCites:303,abstract:null,book:{id:"314",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"}]},{id:"46479",doi:"10.5772/57353",title:"Floating Drug Delivery Systems for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease",slug:"floating-drug-delivery-systems-for-eradication-of-helicobacter-pylori-in-treatment-of-peptic-ulcer-d",totalDownloads:2838,totalCrossrefCites:136,totalDimensionsCites:293,abstract:null,book:{id:"3839",slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",fullTitle:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection"},signatures:"Yousef Javadzadeh and Sanaz Hamedeyazdan",authors:[{id:"94276",title:"Prof.",name:"Yousef",middleName:null,surname:"Javadzadeh",slug:"yousef-javadzadeh",fullName:"Yousef Javadzadeh"},{id:"98229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedeyazdan",slug:"sanaz-hamedeyazdan",fullName:"Sanaz Hamedeyazdan"}]},{id:"25512",doi:"10.5772/30872",title:"Epidemiology of Psychological Distress",slug:"epidemiology-of-psychological-distress",totalDownloads:8790,totalCrossrefCites:90,totalDimensionsCites:243,abstract:null,book:{id:"727",slug:"mental-illnesses-understanding-prediction-and-control",title:"Mental Illnesses",fullTitle:"Mental Illnesses - Understanding, Prediction and Control"},signatures:"Aline Drapeau, Alain Marchand and Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost",authors:[{id:"84582",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Drapeau",slug:"aline-drapeau",fullName:"Aline Drapeau"},{id:"84605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"alain-marchand",fullName:"Alain Marchand"},{id:"84606",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Beaulieu-Prévost",slug:"dominic-beaulieu-prevost",fullName:"Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost"}]},{id:"64762",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82511",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10236,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:229,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"27687",doi:"10.5772/29869",title:"Heavy Metals and Human Health",slug:"heavy-metals-and-human-health",totalDownloads:18954,totalCrossrefCites:83,totalDimensionsCites:191,abstract:null,book:{id:"1012",slug:"environmental-health-emerging-issues-and-practice",title:"Environmental Health",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Emerging Issues and Practice"},signatures:"Simone Morais, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Maria de Lourdes Pereira",authors:[{id:"13875",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"simone-morais",fullName:"Simone Morais"},{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"87294",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14207,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10236,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:229,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:5965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82444",title:"Epigenomics in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma",slug:"epigenomics-in-malignant-pleural-mesothelioma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105408",abstract:"Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a tumor with a relatively low incidence, but whose carcinogenesis, for the most part, involves epigenetic factors that keep its heterogeneity and sometimes are a therapeutic target or an obstacle to the effectiveness of the newest treatments. This chapter summarizes the principal epigenetic dysregulation mechanisms involved in the MPM pathogenesis. The most studied mechanism is hypermethylation mediated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in different tumor suppressor genes, and the relation with asbestos fiber exposure, which represents the main risk factor. Physiopathology is related to chronic inflammation mediated by free radicals that produce chromosomal alterations, genomic instability, increased angiogenesis, and tumor invasion factors like EGFR, FGFR, TGF-B, and PDGF. Additionally, independent methylation pathways that produce gene silencing such as polycomb complex and SWI/SNF mutation are reviewed. Finally, other mechanisms are described such as hypomethylation with imprint loss and pro-oncogenic gene activation that induce immunological responses, as well as acetylation, deacetylation, and demethylation in the chromatin and histone context.",book:{id:"10831",title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10831.jpg"},signatures:"Aldo Manuel Alvarez Moran, Pablo Alejandro Ávila Sánchez, Jorge Alejandro Torres Ríos and Lorena Vega Castillo"},{id:"82383",title:"The Role of Immune Checkpoints in Cancer Progression",slug:"the-role-of-immune-checkpoints-in-cancer-progression",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105628",abstract:"Immune checkpoint proteins are like two-faced swords that first act as gatekeepers of the immune system to protect the host from tissue damage. In contrast, these proteins can corroborate cancer progression by inhibiting tumor-specific immune responses. Here, we summarized the regulation and signaling cascade of immune checkpoints molecules (PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM3, TIGIT, LAG3, and BTLA), including their role in providing co-inhibitory signals for regulating T-cell response. The involvement of immune checkpoint molecules to drive cancer growth is elaborated with explanations about various anticancer strategies, such as (1) the overexpression of immune checkpoints in cancer cells, immune cells, or the surrounding environment leading to incapabilities of the tumor-specific immune response, (2) immune checkpoints interference to metabolic pathways then deplete nutrients needed by immune cells, (3) the interaction between immune checkpoints and regulatory T cells. Lastly, future challenges of immune checkpoint inhibitors are discussed briefly to get insight into their applicability in the clinical setting.",book:{id:"11278",title:"Regulatory T Cells",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11278.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmad Aji Prasetya and Devyani Diah Wulansari"},{id:"82331",title:"Diseases of Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Karnataka and Their Management",slug:"diseases-of-medicinal-plants-cultivated-in-karnataka-and-their-management",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104632",abstract:"A broad spectrum of fungal diseases infecting selected 10 medicinal plants surveyed in Karnataka, India, was studied in the present research. We present a detailed review on previously reported as well as our present investigation’s details of fungal diseases, etiology, symptoms, and its management. Some of the commonly observed diseases are Anthracnose disease, Blight disease, Leaf spot, Root rot, Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, and Wilt disease. The detailed analysis of medicinal plants revealed that the medicinal plants are susceptible to diverse fungal phytopathogens. Therefore, sustainable management of the diseases is necessary for the successful cultivation of disease-free medicinal plants.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"P. Swetha and R. Sundararaj"},{id:"82446",title:"Possibility of Using a VR System as an Action Observation Therapeutical Technique",slug:"possibility-of-using-a-vr-system-as-an-action-observation-therapeutical-technique",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105579",abstract:"In recent years, 3D virtual reality (VR) systems are increasingly finding their way into biomedical applications. Nevertheless, in most cases a 3D VR is being used as an interactive system (such as Xbox Kinect or Playstation VR). These interactive systems, however effective they may have proven, not only limit use of 3D VR in patients incapable to engage in these systems due to their physical or mental disability, but also put significant requirements on medical institutions for an equipment, medical personal, and therefore institutional budget. In this article, we are proposing a 3D VR as an stand-alone action observation training device, which could limit requirements associated with abovementioned interactive systems due to its capability to stimulate a mirror neuron system of human brain, while adding minimal demands on both patient and medical facility. Research studies that confirm activity in the motor cortex will be described. We focus on the literature that describes theories, models, and experimental studies dealing with the effects of motion observations that are involved in the control and final performance of motor skills.",book:{id:"11832",title:"Neurorehabilitation and Physical Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11832.jpg"},signatures:"Jaroslav Langer, Monika Šorfová and David Ravnik"},{id:"82439",title:"Cellular Cytotoxicity and Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"cellular-cytotoxicity-and-multiple-sclerosis",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105681",abstract:"Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease in which discrete central nervous system lesions result from perivascular immune cell infiltration associated with damage to myelin (demyelination), oligodendrocytes and neurons. This culminates in debilitating neurological symptoms, primarily affecting women in their child-bearing years. Both the innate and adaptive branches of the immune system have been implicated in disease initiation and progression, and although the underlying cause remains elusive, there is compelling evidence for a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, leading to inflammation and neurodegeneration. Both direct cellular toxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) involving several cell types have been identified in playing major roles. These cells and their interactions in the pathogenesis of MS will be discussed.",book:{id:"11678",title:"Cytotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11678.jpg"},signatures:"Annie M.L. Willson and Margaret A. Jordan"},{id:"82430",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105473",abstract:"Over 1 million cases of liver cancer are estimated to occur by 2025, making it a global health challenge. In almost 90% of cases of liver cancer, it is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The main risk factors for HCC development are infection with hepatitis B and C viruses, although nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) associated with metabolic syndrome or diabetes mellitus is becoming more prevalent in the West. The molecular pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-associated HCC is unique. A quarter of all HCCs present with mutations that are potentially actionable but have not yet been translated into clinical practice. In the advanced stages of the disease, systemic therapy is expected to be administered 50–60% of the time to HCC patients. In phase III trials, six systemic therapies have been approved (atezolizumab plus bevacizumab, sorafenib, lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab), and new trials are evaluating combination therapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors or anti-VEGF therapies. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:34,paginationItems:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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