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\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
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LaRocca",authors:[{id:"41533",title:"Prof.",name:"Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Power",fullName:"Henry Power",slug:"henry-power"},{id:"55058",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Stevens",fullName:"David Stevens",slug:"david-stevens"}]},{id:"22261",title:"Heat Transfer Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Beams Reinforced with GFRP Bars",slug:"heat-transfer-analysis-of-reinforced-concrete-beams-reinforced-with-gfrp-bars",signatures:"Rami A. Hawileh",authors:[{id:"46905",title:"Dr.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Hawileh",fullName:"Rami Hawileh",slug:"rami-hawileh"}]},{id:"22262",title:"Modelling of Heat Transfer and Phase Transformations in the Rapid Manufacturing of Titanium Components",slug:"modelling-of-heat-transfer-and-phase-transformations-in-the-rapid-manufacturing-of-titanium-componen",signatures:"António Crespo",authors:[{id:"36414",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Crespo",fullName:"Antonio Crespo",slug:"antonio-crespo"}]},{id:"22263",title:"Measurement of Boundary Conditions - Surface Heat Flux and Surface Temperature",slug:"measurement-of-boundary-conditions-surface-heat-flux-and-surface-temperature",signatures:"Wei Liu",authors:[{id:"35376",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Wei Liu",slug:"wei-liu"}]},{id:"22264",title:"Properties and Numerical Modeling-Simulation of Phase Changes Material",slug:"properties-and-numerical-modeling-simulation-of-phase-changes-material",signatures:"Pavel Fiala, Ivo Behunek and Petr Drexler",authors:[{id:"37776",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Fiala",fullName:"Pavel Fiala",slug:"pavel-fiala"},{id:"40879",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivo",middleName:null,surname:"Behunek",fullName:"Ivo Behunek",slug:"ivo-behunek"},{id:"40880",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Drexler",fullName:"Petr Drexler",slug:"petr-drexler"}]},{id:"22265",title:"Finite Element Methods to Optimize by Factorial Design the Solidification of Cu-5wt%Zn Alloy in a Sand Mold",slug:"finite-element-methods-to-optimize-by-factorial-design-the-solidification-of-cu-5wt-zn-alloy-in-a-sa",signatures:"Moisés Meza Pariona and Viviane Teleginski",authors:[{id:"38666",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Moises",middleName:"Meza",surname:"Pariona",fullName:"Moises Pariona",slug:"moises-pariona"},{id:"94046",title:"MSc.",name:"Viviane",middleName:null,surname:"Teleginski",fullName:"Viviane Teleginski",slug:"viviane-teleginski"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"228",title:"Waves in Fluids and Solids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91a31715c4cb38a9c947a519163c45fc",slug:"waves-in-fluids-and-solids",bookSignature:"Ruben Pico Vila",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/228.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49934",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruben",surname:"Picó Vila",slug:"ruben-pico-vila",fullName:"Ruben Picó Vila"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"530",title:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7473a9763ff4ee9a4f8bb5a1ba9cd5e",slug:"convection-and-conduction-heat-transfer",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/530.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"615",title:"Advanced Methods for Practical Applications in Fluid Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"779d768a546af1ba3f0aa171d0c5a9ee",slug:"advanced-methods-for-practical-applications-in-fluid-mechanics",bookSignature:"Steven A. 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Further, it became a pandemic, affecting the whole world. On February 2020, World Health Organisation (WHO) announced an official name for Coronavirus spread disease as COVID-19 [2]. It primarily targets a respiratory system in humans, as the appearance of symptoms depends on the incubation period, which further relies on the patient’s age and the immune system [3].
SARS-CoV-2 as a public health emergency was declared by WHO and thereafter it became essential to find diagnostic tests for early detection and early treatment [4]. Normally the best way to detect any virus from the sample is its isolation and further confirmation by various molecular techniques. But Center for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended not to isolate the SARS-CoV-2 as it is a new virus and this practices could be a risky approach and suggested to use patients sample directly for diagnosis [5]. Most of the diagnostic methods are molecular-based hence for diagnosis virus genome study become necessary. On January 2020 the ssRNA - 29870 bp whole sequence of SARS-CoV-2 was reported with GenBank accession number MN908947 [6, 7]. Thus, the basic information of genome sequence helpful for molecular based detection method development specially Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based methods.
Main focused was on PCR as it is a rapid detection method. Among that Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is the most commonly used and still be using the method as it is exactly showing the positive results with great -sensitivity. RT-PCR was said to be a gold-standard for testing coronavirus [8]. RT-PCR can detect the virus from throat, nasopharyngeal swab as well as from stool sample [9]. Early detection using PCR prove to be most sensitive way as negative sample cannot be ruled out. One cohort study found that patients even if not having any symptoms still may be the carrier for viruses thus RT-PCR can detect those at genetic level. Thus, it helps in prevention of nosocomial infection and further spread unknowingly [10].
Sample collection methods also affect the diagnosis results. Thus, WHO and CDC recommended the use of nylon, rayon or any synthetic fibre swabs for sample collection. But shortage of such swabs hammered the testing numbers. Hence, some researchers decided to study the effect of cotton tipped plastic swabs on PCR results and it found that no inhibition effect was seen on PCR [11]. Another method related to heating of sample known as Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) this works by skipping the RNA extraction process. RNA RT-LAMP sensitivity found to be 97%, while specificity was 99% [12]. Study tried the three viral transmission medium heating treatments named as directly without additives, in a formamide-EDTA buffer and in a RNAsnap™ buffer. Basically, this method skips the RNA extraction process of RT-qPCR by replacing it with heating treatments thus reduces the time for the test and also gives the same result as normal RT-PCR protocol [13]. Similarly, in one study RNA extraction process was skipped and on that place RT-qPCR master mixes were used. Now this helps under such situation where reagent shortage occurs in hospitals. It also expanded the testing capacities [14]. Similar way direct RT-qPCR was used in one of the study found to be an alternative for classical method without RNA extraction [15]. But there are certain limitations in remote areas and portable diagnosis will be preferable using mini PCR based diagnosis kits. One study combined the mini PCR and multi-well plate reader for convenient and portable diagnosis under pandemic situation [16].
As per the available RNA sequences and need of diagnosis method for COVID-19, several RNA extraction kits are available in the market. But due to pandemic situation and rising number of COVID patients, it was under shortage. Thus, magnetic beads base RNA extraction methods were used by various researchers. Silica beads were found to yields RNA and comparable with commercially available QIAcube viral RNA extraction kit which were determined by RT-qPCR and RT-LAMP [17]. Another study due to complexity of protocol was done, in which rather than using transport medium and RNA extraction it was decided to study the use of direct elution of swab and performing RT-qPCR. Elution of dry swabs were done directly in simple TE buffer and tested. Thus, this process simplifies the pre RT-qPCR preparation [18].
Commercial RT-PCR kits are already available in the market and few of them are manufactured by Altona Diagnostics (Hamburg, Germany), BGI (Shenzhen, China), CerTest Biotec (Zaragoza, Spain), KH Medical (Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea), Primer Design (Chandler’s Ford, UK), R-Biopharm AG (Darmstadt, Germany), and Seegene (Seoul, South Korea). All these kits are the best for detection without any cross-reactivity with another virus and hence can be used for regular diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 [19]. But the limit of detection (LoD) of kits matters the quality. Earlier China National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) approved 6 PCR kits, but due to time shortage optimisation was not done so LoD might get affected. Thus examination of LoD of this 6 PCR kits with real RNA of the virus was carried. All kits showed different LoD and the poorest LoDs has high chances of giving false negative results. The lab should confirm the performance of the kits and the utilise [20]. Some of the primers and probes for CoV detection has been shown in Table 1.
Country | Target genes | Sequence | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
China | ORF1a | Forward primer: AGAAGATTGGTTAGATGATGATAGT Reverse primer: TTCCATCTCTAATTGAGGTTGAACC Probe:FAM-TCCTCACTGCCGTCTTGTTGACCA-BHQ1 | [21] |
Hong Kong | N gene | Forward primer: TAATCAGACAAGGAACTGATTA Reverse primer: CGAAGGTGTGACTTCCATG Probe: FAM/ZEN-GCAAATTGTGCAATTTGCGG-IBFQ | [22] |
USA | N1 gene | Forward primer: GAC CCC AAA ATCAGCGAA AT Reverse primer: TCTGGTTACTGCCAGTTGAATCTG Probe: FAM-ACCCCGCATTACGTTTGGTGGACC-BHQ1 | [23] |
USA | N2 gene | Forward primer: TTACAA ACATTGGCCGCA AA Reverse primer: GCGCGACATTCCGAAGAA Probe: FAM-ACA ATTTGCCCCCAGCGTTAG-BHQ1 | [24] |
USA | N3 gene | Forward primer: GGGAGCCTTGAA TAC ACC AAA A Reverse primer: TGTAGCACG ATTGCAGCATTG Probe: FAM-AYCACATTGGCACCCGCA ATCCTG-BHQ1 | [25] |
Germany | E gene | Forward primer: ACAGGTACGTTAATAGTTAATAGCGT Reverse primer: ATATTGCAGCAGTACGCACACA Probe: FAM-ACACTAGCCATCCTTACTGCGCTTCG-BBQ | [26] |
China | Spike | Forward primer: CCTACTAAATTAAATGATCTCTGCTTTACT Reverse primer: CAAGCTATAACGCAGCCTGTA | [27] |
Primers and probes recorded for SARS-CoV-2 real-time reverse transcription PCR assays.
Currently, the RT-PCR test has a 95% specificity and 70% of the sensitivity rate [28, 29]. Self-collected saliva specimens was tested with 6 different molecular diagnostic tests like RTqPCR LDT, SARS-CoV-2 RAT, 3 direct RT-qPCR kits, and RT-LAMP and all tests showed a excellent results. Thus, based on these results, molecular diagnostic method has a great scope ahead [30]. Dr. Aneesh Mehta said that saliva test for coronavirus by PCR is the new type of diagnosis, as it is not invasive method but just spit is required as a sample [31]. This test is said to be a ‘SalivaDirect’ test developed by a scientist of the Yale School of Public Health, authorised by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [32].
Most countries have been used Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR, India) suggested Rapid Antigen Test (RAT) which was available as a kit and direct antigen identification from nasal swab [33]. However several countries found that the negative findings by RAT were shown to be positive by RT-PCR. Thus, according to Dr. Balram Bhargava, Director of ICMR, the RAT was found to offer false-negative outcomes. One of the reports says that around 11% of people found negative by RAT in Delhi, after testing with RT-PCR found to be positive [34]. The Indian Health Ministry and ICMR provided a guideline to re-test the RAT tested negative patients and those who develop symptoms after a few days of the test by RT-PCR [35]. Until now, RT-PCR is the recommended test for all organisations and has been followed. Still, many experts are trying to carry out a number of inventions and studies to make it simpler, more practical and more cost-effective for the whole planet. This book chapter summarised the upto date basics and applied study of PCR based diagnosis of SARs CoV-2 including current challenges of diagnosis, protocols and future prospects.
For treatment of SARs CoV-2, no vaccines is available but it was only the option left out to healthcare sectors that to prevent transmission as soon as possible [26]. So most the countries invested in isolation and detection [26]. The diagnosis of COVID-19 was difficult as it shows symptoms similar to those of flu viruses, thus it was crucial to find the diagnosis as early as possible for management purpose [36]. One of the most important problems in analytical chemistry was highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak: the discrepancies between the testing technique (TT) and the testing method (TM) are a common confusion in the clinical field. In addition to the research procedure, TT consists of many steps, such as the collection of specimens, their preservation, storage, transport, labelling and distribution. Pre-test planning procedures for patients are also part of the process. Previously, these procedures, also known as pre-analytical variables, have been identified as the key causes of laboratory testing errors. The most acceptable TT for the TM must be validated during the production of the TM for the identification of the target analyte; otherwise the analysis is performed within a wide range of analytical errors [37]. Successful detection of the virus also depends on time of testing, early or late detection, viral load, sample collection etc. [38].
Further challenge was during the false negative results. It is easy to understand and interpret a perfect test for a disease; the test would only be positive if the disease was present, and it would only be negative if it were absent. However, since all studies have false positives and false negative results, diagnostic tests are not flawless. Test results do not definitively state whether or not there is a disease (or virus). This does not mean that the test is not beneficial; it merely implies that the test results must be probabilistically tested on the basis of test output characteristics, patient data, and disease prevalence [39]. To interpret the results of incomplete tests, two main metrics that characterise the test are needed: diagnostic sensitivity and diagnosis specificity [40]. At present, for commonly used SARS-CoV-2 samples, there is minimal information on these values. To accurately interpret an incomplete test, the approximate probability that the person being evaluated has the disorder must also be considered [39].
The diagnosis was completely relied on two ways Molecular and serological testing as shown in Figure 1. Different test among these two categories was tried during a pandemic situation [41].
Two ways of COVID-19 diagnosis.
Currently, RT-PCR is commonly used method by many laboratories due to specificity and fast detection [40]. Some test commonly use for CoV detection has been shown in Table 2.
Tests | Detection | Sample | Advantage | Disadvantage | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molecular | |||||
RT-PCR | Viral RNA | Nose, throat swab, sputum, stool | Specific Less time | False negative result if viral load is less or if sample is not collected properly. | [24] |
Nested RT-PCR | Viral RNA | Nose, throat swab | Highly specific results even in low viral load sample | Cross contamination during protocol | [41] |
RT-LAMP | Viral RNA | Nose, throat swab, sputum, stool | Specific Less time | Optimize reaction condition | [42] |
CRISPR | Viral RNA | Nose, throat swab, Broncho alveolar lavage fluid | Easy to use Low cost | Can give false result | [8] |
Viral sequencing | Viral RNA | Nose, throat swab | Sensitive, convenient | Costly, need trained person, sophisticated instrument | [43] |
ELISA | Antibody | Blood | Simple and cost effective | Not established for SARS-CoV-2 | [44] |
Neutralization assay | Antibody | Whole blood, serum, plasma | Quantitative result, | Live virus hence safety required | [37] |
Diagnostic testing for SARS-CoV-2.
RT-PCR stands for real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). It is a technique use to determine the nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) from sample specifically from a virus or bacteria. Currently used for COVID-19 testing. It combines the reverse transcription of RNA into DNA It uses radioactive isotope marker or fluorescent dyes for detection of the targeted gene. It can detect genetic material from nose, throat, stool and sputum sample [45].
SARS-CoV-2 testing solely depends on patients’ health and concern, if the patient is getting some symptoms like cough, fever, headache or related, then the patient can personally take a test by visiting COVID center. If patient is already under medical treatment related to some other health issues, then doctor can recommend a COVID test to that patient for an early treatment. After that the most important part of RT-PCR covid testing is a collection of sample. It is most important as if the sample is not collected properly, it can affect the result as seen in many research [46, 47, 48]. CDC has provided the protocol for sample collection and all labs are following this same. Along with that, instruction regarding virus isolation has been given, it is not suppose to be done by an unless it is performed in the BSL-3 laboratory. Sample recommended for collection are nasopharyngeal (NP) and oropharyngeal (OP) swab for RT-PCR [49]. An expert technician can collect the sample from the nose and throat of patient separately by using swab which is individually wrapped. Swab has to be made up of synthetic fiber like plastic or wire shafts. Technician has to follow certain rules while collecting sample like 6 feet of separation, personal protective equipment (PPE) kit, proper gloves and faced covered lid. The sample is to be collected deeply. Once collected it has to be transferred to viral transport medium (VTM). VTM is made up of 2% FBS, 100 μg/mL Gentamicin and 0.5 μg/mL Amphotericin B. Among this 3 ml of media is transferred to sterile screwed capped bottles in which swab is put and stored before further testing [50]. Sample can be stored at 2–8 °C for 72 hours only. If the sample has to be transported for a long distance, then it should be carried in icepack [51].
Once the sample has been collected, then next important and time consuming process is RNA extraction means purification of RNA samples. Most of RNA extraction kits are available in the market shown in Table 3, which can be used directly contain lysis buffer and other chemicals which will lyse the virus and RNA will get into solution. First, in order to release the genetic material, the patient’s sample is mixed with a solution which lyses the cells. In order to purify RNA, inactivation of RNA activity, denaturation of nucleoprotein complexes and elimination of contaminating DNA and proteins must take place by (phenol which will attract the other protein and break it down, guanidine isothyocynate is also a protein denaturant, RNase inhibitors to inactivate the ribonuclease enzyme) [52]. The resulting cellular debris will then proceed to the RT-PCR stage with the extracted RNA. Further RNA purification is carried by using kit or by centrifugation and solid phase extraction by using column Centrifuge and spin column, which is to be placed in a clean collection tube to collect the supernatant and filtrate is discarded. Again, it has to be washed and centrifuge. Further by using elution buffer RNA is purified.
Kits | Company | Country |
---|---|---|
QIAamp DSP Viral RNA Mini Kit | Qiagen | Hong Kong, Japan, USA |
QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit | ||
Chemagic Viral DNA/RNA 300 Kit H96 | PerkinElmer chemagen Technologie GmbH | Germany |
SARS-CoV-2 Nucleic Acid Kit (RUO) | ||
MagNA Pure 96 System | Roche | Germany |
ANDiS Viral Nucleic RNA Auto Extraction & Purification Kit | 3Dmed | China |
NucleoMag Dx Pathogen Kit | Macherey-Nagel | France, USA, Switzerland |
NucleoSpin RNA Virus | ||
NucleoMag Virus kit | ||
SuperScript III One-Step RT-PCR System with Platinum Taq DNA Polymerase | ThermoFisher | USA |
TaqMan Fast Virus 1-Step Master Mix | ||
SuperScript III Platinum One-Step qRT-PCR Kit | ||
TaqPath 1-Step RT-qPCR Master Mix, CG | ||
QuantiTect Probe RT-PCR Kit | Qiagen | Japan |
New Coronavirus Nucleic Acid Detection Kit | PerkinElmer chemagen Technologie GmbH | Germany |
Respiratory SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR Panel Assay | ||
SARS-CoV-2 Real-time RT-PCR Assay | ||
EURORealTime™ SARS-CoV-2 |
Virus extraction and detection kits.
After purification of viral RNA, the next step is the preparation of the reaction mixture for PCR amplification. In this step master mix has to be used which is premixed concentrated solution that consists of buffer, Reverse transcriptase enzyme nucleotide, forward primer, reverse primer, TaqMan probe, DNA polymerase. Finally, the RNA template to be added and mixed by pulse vortexing. Then load the reaction mixture into a PCR plate which generally contain 96 wells, allowing analysis of several samples at a time. Then place this plate in PCR machine (thermal cycler). Real time RT-PCR is used for detection of new Coronavirus 2019 by amplification of target sequences in Rdrp genes, E gene and N gene. The choice of the target depends on primers and the probe sequences. The first step in RT-PCR is reverse transcription. The first strand complementary DNA synthesis is primed with the PCR reverse primer which hybridizes the complementary part of the virus RNA genome. Reverse transcriptase then add DNA nucleotides onto the 3-prime end of the primer synthesizing DNA complementary of the viral RNA. Then denaturation takes place. Thus PCR consists of a series of cycles consisting of Denaturation, annealing and elongation. In cycle 1, DNA denaturation at 95 °C occurs. The next step at 58 °C allows the annealing of forward primer to complementary part of DNA. In elongation step, DNA polymerase synthesize a new strand complementary to the DNA template by adding nucleotides from the reaction mixture. In 2nd cycle, DNA denaturation form ssDNA, then annealing of primers and Taq-man probe to its complementary part of the target DNA. Taq-man probe consist of a fluorophore covalentaly attached to the 5′ end of oligonucleotide probe, the fluorescence is emitted by the fluorophore when is excited by the cyclers light source. Also, this probe consists of quencher at 3′ end. The close proximity of the reporter to the quencher prevents detection of its fluorescence. When polymerase reaches the Taqman probe its endogenous 5′ nuclease activity cleaves the probe, separating the dye from the quencher, with each cycle of PCR more dyes are released, resulting in an increase in fluorescence intensity proportionately to the amount of amplicon synthesized. For the fluorescence signal a tungsten-halogen lamp, an excitation filter, lens, emission filter and charged coupled device (CCD) camera are use which converts light into digital data. A flowchart of the protocol has shown in Figure 2 [24].
RT-PCR methodological performance flowchart.
In addition to prevention methods (e.g., hygiene, social distance, isolation of infected individuals, and travel restriction), rigorous community infection testing is essential to track the transmission of the disease as well as educating public policies [53]. Nations that have implemented large research strategies at an early stage like South Korea, Vietnam, and New Zealand have been better able to restrict the spread of the disease. Tests should ideally be simple to sample and evaluate, precise, reliable, scalable and inexpensive. Often, point-of-care tests (POCT) based on antibodies match this definition. However, rapidly emerging epidemics due to novel viruses do not allow antibody-based tests to evolve in a timely manner [54]. Because of the simple adaptability to the nucleotide sequence of the target, viral load tests based on real-time, quantitative RT-PCR (referred to as RTqPCR) are thus an ideal test [55]. This RT-qPCR is currently a reliable test commonly used for the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected symptomatic and asymptomatic patients [56]. Several scientific and clinical institutions around the world have produced molecular assays to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 and have made RT-qPCR primers and sample sets available to the public [57].
As the genetic code of coronaviruses consists of RNA, its purification of the test samples is a crucial step in RT-qPCR protocols. Officially, institutions in some countries have suggested unique RNA isolation kits for SARSCoV-2 detection [57]. Various virus extraction and detections kits are available in market as shown in Table 3. The qRT-PCR has the benefits of high sensitivity, high precision, and a wide variety of sample types that can be use but there are however several factors that influence qRT-PCR outcomes, such as repeated washing, purification and separation of viral nucleic acids, which cause a substantial loss of nucleic acid and increase the risk of fragmentation and hydrolysis of nucleic acid; the number of virus replications below the qRT-PCR detection threshold would also cause false negative effects on the early stage of SARS-CoV-2 infection. So this problem was faced by many laboratories [58]. Some started focusing on RT-LAMP—reverse transcriptase loop-mediated isothermal amplification [59]. Other PCR, which was found to be more potent to detect low viral load was digital droplet PCR (ddPCR) as compared to qRT-PCR but due to limited availability ddPCR instrumentation and lab expertise mostly qRT-PCR is being used [60]. At this point, superior resources are concentrated in all parts of the country to reinforce scientific research. It is assumed that our ability to diagnose and treat patients with new coronavirus pneumonia will develop further with the enhancement and advancement of detection technology.
Collection of data at one place so that whole country population can refer this data at such a tough situation was a necessity so the Government of India has open an website -https://covid19cc.nic.in/ICMR/login.aspx, which has lots of information regarding testing centers, counting of RT-PCR tests and other antibody–antigen tests, current positive cases, available collection centers with their address contacts etc. Also aligned with ICMR, said to be Covid-19 sample collection management system for rapid antigen, antibody and RT-PCR tests. Lots of RT-PCR kits with variations, are manufactured in India has been shown in Table 4.
Kit | Company | Sample required | Website |
---|---|---|---|
Fluidigm’s Advanta Dx SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR kit | Fluidigm’s Corporation | Saliva | https://www.fluidigm.com/ |
R-Green kit (SARS COV2-real-time PCR) | Reliance Life Sciences | Throat, nose swab | https://rellife.com/ |
Dry Swab-Direct RT-PCR test | Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) | Dry Nasal swab | https://www.ccmb.res.in/ |
RT-PCR testing kits | iGenetic Diagnostics and BioGenomics | Throat, nose swab | https://www.igenetic.com/ |
Mylab PathoDetect COVID-19 Qualitative PCR kit | Mylab Discovery Solutions Pvt. Ltd | Throat, nose swab | https://mylabdiscoverysolutions.com/ |
Real Time PCR kits | Genome Diagnostics Pvt. Ltd. | Nasopharyngeal swab | http://www.genomediagnostics.co.in/about-us.html |
GlobalTM diagnostic kit | Equine Biotech | Nasopharyngeal swab | https://covid19.iisc.ac.in/covid-19-rt-pcr-kit/ |
Corosure Covid-19 diagnostic kit | IIT Delhi | Throat, nose swab | https://home.iitd.ac.in/news-tea-haritaki.php |
RT-PCR kit | CSIR-IICT | Throat, nose swab | https://iictindia.org/ |
RT-PCR kit developed by Indian companies and sample requirement.
RT-qPCR assays were already known, but development can lead to better results. Thus, one study was done by targeting two monoplex assays recommended by WHO that was targeted on the envelope gene (E-Sarbeco) and RNA-Dependant RNA Polymerase coding genes (RdRp-IP4). This was combined and test named as ‘Duo SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR assay’. As already lots of duo assays are commercially available, but this study was done to combine in-house assays. Can be used to reduce the chances of false negative results as it is dual assay [60]. As dual target assays are commercially available, developed specifically to target multiple sites in the viral genome, but mutation rates in virus found to be moderate which can cause problem with respect to results. Some of the tests were done by using ‘cobas SARS-CoV-2 E gene qRT-PCR’ but some failures were seen due to change in nucleotide at position 26340 of the SARS-CoV-2 gene. So the study was done to identify single nucleotide polymorphism in E gene of the virus. This includes the importance of study regarding mutations in the virus and thus to prevent false negative results [61]. The protocol provided by WHO mention the three assay that is to be performed: First line screening assay - E gene assay, Confirmatory assay - RdRp gene assay, and Additional confirmatory assay - N gene assay [24]. ‘Multiplex Real Time PCR’ was also use to find its efficacy for SARS-CoV-2 detection. Found to be rapid and accurate method for viral detection [62]. ‘Aus Diagnostics respiratory MT-PCR assay’ was also found to be reliable and sensitive [63]. Two ‘Single-tube nested (STN) real-time RT-PCR assays’ specifically targets RdRp/Hel and N genes, found to be 100% specific for detection of SARS-CoV-2 [64]. Even high cost assays were given preference during a pandemic situation like TaqMan-based real-time RT-qPCR which was not even accessible to lots of laboratories. So it was performed by using 2 methods that are SYBR green RT-qPCR and conventional PCR basically standardisation was done of this 2 methods which is cost effective methods and found to give equal results as that of TaqMan-based real-time RT-qPCR [65].
COVID-19 diagnosis now done by one step RT-qPCR by using primers and probes which were developed at different institutes like China CDC, Charite (Germany), The University of Hong Kong, National Institute of Infectious Diseases in Japan (Japan NIID), National Institute of Health in Thailand (Thailand NIH) and US CDC which was announced by WHO [2, 24]. One study performed the analysis of primer-probe sets specifically targeting the N region and RdRp/Orf1 of SARS-CoV-2 by N-assay and RdRp/Orf1 Assays. Primer probe set for N-assay was N (China CDC), HKU-N (HKU), NIID_2019-nCOV_N (Japan NIID), WH-NIC N (Thailand NIH), and 2019-nCoV_N1, -N2, and -N3 (US CDC) and for RdRp/Orf1 Assay RdRp_SARSr (Charite), HKU-ORF1b-nsp14 (HKU), and ORF1ab (China CDC) primer probe set was studied. Results says that NIID_2019-nCOV_N” from the Japan NIID and “ORF1ab” from China CDC gave a good performance for RT-qPCR analysis without any cross-reactivity and non-specific amplifications. This can be used for further diagnosis [66]. Sensitivity of PCR also depends on primer concentration, degeneration and multi target detection. Initial concentration of primer was 300-900 nM but as its concentration rises sensitivity also improves [67]. One study found that concentration upto 400 nM rise the sensitivity [68]. Degenerate primers plays an important role with respect to diversity of SARS-CoV-2. While screening assays with a single target area are more prone to sequence differences than dual or triple-target assays for multi-target identification [67]. Other than this primer length, melting temperature, GC content and annealing temperature also affects the sensitivity of PCR assay [67]. One study attempted to deduce the specific patterns among SARS-CoV-2 isolates and accordingly primers were design targeted to nsp2 gene and further use for diagnosis of probe free real-time RT-PCR. Sensitive and rapid SARS-CoV-2-specific real-time RT-PCR assay COVID-19-nsp2 has therefore been developed [69]. In one research, the efficiency of three novel real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) assays targeting RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp)/helicase (Hel), spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) SARS-CoV-2 genes was developed and compared. RNA polymerase (RdRp)/(Hel) assay found to be effective with no cross reactivity with other viruses among samples [27]. Some of the RT-PCR kits manufactured at International level along with sample requirement has been shown in Table 5.
Kit Name | Company | Country | Sample required | Website |
---|---|---|---|---|
1copy™ COVID-19 qPCR Multi Kit | 1drop Inc. | Korea | Nasal swab | http://www.1drop.co.kr/ |
ANDiS® SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR Detection Kit | 3D Medicines | United state | Nasopharyngeal swab | https://www.3dmedcare.com/covid/ |
CareStart™ COVID-19 MDx RT-PCR | Access Bio, Inc. | United state | Nasopharyngeal swab, Oropharyngeal swab | https://carestart.com/ |
MOLgen SARSCoV2 Real Time RT PCR | Adaltis S.r.l. | Italy | Nasopharyngeal swabs, oropharyngeal swabs, sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). | http://www.adaltis.net/products/molecular-diagnostic-tests/sars-cov2-covid-19/sars-cov2-covid-19/ |
LyteStar 2019-nCoV RT-PCR Kit 1.0 | ADT Biotech | Malaysia | Nasopharyngeal swab, Oropharyngeal swab | http://adt-biotech.com/lytestartm-detection-kits/ |
AccuPower® SARS-CoV-2 Real-Time RT-PCR kit | BIONEER Corporation | Philippines | Sputum, nasopharyngeal swab, oropharyngeal swab | https://eng.bioneer.com/20-scv-2122.html |
VIASURE SARS-CoV-2 S gene Real Time PCR Detection Kit adapted for BD MAX™ System | CerTest Biotec, S.L. | Spain | Respiratory samples | https://www.certest.es/ |
Simplexa™ COVID-19 Direct RT-PCR Kit | DiaSorin Molecular, LLC | United state | Nasal swab, nasopharyngeal swab, nasal wash/aspirate, and BAL specimens | https://molecular.diasorin.com/us/kit/simplexa-covid-19-direct-kit/ |
Quick SARS-CoV-2 rRT-PCR Kit | Zymo Research Corp. | United state | Upper respiratory and lower respiratory sample | https://www.zymoresearch.com/ |
SARS-CoV-2 Nucleic Acid Detection Kit (PCR-Fluorescent Probe Method) | Zybio, Inc. | Philippines | Nasal/throat swab, bronchoalveolar lavage fluids, stool | https://m.zybio.com/en/Product/Molecule/2020-03-24/316.html |
Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV)/Flu A/Flu B Real-time Multiplex RT-PCR Kit | Zhuhai Haitai Biological Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd | China | Upper respiratory and lower respiratory sample | http://www.zhhaitai.com/ |
MolecuTech® Real-Time COVID-19 | YD Diagnostics Corp. | Korea | Respiratory specimens | http://www.yd-diagnostics.com/2012/eng/channel_02/prt_list.php?selID=37 |
COVID-19 ORF1ab/N Gene PCR Detection Kit | Xi’an Tianlong Science and Technology Co., Ltd | China | Upper respiratory and lower respiratory sample | https://xi-an-tianlong.abraa.com/ |
Real time RT-PCR Kit for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 | Suzhou BTA Biotech Co. Ltd | China | Nasal swab, nasopharyngeal swab, nasal wash/aspirate, and BAL specimens | http://vosunbio.com/ |
LyoDx® A Freeze-Dried Real-Time RT-PCR Detection Reagent for SARS-CoV-2 | SignalDT Biotechnologies (SZ), Inc. | Alameda | Respiratory samples | https://signaldt-biosystems-llc.hub.biz/ |
SBC SARS-CoV-2 Convective PCR Diagnostic Device/Kit | Schweitzer Biotech Company Ltd | Taiwan | Nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal swabs | http://covid19.sbc-biotech.com/ |
RainSure COVID-19 dPCR Detection Kit (lab-based) | RainSure Scientific Co., Ltd | China | Respiratory samples | http://en.rainsurebio.com/ |
COVID-19 One-Step COVID-19 RT-PCR Kit | Pishtaz Teb Diagnostics | Iran | Nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal swabs | https://pishtazteb.com/en/pcr/ |
PerkinElmer® SARS-CoV-2 Realtime RT-PCR Assay | PerkinElmer Inc. | United state | Nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal swabs | https://www.perkinelmer.com/ |
SARS-CoV-2 One-Step RT-PCR Kit, RdRp and N Genes, CE-IVD | NZYTech | Portugal | Nasal swab, nasopharyngeal swab, nasal wash/aspirate, and BAL specimens | https://www.nzytech.com/products-services/molecular-diagnostics/sars-cov-2/sars-cov-2-one-step-rt-pcr-kit-rdrp-and-n-genes-ce-ivd/ |
COVID-19 TaqMan RT-PCR Kit (E/RdRP genes) Dx | Norgen Biotek Corp | Canada | Saliva & Swab Samples | https://norgenbiotek.com/ |
RT-PCR kits developed by International companies and sample requirement.
PCR method was discovered in 1986 and since then the method is serving medical sectors. In the future, as potential molecular diagnostic methods, PCR will play a significant role. Lots of PCR methods are already used in various research and medical fields, but as we know currently under this pandemic situation RT-PCR has turned out to be a boon in healthcare sectors. Lots of kits have been manufactured throughout the world with some or little variation, thus making it more sensitive, specific and less time consuming. One factor which essential under pandemic situation was a multiple sample analysis in one go [5]. Thus more focus on using portable POC systems, we can imagine the use of micro-fluidics doing concurrent multiple sample analysis. It is possible to analyse immunomagnetic exosomal RNA by using micro-fluidic systems RT-PCR said to be a Chip-based integrated real-time reverse transcription PCR platform [70]. Similar way chip-based RT-PCR digitally can quantify the mRNA in single cell [71].
Scalable, quick, and inexpensive diagnostics of COVID-19 by RT-PCR could help restrict the spread of SARS-CoV-2, saving lives as a result. RNA extraction, however, constitutes an obstacle to the scale-up of experiments. Thus, one research was done directly using the RT-PCR and heat inactivated sample and efficacy was tested. The study proved that is not necessary to carry RNA extraction testing. The study also suggests the use of standard protocols for RT-PCR and transport media by the whole world so the it will become easier to deal with future epidemics. Such RT-PCR said to be an hid RT-PCR (heat-inactivated direct RT-PCR). Sample collection and rather than using transport media, usage of lysis buffer is found to be more efficient as it will directly lys the sample and can be used in RT-PCR without a need of any RNA extraction kit [72].
As
Lots of research regarding RT-PCR has been done, PCR like nested PCR, ddPCR, two step RT-PCR is an advance and gives more accurate results but labs were not that equipped and it was not possible to set up everything under such pandemic situation. Hence if we think about future this all equipments and facilities have to be adopted by laboratory to deal with emerging epidemics [57].
SARs-CoV-2, originated from Wuhan, China and spread all over world, causing a pandemic situation which affected the whole world badly at economic, social, medical level also. Initially it was very difficult to deal with virus as no diagnosis, treatment or vaccine was available, but after lots of efforts of researchers now we have a good diagnosis and control condition in regards spread of infection. Even vaccination has been started in almost all countries. As in the earlier period of pandemic, the diagnosis was the main factor to prevent the spread of the virus. So main focus was on a diagnostic that to on molecular diagnosis as it is more efficient and accurate way of detection. Currently use molecular method is RT-PCR also said to be a gold standard detection method. Lots of RT-PCR kits are now available in most of the countries with little modifications and approvals. The key point to be noticed before the laboratory experiments is the right reliable sampling. Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs, which are safer for collection are recommended for screening or early detection. If we talk about a future of RT-PCR advancement in methods like nested PCR, ddPCR, two step RT-PCR have been already done, which is found to be more accurate, but lack of instrumentation and expertise have put it behind, but in future this thing has to be focused and implemented so that the world can deal with any future epidemic.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"982",title:"Adult Cardiology",slug:"adult-cardiology",parent:{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:75,numberOfWosCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"982",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5166",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cb992fb172cb9aa79234394e1704ecc2",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",bookSignature:"Umashankar Lakshmanadoss",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13913",title:"Dr.",name:"Umashankar",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmanadoss",slug:"umashankar-lakshmanadoss",fullName:"Umashankar Lakshmanadoss"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3391",title:"Hot Topics in Echocardiography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0bc94ac2f06ba387c10de6f488fab7b2",slug:"hot-topics-in-echocardiography",bookSignature:"Angelo Squeri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3391.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"93275",title:"Dr.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Squeri",slug:"angelo-squeri",fullName:"Angelo Squeri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3381",title:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"94fcc7e15b58dfaa5203044c08c05927",slug:"recent-advances-in-infective-endocarditis",bookSignature:"Steven W. 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Fleming and Gordon M. Harrington",authors:[{id:"47432",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard M.",middleName:null,surname:"Fleming",slug:"richard-m.-fleming",fullName:"Richard M. Fleming"},{id:"112635",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordon M.",middleName:null,surname:"Harrington",slug:"gordon-m.-harrington",fullName:"Gordon M. Harrington"}]},{id:"52656",doi:"10.5772/64781",title:"Assessment of Right Ventricle by Echocardiogram",slug:"assessment-of-right-ventricle-by-echocardiogram",totalDownloads:2276,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Assessment of right ventricular (RV) function is important to ascertain clinical outcome in patients with symptoms of right ventricular failure manifested as lower extremity swelling and abdominal congestion. RV function is not routinely assessed and reported in clinical practice. Unlike the bullet‐shaped left ventricle (LV), RV has a complex geometry with a triangular shape. RV is further divided into the inlet, trabecular apex, and infundibulum or conus. RV evaluation involves quantifying afterload and preload, assessing the mechanism and severity of tricuspid regurgitation (TR), and quantitative evaluation of RV performance. For quantification of RV size and function, we can use intravenous contrast for endocardial tracing of RV border to measure RV dimensions, tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), fractional area change (FAC), Doppler index of myocardial performance (Tei index or myocardial performance index), pulsed wave or color Doppler tissue imaging systolic velocity [s'], or strain imaging. For qualitative evaluation of RV, the RV size is compared to the LV size in parasternal, short axis, and subcostal projections.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Gunjan Choudhary, Arushi A. Malik, Dwight Stapleton and Pratap\nC. Reddy",authors:[{id:"183647",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunjan",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",slug:"gunjan-choudhary",fullName:"Gunjan Choudhary"},{id:"192261",title:"Dr.",name:"Arushi A",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"arushi-a-malik",fullName:"Arushi A Malik"},{id:"192262",title:"Dr.",name:"Dwight",middleName:null,surname:"Stapleton",slug:"dwight-stapleton",fullName:"Dwight Stapleton"},{id:"192263",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap C",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"pratap-c-reddy",fullName:"Pratap C Reddy"}]},{id:"43925",doi:"10.5772/56118",title:"History of Antimicrobial Prophylaxis Protocols for Infective Endocarditis Secondary to Dental Procedures",slug:"history-of-antimicrobial-prophylaxis-protocols-for-infective-endocarditis-secondary-to-dental-proced",totalDownloads:2136,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3381",slug:"recent-advances-in-infective-endocarditis",title:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis"},signatures:"Inmaculada Tomás and Maximiliano Álvarez-Fernández",authors:[{id:"70085",title:"Dr.",name:"Inmaculada",middleName:null,surname:"Tomás-Carmona",slug:"inmaculada-tomas-carmona",fullName:"Inmaculada Tomás-Carmona"},{id:"149434",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximiliano",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Fernández",slug:"maximiliano-alvarez-fernandez",fullName:"Maximiliano Álvarez-Fernández"}]},{id:"16134",doi:"10.5772/24458",title:"Tissue Doppler in Ischemic Heart Disease",slug:"tissue-doppler-in-ischemic-heart-disease",totalDownloads:3313,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"344",slug:"establishing-better-standards-of-care-in-doppler-echocardiography-computed-tomography-and-nuclear-cardiology",title:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology",fullTitle:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology"},signatures:"Ola Gjesdal and Thor Edvardsen",authors:[{id:"40027",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor",middleName:null,surname:"Edvardsen",slug:"thor-edvardsen",fullName:"Thor Edvardsen"},{id:"58106",title:"Dr.",name:"Ola",middleName:null,surname:"Gjesdal",slug:"ola-gjesdal",fullName:"Ola Gjesdal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51931",title:"Speckle-Tracking Imaging, Principles and Clinical Applications: A Review for Clinical Cardiologists",slug:"speckle-tracking-imaging-principles-and-clinical-applications-a-review-for-clinical-cardiologists",totalDownloads:4607,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Evaluation of myocardial mechanics, although complex, has now entered the clinical arena, thanks to the introduction of bedside imaging techniques, such as speckle-tracking echocardiography.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Iacopo Fabiani, Nicola Riccardo Pugliese, Veronica Santini, Lorenzo\nConte and Vitantonio Di Bello",authors:[{id:"184730",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitantonio",middleName:null,surname:"Di Bello",slug:"vitantonio-di-bello",fullName:"Vitantonio Di Bello"},{id:"184733",title:"Dr.",name:"Iacopo",middleName:null,surname:"Fabiani",slug:"iacopo-fabiani",fullName:"Iacopo Fabiani"},{id:"184734",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Pugliese",slug:"nicola-riccardo-pugliese",fullName:"Nicola Riccardo Pugliese"},{id:"184736",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Conte",slug:"lorenzo-conte",fullName:"Lorenzo Conte"},{id:"185432",title:"Dr.",name:"Santini",middleName:null,surname:"Veronica",slug:"santini-veronica",fullName:"Santini Veronica"}]},{id:"16137",title:"Doppler Contrast Echocardiography",slug:"doppler-contrast-echocardiography",totalDownloads:2925,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"344",slug:"establishing-better-standards-of-care-in-doppler-echocardiography-computed-tomography-and-nuclear-cardiology",title:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology",fullTitle:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology"},signatures:"Vincent L. Sorrell and Sachin Kumar",authors:[{id:"62264",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent L.",middleName:null,surname:"Sorrell",slug:"vincent-l.-sorrell",fullName:"Vincent L. Sorrell"},{id:"62565",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachin-kumar",fullName:"Sachin Kumar"}]},{id:"52583",title:"Role of Echocardiography in the Critically Ill Patients",slug:"role-of-echocardiography-in-the-critically-ill-patients",totalDownloads:2401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Since its inception in 1950s, echocardiography has evolved significantly. Its role has expanded beyond cardiology into operating theaters, intensive care units, and emergency departments. It is an easy, inexpensive, noninvasive, and portable technique, which can be rapidly performed at bedside. It is devoid of complications and, for the most part, universally available. This review focuses on growing importance of echocardiography for critically ill patients in the intensive care and high dependency unit settings including indications, modalities, measurements, and therapeutic impact. Literature review of echocardiography use for the cardiovascular assessment of the critically ill patients was done and various indications are discussed including appropriate use scores. Methods being used include transthoracic and transesophageal echo with various modes. This does include assessment of volume status of the hemodynamically unstable patients, myocardial function, global left ventricular systolic function, regional wall motion abnormalities, cardiac output, cardiac tamponade, valvular function, left ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular function. Other diagnostic assessments include aortic dissection, thromboembolisms, pleural effusions, and septal defects. Echocardiography is now considered as an indispensable tool for diagnosis and management including hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients. It provides advantages including noninvasiveness and real-time anatomical and functional assessment of the cardiovascular system.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Manivannan Veerasamy",authors:[{id:"185477",title:"Dr.",name:"Manivannan",middleName:null,surname:"Veerasamy",slug:"manivannan-veerasamy",fullName:"Manivannan Veerasamy"}]},{id:"51873",title:"Noninvasive Measurement of Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography",slug:"noninvasive-measurement-of-pulmonary-capillary-wedge-pressure-by-speckle-tracking-echocardiography",totalDownloads:1616,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The severity of left-sided heart failure can be evaluated by pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) because PCWP reflects left ventricular (LV) filling pressure. Owing to developments in echocardiographic technology, speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) has allowed automatic construction of time-left atrial (LA) volume (LAV) curves. Thus, we developed a novel index based on a combination of LAV and LA function that would estimate PCWP using STE. The following regression equation described the relationship between PCWP that was obtained by right-heart catheterization and active LAEF/minimum LAV index (volume was indexed to body surface area: LAVI) in the patients with sinus rhythm: PCWP = 10.8–12.4 [log10 (active LAEF/minimum LAVI)] (r = −0.86, p <0.001) (measurements from the apical 4-chamber view). We defined this index [log10 (active LAEF/minimum LAVI)] as the kinetics-tracking index (KT index). The PCWP estimated by the KT index (ePCWP) had a strong correlation with PCWP obtained by right-heart catheterization (r = 0.92, p <0.001). The ePCWP measured by STE could be a useful parameter to improve clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Masanori Kawasaki",authors:[{id:"50603",title:"Dr.",name:"Masanori",middleName:null,surname:"Kawasaki",slug:"masanori-kawasaki",fullName:"Masanori Kawasaki"}]},{id:"51894",title:"Multimodality Echocardiographic Assessment of Patients Undergoing Atrial Fibrillation Ablation",slug:"multimodality-echocardiographic-assessment-of-patients-undergoing-atrial-fibrillation-ablation",totalDownloads:1989,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Atrial fibrillation (AF) is most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice. The new treatment standard in paroxysmal and persistent AF is the catheter ablation. Echocardiography plays a key role in risk stratification and management of patients with AF and is critical in the assessment of candidates for AF ablation, providing both anatomic and hemodynamic information. Echocardiography is crucial for patient selection, preprocedural left atrial appendage thrombus excluding, intraprocedural guidance, and detection and monitoring for early and late ablation related complications. Transthoracic echocardiography allows rapid and comprehensive assessment of cardiac anatomical structure and function. Transoesophageal echocardiography also provides accurate information about the presence of a thrombus in the atria and thromboembolic risk, making safe the ablation procedure by immediately detection of the complications related procedure. Intracardiac echocardiography has emerged as a popular and useful tool in the everyday practice of interventional electrophysiology, being very useful only during the ablation procedure. This paper presents the role of echocardiography in all these steps concerning AF ablation procedure, and also (1) delineates the role of echocardiographic techniques in guiding the procedure, (2) discusses the critical echocardiographic aspects of this procedure, and (3) underlines the strengths and limitations of various echocardiographic modalities.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Mariana Floria and Maria Daniela Tanase",authors:[{id:"185089",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanase",middleName:null,surname:"Daniela Maria",slug:"tanase-daniela-maria",fullName:"Tanase Daniela Maria"},{id:"185115",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Floria",slug:"mariana-floria",fullName:"Mariana Floria"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"982",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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