\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8592",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mesoporous Materials - Properties and Applications",title:"Mesoporous Materials",subtitle:"Properties and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The basic theme of this book is to understand the fundamentals and importance of porous functional materials, their properties, and significant applications like solar cells, batteries, photovoltaics, energy conversions, and mesoporous materials. This book covers the fundamentals of mesoporous materials, and various methods of synthesis, properties, and applications in different sectors.",isbn:"978-1-83880-650-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-649-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-687-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79068",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mesoporous-materials-properties-and-applications",numberOfPages:130,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9af59f637c67eec81a23db27d63c1353",bookSignature:"Manjunath Krishnappa",publishedDate:"May 29th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8592.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7171,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:40,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 29th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 28th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 16th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 17th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"202044",title:"Dr.",name:"Manjunath",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnappa",slug:"manjunath-krishnappa",fullName:"Manjunath Krishnappa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202044/images/system/202044.jpeg",biography:"Krishnappa Manjunath received masters degree from the Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupathi. He received Ph.D. from Jain University, India in Chemistry under the guidance of Prof. T. Ramakrishnappa in 2016. During his Ph.D., he was awarded a prestigious ‘CNPq-TWAS’ fellowship in 2014 for 1-year internship and worked with Prof. Jairton Dupont, FRS at Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, UFRGS, Brazil. In 2016, he joined at International Centre for Materials Science, JNCASR, Bangalore where he is currently working as Research Associate with Bharat Ratna Prof. C. N. R. Rao, FRS. His research interests mainly focus on ‘Investigations on aliovalent anion substitution in inorganic materials and their applications for water splitting reactions to generate hydrogen’. He authored more than 30 papers, mainly concerning advanced functional materials and nanomaterials for photocatalysis.",institutionString:"Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"156",title:"Composite Materials",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials"}],chapters:[{id:"65758",title:"Synthesis and Characterizations of Titanium Tungstosilicate and Tungstophosphate Mesoporous Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82405",slug:"synthesis-and-characterizations-of-titanium-tungstosilicate-and-tungstophosphate-mesoporous-material",totalDownloads:918,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The work reports a development approach for the synthesis of novel multi-components mesoporous materials of titanium tungstate (meso-TiW) titanium tungstosilicate (meso-TiWSi) and tungstophosphate (meso-TiWP) mixed oxides that have high surface area and ordered mesoporous structures at nanometer length scale. Using the solvent evaporation-induced self-assembly (EISA) new oxides of bi- and tri-component of meso-TiW, meso-TiWSi and meso-TiWP oxides with different compositions and porosity were achieved. The physicochemical properties of the mesoporous oxides were characterized by X-ray diffraction, BET surface area analyzer, scanning, and transmission electron microscopes. Subject to the oxide composition, the obtained meso-TiW, meso-TiWSi and meso-TiWP exhibits high surface area, ordered 2D hexagonal mesostructured with order channels extended over a large area. The produced meso-TiW, meso-TiWSi, and meso-TiWP adsorbents exhibit good adsorption efficiency for the removal of Pb(II), Cd(II) and Hg(II) ions from water solution due to the presence of high surface area and accessibility of surface active sites. The adsorption efficiency of these mesoporous oxide reaches up to 95% and is found to be dependent contact time and adsorbents dose. The synthesis strategy is particularly advantageous for the production of new complex (multi-component) inorganic mesoporous materials that might have an application in the field of environmental, catalysis or energy storage and production.",signatures:"Mohamed A. Ghanem, Abdullah M. Al-Mayouf and Mabrook S. Amer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65758",authors:[{id:"277689",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Ghanem",slug:"mohamed-ghanem",fullName:"Mohamed Ghanem"},{id:"277698",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah M.",surname:"Al-Mayouf",slug:"abdullah-m.-al-mayouf",fullName:"Abdullah M. Al-Mayouf"},{id:"277700",title:"Mr.",name:"Mabrook S.",surname:"Amer",slug:"mabrook-s.-amer",fullName:"Mabrook S. Amer"}],corrections:null},{id:"65289",title:"Mesoporous Materials Prepared Using Cashew Nut Shell Liquid and Castor Oil as Surfactants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83695",slug:"mesoporous-materials-prepared-using-cashew-nut-shell-liquid-and-castor-oil-as-surfactants",totalDownloads:936,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Preparation of useful materials using renewable resources, which are not in competition with food production is of particular importance in the current efforts to replace non-renewable resources. One example of a potential renewable resource, which is attracting the attention of researchers in the preparation of useful materials is cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). CNSL which is a by-product of cashew processing factories, is a mixture of four potential compounds, namely anacardic acid, cardanol, cardol and 2-methyl cardol. Among other potential applications, cashew nut shell liquid is a good template source for preparation of mesoporous materials. Heterogeneous catalysts prepared using CNSL templates are more efficient than those prepared using the commercially available templates. The pore sizes of mesoporous materials prepared using CNSL templates are large (up to 25 nm) enough to immobilize enzymes. Another renewable resource; castor oil, has also been reported to be a good template source for preparation of mesoporous materials. This chapter therefore is aimed at describing in detail the preparation, characterization and applications of mesoporous materials templated by cashew nut shell liquid and castor oil.",signatures:"James Mgaya and Egid Mubofu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65289",authors:[{id:"280637",title:"Dr.",name:"James",surname:"Mgaya",slug:"james-mgaya",fullName:"James Mgaya"},{id:"280756",title:"Prof.",name:"Egid",surname:"Mubofu",slug:"egid-mubofu",fullName:"Egid Mubofu"}],corrections:null},{id:"65810",title:"Synthesis of MCM-41/ZIF-67 Composite for Enhanced Adsorptive Removal of Methyl Orange in Aqueous Solution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84691",slug:"synthesis-of-mcm-41-zif-67-composite-for-enhanced-adsorptive-removal-of-methyl-orange-in-aqueous-sol",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"ZIF-67 and MCM-41/ZIF-67 composites were successfully synthesized with water solvent at room temperature. The amounts of MCM-41 added during synthesis were varied at 2.5, 5 and 10 (%w/w) toward the amount of ZIF-67, and the obtained solids were denoted as MC (2.5)/ZIF-67, MC (5)/ZIF-67, and MC (10)/ZIF-67, respectively. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of ZIF-67 and the composites showed characteristic peaks at 2θ of 7.32, 10.36, 12.69, 14.66, and 16.40°, similar to that of reported ZIF-67. The Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) spectra of all solids showed absorption bands at the same wavenumbers as reported for ZIF-67. The results of surface morphology analysis using scanning electron microscope (SEM) have shown that ZIF-67 and the composites have a cube shape, which is characteristic for the ZIF-67 standard. N2 adsorption-desorption data showed that the specific surface area of ZIF-67 and MC (5)/ZIF-67 were 1079.2 and 1011.2 m2/g, respectively, lower than that of MC (10)/ZIF-67 (1250.6 m2/g). However, results of thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that the thermal stability of MC (10)/ZIF-67 reached 357°C, higher than that of ZIF-67 (325°C). Performance of the composites as adsorbent of methyl orange (MO) in aqueous solution showed that the MC (5)/ZIF-67 had the highest adsorption capacity of 167.635 mg/g, and followed the pseudosecond-order adsorption kinetics and Langmuir isothermal adsorption.",signatures:"Ratna Ediati, Pramita Elfianuar, Eko Santoso, Dety Oktavia Sulistiono and Muhammad Nadjib",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65810",authors:[{id:"264494",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ratna",surname:"Ediati",slug:"ratna-ediati",fullName:"Ratna Ediati"},{id:"264495",title:"BSc.",name:"Pramita",surname:"Elfianuari",slug:"pramita-elfianuari",fullName:"Pramita Elfianuari"},{id:"272868",title:"MSc.",name:"Eko",surname:"Santoso",slug:"eko-santoso",fullName:"Eko Santoso"},{id:"272870",title:"BSc.",name:"Dety Oktavia",surname:"Sulistiono",slug:"dety-oktavia-sulistiono",fullName:"Dety Oktavia Sulistiono"},{id:"278972",title:"MSc.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Nadjib",slug:"muhammad-nadjib",fullName:"Muhammad Nadjib"}],corrections:null},{id:"64611",title:"Synthesis, Properties, and Their Potential Application of Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82322",slug:"synthesis-properties-and-their-potential-application-of-covalent-organic-frameworks-cofs-",totalDownloads:2325,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) represent an emerging class of crystalline porous polymers, which are ingeniously assembled with organic building blocks through reversible covalent bonds. The well-defined crystalline porous structures, easy functional modification, high surface area, together with structural designability and diversity have offered the COFs superior potential in various applications, such as catalysis, gas adsorption and separation, and optoelectricity. Since the pioneer work of Omar Yaghi in 2005, this field has developed rapidly and attracted much attention from researchers with diverse expertise. In this chapter, we describe the basic design concepts, the recent synthetic advancements, and the frontiers of functional exploration in gas adsorption and storage. Special emphasis is placed on their potential application in heterogeneous catalysis field. Finally, the prospects of COFs and remaining issues in these fields are indicated.",signatures:"Lifeng Deng, Junfeng Zhang and Yanan Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64611",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64611",authors:[{id:"171387",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanan",surname:"Gao",slug:"yanan-gao",fullName:"Yanan Gao"},{id:"265789",title:"BSc.",name:"Lifeng",surname:"Deng",slug:"lifeng-deng",fullName:"Lifeng Deng"},{id:"279899",title:"Mr.",name:"Junfeng",surname:"Zhang",slug:"junfeng-zhang",fullName:"Junfeng Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"65916",title:"Designed Mesoporous Materials toward Multifunctional Organic Silica Nanocomposites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84875",slug:"designed-mesoporous-materials-toward-multifunctional-organic-silica-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Functionalized mesoporous silica materials (MSMs) using grafting (post-synthesis) and one-pot (co-condensation) synthesis methods of organic functional groups (periodic mesoporous organosilicas, PMOs) have been developed for many emerging applications. To improve the functions, designed MSMs have received particular attention using an organic motif as a molecule of surfactants for the template synthesis with a silica source in the sol-gel reaction. The resulting mesoporous silica materials can provide characteristic multifunctional nanocomposites consisting of a monomer for synthesizing polymer in the silicate nanochannels. Moreover, the nanocomposites can be also synthesized using a self-assembled organic motif for organizing one-dimensional structure in the silicate nanochannels. The resulting hybrid nanomaterials have been mainly reported to provide fluorescent properties. However, the utilization of phosphorescent nanocomposites for specific applications has not yet reported so far. By utilizing a self-assembled metal complex (organometallic), this chapter particularly highlights recent achievements of designed mesoporous silica materials for the fabrication of advanced luminescent nanostructures with phosphorescent properties where the potential applications will be discussed in detail for self-repairing and thermally resistive materials, metal ions sensors, template synthesis nanoparticles, and catalysts. Such better and novel performance can be only achieved using a designed template for the sol-gel synthesis of mesoporous silica nanocomposites.",signatures:"Hendrik O. Lintang and Leny Yuliati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65916",authors:[{id:"264835",title:"Dr.",name:"Hendrik Oktendy",surname:"Lintang",slug:"hendrik-oktendy-lintang",fullName:"Hendrik Oktendy Lintang"},{id:"265656",title:"Dr.",name:"Leny",surname:"Yuliati",slug:"leny-yuliati",fullName:"Leny Yuliati"}],corrections:null},{id:"66506",title:"Mesoporous Materials for High-Performance Electrochemical Supercapacitors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85583",slug:"mesoporous-materials-for-high-performance-electrochemical-supercapacitors",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Supercapacitors are very important kind of electrochemical energy storage devices. It differs from those of batteries and exhibit high power density. The energy storage in supercapacitors is influenced by many parameters like nature of electrode material, current collector, electrolyte, etc. among which most crucial is the morphology of the electrode. This makes most of the research works are targeting in designing suitable and high performing electrode materials by adopting new routes of synthesis, modifying the regular methods so on. Herein we discuss the fundamentals of supercapacitors, their design and approaches to obtain high-performance electrode materials.",signatures:"Ranganatha Sudhakar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66506",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66506",authors:[{id:"271773",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranganatha",surname:"Sudhakar",slug:"ranganatha-sudhakar",fullName:"Ranganatha Sudhakar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6513",title:"Cement Based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c92db3d5c64117861b425cb692b5695",slug:"cement-based-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6513.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7277",title:"Optimum Composite Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d25c7d0dfa4679385ef2dbc2c0adefa1",slug:"optimum-composite-structures",bookSignature:"Karam Y. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17642",title:"Photocrosslinkable Polymers for Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/18752",slug:"photocrosslinkable-polymers-for-biomedical-applications",body:'\n\t\tPhotopolymerization techniques provide a number of economic advantages over the usual thermal techniques. These include: rapid cure reaction, low energy requirements, use of room temperature and solvent free formulations as well as low cost. Light beams are used to start the photochemical reactions in organic materials (monomers, oligomers, polymers) to form a new polymeric system This technique allows us to prepare materials with several applications in industry (UV curable inks, printing plates and adhesives, among others). Photopolymerization has also been used in electronic materials, optical materials, membranes, coatings and surface modifications. The efficiency of the polymerization reaction is dependent on the monomers, the photoinitiator and the beam wavelength.
\n\t\t\tMore recently, this technique has been used in the preparation of biomaterials with applications in important areas as tissue engineering, (Nguyen & West, 2002), biosensors, (Alves et al., 2009), development of drug delivery systems (Rydhholm et al., 2007) dental restorations in situ (Gatti et al. 2007)) and surface modifications to control the materials cell adhesion (Alves et al., 2011). Photopolymerizable polymers have found numerous applications in the field of tissue engineering for the engineering of tissues as bone, cartilage and liver (Ifkovits & Burdick, 2007) as they may be photopolymerized in vivo and in vitro.
\n\t\t\tHere we will report some of the literature scientific reports in this field.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tOrtega and co-workers (2008) showed that the photopolymerization kinetics as well as the resulting structure of the methacrylate based structures are influenced by the monomers and oligomers properties, the reaction conditions, e.g. light intensity, reaction temperature and type of photoinitiator.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tGatti et al. (2007) referred that photopolymers have been widely used in several dentistry applications. Different monomers have been used for this purpose. Gatti et al. (2007) prepared and characterized copolymers obtained from bisphenylglycidyl dimethacrylate, triethylene glycol dimethacrylate and urethane dimethacrylate. These copolymers were used to obtain dentistry resins. The kinetic parameters of the reaction were evaluated by using photocalorimetry
\n\t\t\tAs it is well known, hydrogels are three-dimensional, hydrophilic, polymeric networks capable of imbibing large amounts of water or biological fluids. They represent an important class of materials to be applied in biotechnology and medicine. These networks have been used as membranes for separating solutes, wound dressings, delivery systems for gene therapy and protein controlled-released systems. Hydrogels have also been applied as bioadhesives, for immobilization of enzymes and cells and in tissue engineering. These photocrosslinked polymers can be obtained either from natural polymers (eg. hyaluronic acid) or from synthetic monomers in the presence of a photoinitiator, using visible or ultraviolet light (Nguyen & West, 2002).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTai et al. (2009) prepared and characterized photocrosslinked hydrogels from synthetic monomers to be used as advanced injectable biomaterials. They observed that the PEGMEMA-PPGMA-EGDMA copolymers, with both thermoresponsive and photocrosslinkable properties, have excellent mechanical properties above the LCST. They suggested that the biodegradability of these gels could be increased by copolymerization with biodegradable blocks.
\n\t\t\tOther authors (Seiffert et al., 2007) prepared hydrogels by crosslinking a dimethylmaleimide functionalized polyacrylamide. They observed that this method could give a very efficient method to synthesize hydrogels in a selective and controlled manner.
\n\t\t\tTae II Son group developed a visible light-crosslinkable porcine gelatine containing furfuryl groups by using Rose Bengal (4,5,6,7-tetrachloro-2\',4\',5\',7\'-tetraiodofluorescein) as a visible light sensitizer. These authors referred that the material could be used in the dental field as well as a visible light induced crossslinkable bioselant.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSchuster and co-workers (2009) developed gelatine based photopolymers for bone replacement materials. For this purpose, as a first step, they prepared different methacrylate based gelatine derivatives by reaction of this polymer with glycidylmethacrylate and other acrylate monomers. In this way, they obtained polymerizable gelatin that was polymerized with a polyethyleneglycol monomethacrylate comonomer. They where then, able to prepare cellular structures by using stereolithography.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tNichol and colleagues (2010) prepared a photopolymerizable gelatine methacrylate for tissue engineering applications. They modified gelatine with methacrylic anhydride, which was subsequently photopolymerized with UV irradiation, in the presence of Irgacure 2959. These authors suggested that these hydrogels could be applied in microscale applications to create endothelial-lined vessels within engineered tissues.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tHu and co-workers (2010) used a carboxymethylated chitosan modified with 4-nitrocinnamate acid to obtain a photopolymerizable derivative without initiator. They were able to prepare a gel with good mechanical properties that was efficiently used as a matrix in a drug delivery system.
\n\t\t\tAlthough the extension of described works, the photopolymerization/photocrosslinkage are processes which are still being studied and therefore explored by many researchers. In this chapter, we wish to report some of the highlights of our work, in this field, still on course in our research group.
\n\t\tThe photocrosslinking technology by using ultraviolet (UV) or visible light has been used extensively in several applications including several types of coatings and biomedical applications. When this technology is used in combination with biodegradable polymers very interesting solutions can be found for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. The photoinitiators are one of most important compounds used in the formulation due to its influence on different reaction parameters. The chemical nature of the photoinitiator determines the reaction rate, the spectral sensitivity (wavelength of absorption), the light resistance and the stability of the materials under storage conditions.
\n\t\t\tIn order to obtain crosslinked polymers, it is necessary to generate free radicals in the system that will induce a free radical chain polymerization of monomers and oligomers. Both have reactive functional groups that can be activated under the presence of reactive radicals, resulting in the formation of crosslinked structures (Corrales et al., 2003). In the mechanism involved in the process we can consider three main reactions: initiation, propagation and termination. Photoinitiators have an essential role in this process, since they are excited under UV radiation leading to the formation of the active radicals that start the polymerization mechanism (initiation). The crosslinking can occur by the reaction of the functional groups that exist in the monomer or polymer structure, which results in a direct intermolecular crosslinking (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\tRepresentation of the photopolymerization/photocrosslinking processes (Adapted from
The crosslinking density plays a critical role in the performance of the biomaterial since it controls properties including permeability, degradation, thermal and mechanic and water uptake (Martens et al., 2003). The use of the proper photoinitiator allows the fine tuning of the reaction rate and therefore the control of the density of crosslinking.
\n\t\t\tWe can consider the existence of two basic types of photoinitiators (Allen et al., 1999): Type I, and Type II. Type I photoinitiators when exposed to UV radiation suffer a fragmentation process that origins the formation of the active radicals with the capacity to start the radical polymerization. Examples of such compounds are the acetophenone derivatives and the α-hidroxyalkyl phenones. The α- hydroxyalkylphenones, as for example 4-(2-hydroxyethylethoxy)-phenyl–(2-hydroxy-2-methyl propyl) ketone (Irgacure® 2959, Ciba) are extremely reactive and present a high thermal stability. Once irradiated, benzoyl and alkyl radicals are formed and although both radicals are reactive to initiate the polymerization, the benzoyl presents higher reactivity.
\n\t\t\tType II photoinitators require the presence of molecules, in the system, that suffer a primary process of hydrogen abstraction. These molecules are often referred as co-initiators and are usually tertiary amines. The reaction starts with the formation of the intermediary species resulting from the interaction between the amine and the photoinitiator carbonyl group. The process continues with an electron and a hydrogen transfer resulting in the radical formation.
\n\t\t\tWhen biomedical applications are concerned, the biocompatibility of the photoinitiator is a critical issue to be considered. Williams and co-authors have studied the biocompatibility of the three different photoinitiators (2-hidroxy-1-[4-(2-hidroxyethoxy)phenyl]-2-methyl-1-propanone (Irgacure® 2959); 1-hidroxycyclohexyl-1-phenyl ketone (Irgacure® 184) and 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone (Irgacure® 651)) commonly used in the preparation of biomaterials using six cellular lines (Williams et al., 2005). Their results revealed that different cell types react differently to the same concentrations of the same photoinitiator. Among the three compounds tested, Irgacure® 2959 presented the better results since very high cell tolerance (in all cell lines) was observed for a broad range of photoinitiator concentrations.
\n\t\tThe UV irradiation is frequently used in the area of biomaterials as a strategy to modify both surface and bulk properties of polymers. These modifications allow us to improve some of their assets such as hemo and biocompatibility. It is also possible, by using radiation, to prepare crosslinked systems that may be used to encapsulate cells (Cruise et al., 1999; Hill et al., 1997; Li et al., 2006), proteins (Leach et al., 2005) or other compounds to be controlled delivered (Vieira et al., 2008; Tripodo et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tIn the following sections a literature review in some of the possible applications of photocrosslikable polymers will be presented. Also, some examples of some of the work that has been done in our own research group will be given.
\n\t\t\tPrimary wound healing of a plan-to-plan oriented scar formation is usually accomplished by hand sewing or stapling the corresponding layers of each side of the incision (Sheikh et al., 2000). However, both methods have been associated to wound infection and granule formation due to their degradation in the organism. They also present other disadvantages, such as the need to be removed, in most cases and the pain associated with their use.
\n\t\t\t\tTopical skin adhesives are increasingly being used by health professionals to replace sutures, staples and adhesive strips for wound closure. The use of adhesives provides several advantages that include: rapid application, unnecessary administration of anesthetics, no trauma is induced to tissues, less pain, unnecessary sutures or staples removal and improved cosmetic results.
\n\t\t\t\tTissue adhesives may also be used as delivery systems and can be engineered for slow, localized release of bioactive molecules (Spicer & Mikos, 2010), such as pain treatment drugs or antibiotics (Fujimoto et al., 1997). They can be used as vehicles to growth factors (Catelas et al., 2008), and cell lines to assist on healing, namely, in poorly healing tissues like cartilage (Hoemann et al., 2005). Very recently, Spicer & Mikos (2010) reported several studies concerning the entrapment of drugs and growth factor in fibrin gels. Entrapment of such bioactive compounds was achieved by simply mixing the components before crosslink of the fibrinogen. At the end of the process a fibrin gel containing a bioactive molecule was obtained (Figure 2). The authors concluded that controlled delivery of drugs or factors by this method was in fact possible, and that release kinetics could be tailored through composition, affinity and covalent linkage between the bioactive molecules and fibrin.
\n\t\t\t\tFibrin gel preparation and drug/growth factor entrapment. (Adapted from
Regardless their nature, surgical adhesives must obey some clinical requirements. They must hold the two sides of the tissue together, until it is no longer necessary, and then they should be degraded to biocompatible products (Lipatova, 1986). Also, an adhesive would ideally present the ability to cure in a moist environment.
\n\t\t\t\tAmong the adhesives available on the market, the most applied are the ones based either on fibrin (Silver et al., 1995; Dunn & Goa, 1999) or cyanoacrylates (Leahey et al., 1993; King & Kinney, 1999). Both classes present some advantages as well as some disadvantages. Although fibrin glues contribute efficiently to hemorrhage control at bleeding wounds, their application is limited by their possible immunogenicity and risk of blood transmission diseases such as HIV and BSE. On the other hand, cyanoacrylates present a fast curing rate and a very strong adhesion to tissues but have been reported to degrade in aqueous media to produce formaldehyde, which causes inflammation and has got carcinogenicity potential.
\n\t\t\t\tConsidering the described limitations, other options are now being considered, and among synthetic materials, urethane-based adhesives have been considered to be quite promising for this application. However, although several studies have already been conducted by other authors (Lipatova, 1986; Sheikh et al., 2000) and also by our research group in trying to develop urethane pre-polymers to be applied as bioadhesives (Ferreira et al., 2007, 2008a), these have proved that despite the good adhesion results, the curing time is too long to face surgical demands. UV curable adhesives offer major advantages compared to pre-polymers systems, such as fast-curing rate, control of the polymerization heat evolution and are ideal for application to weakened and diseased tissue (Benson, 2002).
\n\t\t\t\tThe photopolymerization and photocrosslinkage of polymers intending the preparation of bioadhesives has been largely developed during the second half of the 20th century. Throughout this period, several works translated into patents and scientific papers were published focusing on the development of various aspects of photopolymerization. Among them, new UV radiation sources, functionalized monomers and oligomers as well as new technologies for preparation of particles stand out (Moon et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t\tA biological adhesive must present a combination of biocompatibility, performance and effectiveness. It should also present a fast curing rate when in contact with the living tissues. UV curable adhesives offer major advantages, such as fast-curing rate, control of the polymerization heat evolution, superior control over the final properties of the material and are ideal for application to weakened and diseased tissue (Benson, 2002). Another great advantage of such UV sensitive systems is allowing the adhesive to cure almost instantaneously, however selectively, in strongly illuminated areas such as the operating rooms (Decker, 2002).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tKao et al. (1997) have synthesized UV irradiation curable bioadhesives based on
Since then, some work has been published describing attempts to develop a bioadhesive based on photosensitive polymers (Ho & Young, 2006; Grinstaff, 2007; Brigham et al., 2009). As an example, in our research group, Ferreira and co-workers (2008b) developed a photocrosslinkable biodegradable bioadhesive based on polycaprolactone (PCL). PCL is a semi-crystalline linear biodegradable aliphatic polyester that has been used in several medical applications already approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Its structure presents several aliphatic ester linkages (Figure 3) that can undergo hydrolysis and its products of degradation are either metabolized by being included in the tricarboxylic acid cycle or eliminated by renal secretion.
\n\t\t\t\tChemical structure of PCL.
The authors modified the polymer with 2-isocyanatoethylmethacrylate (IEMA) to form a macromer that was crosslinked via UV irradiation using Irgacure® 2959 by CIBA as the photoinitiating agent. Results showed that after 60s of irradiation the curing of the polymer was complete and membranes were obtained. The resultant films were then characterized by several techniques that included swelling evaluation, thermal characterization, surface energy determination, electronic microscopy, biodegradation in human plasma and haemocompatibility (haemolysis and thrombogenicity). In a global appreciation, it was concluded that the obtained membranes presented a porous morphology and that biodegradation occurred although in a slow rate (10% of weight loss after 6 weeks). Also, the material was haemocompatible (no significant value of haemolyisis was measured) and presented thrombogenic character (which would contribute to control wound bleeding). Finally, the adhesive was also able to promote efficient adhesion between the aminated substrates (gelatin was used as a model material), since during the binding strength tests, the gelatin pieces broke without compromising the glued section. The adhesive was posteriorly tested in vivo using Wistar rats, in two organs (skin and liver) and it proved to be efficient in keeping the glued surfaces together (even in moisture conditions) for the entire experimental protocol. After this period, the animals were euthanized and histological study of these organs was performed (hematoxylin & eosin coloration technique). No signs of necrosis or inflammation were detected in any of the target organs. Figure 4 presents a scheme summarizing the steps involved in this study.
\n\t\t\tDrug delivery systems aim to control and sustain the distribution of drugs to attain optimal therapeutic efficiency. The earliest drug delivery systems were introduced in the 1970s and were based on poly(lactic acid). Nowadays, polymers are still the most used materials in this field of research mainly because of their ease of processing and also because of the possibility of researchers to control both their physical and chemical properties.
\n\t\t\t\tRecently, significant advances have been made in optimizing the delivery of drugs to target tissues within the eye and in maintaining effective drug doses within those tissues (Geroski & Edelhauser, 2000). However, and despite all efforts, conventional ocular therapy for the treatment of acute and chronic diseases makes use of topical appliance of eye drops. This type of therapeutics represents nearly 90% of the marketed formulations. Still, this kind of appliance has a limited efficacy that is due to several factors, namely lacrimation, tear drainage and turnover, and the composition of the precorneal tear film itself.
\n\t\t\t\t\tOne of the major limiting factors for drug absorption from the lachrymal fluid into the anterior chamber, after eye drop administration, is the low permeability of the corneal epithelium that results in a very low (around 5%) drug absorption by the cornea. The corneal epithelium consists of approximately five to seven cell layers (Figure 5) which make it a strong barrier to drug permeation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe remaining amount of drug flows with tears through the upper and lower canonically into the nasolachrymal ducts and consequently may cause unwanted systemic side effects (Ali &Lehmussaari, 2006). The self-protective mechanisms of the eye, such as rapid tear turnover, limit the absorption of the instilled drug in the eye. In addition, application of ophthalmic drugs as drops results in rapid variation in drug delivery rates to the cornea that limits the efficacy of therapeutic systems.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSummary of the development and characterization of a UV curable PCL based bioadhesive.
Diagram showing the various layers of the corneal epithelium.
In order to improve the patient compliance for delivering the medications there is the need for finding some new implantable devices which could deliver the drugs in a long-lasting controlled manner. Using this strategy, the drug loss associated with systemic absorption would be minimized, and the resident time of the drug in the tear film increased (Ludwig, 2005). An alternative approach to optimize ophthalmic drug delivery is the adaptation of bioadhesive systems (Vasir et al., 2003), namely mucoadhesive ones, which have been proved to be successful in oral applications (Bernkop-Schnürch, 2005).
\n\t\t\t\t\tInitially, intraocular implants aimed to achieve controlled and long lasting drug delivery for patients with glaucoma, proliferative vitroretinopathy, cytomegalovirus retinitis, endophtalmitis, and posterior capsule opacification. Nowadays, new ambitions rely on the development of new drug delivery systems namely therapeutic targeting of retinal degenerative diseases and angiogenic reactions which lead to blindness (Bourges et al., 2006). These systems are prepared using different kinds of biodegradable or non-biodegradable polymers and can present several shapes: sheet, pellet, disc, rod, or plug (Figure 6).
\n\t\t\t\t\tRoutes of ocular drug delivery. (Adapted from
Among non-biodegradable implants, the best documented are based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) (Okabe et al., 2003) and polysulfone (under the form of capillary fibers; Rahimy et al., 1994) Although both systems proved to efficiently control drug delivery for a long period of time, they present the disadvantage of being surgically removed once the entire amount of drug has been released (Bourges et al., 2006). In order of overcoming this limitation biodegradable systems have been prepared based on several different polymers, namely: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (Yasukawa et al., 2005); polycaprolactone (Shi et al., 2005); polyanhydrides (Leong et al., 1986) and poly(ortho esters) (Heller, 2005).
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn our research group, a starch-based polymer with urethane linkages to be used as a controlled drug delivery system for biomedical applications was developed (Vieira et al., 2008). Hydroxyl groups present on starch were modified with 2-isocyanatoethyl methacrylate (IEMA) in order to obtain a polymer containing carbon–carbon double bonds. This modified starch was then used to prepare films by UV irradiation using Irgacure® 2959 (CIBA) as the photoinitiator.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe obtained films were characterized by several techniques and some parameters were evaluated. The swelling capacity in artificial lachrymal fluid (performed both at room temperature and physiological temperature), was determined and even though some hydroxyl groups of starch were modified, it was observed that polymeric matrix remained hydrophilic. The in vitro biodegradation in artificial lachrymal fluid supplemented with lysozyme was also studied for 6 weeks and it was verified that biodegradation of the samples remained almost constant during experimentation time. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) was used to characterize the morphology of the materials immediately after synthesis and after biodegradation and it was possible to visualize pore size increasing due to the degradation process. Since the main goal of this work was to develop a controlled drug delivery system for ophthalmic application, timolol maleate and sodium flurbiprofen were immobilized by adsorption inside the polymeric matrix and their in vitro release profiles were followed spectroscopically (for 10 days). As general conclusions, one can mention that it was possible to verify that the drugs’ incorporation into the polymer matrix was mainly controlled by the swelling behavior of the polymer, rather than the different characteristics of each tested drug. Also, drug release studies proved that incorporation of the each drug resulted in a different diffusional behavior. Timolol revealed to be a Case II diffusional anomalous process, whereas flurbiprofen diffusion presented a typical Fickian release pattern. However, the main driving force of the release pattern in both cases appears to be diffusion of the drugs from the polymeric matrices. Figure 7 presents a scheme summarizing the steps involved in this study.
\n\t\t\t\tHuman skin is an easily accessible surface for drug delivery and covers a surface of approximately 2m2 in a young adult. Also, it receives about one-third of the blood circulating through the body. For these reasons, transdermal drug delivery (Figure 8) represents an attractive alternative to oral delivery of drugs as well as to hypodermic injection since is a non-invasive technique and can be self-administered.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe first transdermal drug delivery system was approved by the FDA in 1979 and consisted in a patch with a 3 days release of scopolamine (an alkaloid used in the treatment of nausea and motion sickness). During following years, many systems were developed and some of them remain until now as real best-sellers (Prausnitz and Langer, 2008). Among them, nicotine patches are probably the more broadly used. Other systems available on the market include the ones containing: fentanyl (a synthetic narcotic analgesic), lidocaine (a local anesthetic) and hormones (either for contraception or hormone replacement). In fact, transdermal patches are so largely used nowadays, that it is estimated that more than one billion are currently manufactured each year.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSummary of the development and characterization of a UV curable starch based drug delivery system.
Scheme of a transdermal drug delivery system.
Among the systems designed for drug release, the ones based on hydrogels are receiving most of the current attention. Hydrogels used for this purpose are usually prepared outside the organism and impregnated with drugs before placement of the system in the body. Several methods are available to achieve crosslinking of the matrices, namely UV photopolymerization and various chemical cross-linking techniques (Hoare and Kohane, 2008).
\n\t\t\t\t\tHydrogels are materials that, when placed in aqueous medium absorb and retain large amounts of water without dissolving in the solution (Hennink and van Nostrum, 2002; Hatice Kaplan, 2005). In the polymeric structure of hydrogels, the hydrophilic parts of gels tend to be highly hydrated in the aqueous environment triggering the big water uptake that characterizes these structures (Coviello et al., 2007). Because of their properties, namely hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, hydrogels have been a subject of interest in different areas especially in the preparation of drug delivery systems (DDS) (Hoffman, 2002; Ulbrich, 1995).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBoth natural and synthetic polymers can be used to prepare hydrogels. Natural-based hydrogels lack mechanical strength and may contain pathogens that induce immune or inflammatory host responses. However, they simultaneously present some advantages such as their biodegradability, biocompatibility and biologically recognizable moieties that are compatible with cellular activities Synthetic hydrogels, on the other hand, do not possess these inherent bioactive properties and are often modified in order to improve their bioactivity (Bajpai et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t\t\tAlthough the variety of hydrogels already used as DDS, a great interest in this field of research still exists mainly in the development of gels that present a phase transition that responds to changes in external conditions. The most important systems from biomedical point of view are those sensitive to temperature and/or pH of the surroundings. These materials are known as “stimuli-responsive” or “smart” gels and can undergo abrupt volume changes in response to small changes in environmental parameters. Their ability to swell or deswell according to external conditions, leads to a drug release profile that varies with the same specific parameters (Figure 9).
\n\t\t\t\t\tAmong stimuli responsive hydrogels, we will be focusing on the ones sensitive to temperature. These materials are prepared using polymers in carefully chosen in order to achieve a delicate balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups. The most extensively studied temperature-sensitive polymer is poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) or PNIPAAm which consists on a non-biodegradable polymer (Figure 10).
\n\t\t\t\t\tPNIPAAm shows a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) at approximately 32ºC which means that is soluble in water below this temperature but precipitates rapidly when temperature is raised above 32ºC. This means that crosslinked gels prepared using these polymers suffer an abrupt change in their volume when temperature value varies above or below the LCST (Satish et al., 2006). In fact, these materials expand and swell when cooled below the LCST, and shrink and collapse when heated above the LCST. As a consequence, drug release profile undergoes the same variations patterns.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSchematic representation of the on–off release from an intelligent stimuli-responsive hydrogel designed for drug release.
Chemical structure of PNIPAAm.
Several works have been reported using crosslinked gels based on PNIPAAm starting with Tanaka (1981). Later, this same polymer was used to develop materials to be applied as biomaterials (Dong and Hoffman, 1990). These authors recognized its potential to entrap enzymes or cells and regulate their activity by manipulating swelling/deswelling of the hydrogel (Dong and Hoffman, 1986; 1987). They also studied the possibility or delivering drugs or removing toxins by such hydrogels when controlling external stimuli (Dong and Hoffman, 1991; Park and Hoffman, 1992). Since then, PNIPAAm hydrogels have been prepared under several forms and for various purposes. Vernon and co-workers synthesized gels with entrapped cells to be used as artificial organs (Vernon et al., 2000). A few years later, Dubé and co-workers (Dubé et al., 2002) prepared drug carriers for tumoral cells by synthesizing folate-PNIPAAm conjugates that were fluorescently labeled. They evaluated the targeting specificity of this complex by measuring its cellular uptake. They also conducted direct competition experiments with free folate and demonstrated that the PNIPAAm-folate conjugates effectively target the cells even at folate concentration above normal serum levels. PNIPAAm nanoparticles have also been prepared and their potential applications in biotechnology and in medicine evaluated. Koňák and colleagues (2007) prepared thermoresponsive nanoparticles by heating PNIPAAm solutions with low surfactant additions above the LCST. More recently the preparation of a poly(
Another approach on the synthesis of crosslinkable hydrogels is grafting of PNIPAAm linear chains onto natural polymers (Hoare and Kohane, 2008). As an example, temperature-sensitive injectable gels were prepared by grafting amino-terminated semi-telechelic PNIPAAm onto hyaluronic acid (HA) backbones (Ha et al., 2006). Riboflavin was entrapped in the resulting gel and in vitro tests results showed a more sustained release behavior when the grafting yield of PNIPAAm onto the HA backbone was increased. Another example is the work performed by Bae and co-workers (2006). These authors prepared two types of injectable systems using thermosensitive chitosan (chitosan grafted with PNIPAAm): a hydrogel and microparticles-embedded hydrogel. Both systems were developed as drug carriers for controlled release of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The results from this study showed that 5-FU release profile from microparticles-embedded hydrogel reduced the burst effect from the beginning of each initial stage. Therefore, the authors suggest that this combined system could be used as an injectable drug carrier for local drug delivery.
\n\t\t\t\t\tPNIPAAm networks interpenetrated in alginate–Ca2+ networks were synthesized and the release of bovine serum albumin (BSA) from the hydrogels was evaluated by Moura and co-workers (2008). The authors concluded that the amount and rate of BSA release could be tailored by the tuning up of the PNIPAAm and/or alginate quantity in the hydrogel and by the control of temperature.
\n\t\t\t\t\tRecently a combination of biodegradable microspheres with a PNIPAAm hydrogel was prepared by Yang and colleagues (2011). They studied the release of BSA from the system and concluded that controlled release of BSA encapsulated in the microspheres embebbed in PNIPAAm scaffold was better controlled than when encapsulated in the hydrogel alone.
\n\t\t\t\t\tTemperature-sensitive hydrogels can also be useful for topical delivery of drugs to skin or mucous membranes such as the nose or the eyes. Although the temperature of such surfaces is slightly below 37ºC, its value is still above ambient temperature which means that it would be possible to deliver a drug through a thermo-responsive polymer.
\n\t\t\t\t\tOne example of such application is the work developed by Almeida and co-workers (2010) at our laboratory during which, graft polymer hydrogels based on dextran and N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) were prepared and characterized. For that purpose, dextran was firstly modified in order to incorporate carbon-carbon double bonds and then NIPAAm was added to the modified polymer. The resultant material (dextran-grafted-PNIPAAm) was obtained by crosslinking using UV irradiation in the presence of the photoinitiating agent Irgacure® 2959 by CIBA. The drug Ondansetron® (an antiemetic used to treat nausea and vomiting, frequently following chemotherapy, Figure 11) was entrapped in the final system and its release profile was determined at 25 and 37ºC. The authors concluded that controlled release of the drug occurred for at least one week and that temperature influenced drug release pattern.
\n\t\t\t\t\tChemical structure of Ondansetron®.
These results are extremely important as they show that these systems can be adjusted to have different transition temperatures according to the applications needed giving them a wide range of use.
\n\t\t\t\tPhotocrosslinked polymers may be very useful for biomedical applications.
\n\t\t\tThe use of photopolymerization is advantageous in comparison with other conventional crosslinking methods, since we can obtain biomaterials in situ and in a minimally invasive manner.
\n\t\t\tThe photopolymerizable polymers based either in natural (starch, chitosan and dextran) or synthetic polymers (polycaprolactone), were used for the development of biomaterials, mainly hydrogels.
\n\t\t\tThese materials were applied in the development of bioadhesives, drug delivery systems for ophthalmology and wound dressings.
\n\t\t\tThe results of our research indicate that the systems are suitable for medical applications and make feasible innovative strategies for photocrosslinked polymers in clinical use.
\n\t\tFor a better operation of reservoirs, it is extremely necessary to manage the reservoir storage and hence reservoir levels with the seasonal variations throughout the year. Highly variable inflows from the river and water demands from the reservoir make it more challenging to manage reservoir storage volume according to daily demand. In the 1950s, the Corps of Engineers (COE), USA, and the National Weather Service (NWS) jointly developed the Stream-flow Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation (SSARR) computer model. SSARR was used both as the stream-flow forecasting tool and as the real-time reservoir regulation tool. However, over the past few years, the stream-flow routing algorithms have been migrated to the HEC’s ResSim model. Modini [1] studied and described all the challenges and strategies to completely migrate the AUTOREG/SSARR model to HEC-ResSim. An important objective was to ensure that all the provisions of the current Columbia River Treaty Flood Control Operating Plan (FCOP) must be migrated to HEC-ResSim. The main objective of the study was to develop a flexible model to accommodate FCOP strategy changes.
Eichert and Davis [2] generated the HEC-5 model for the study of flood control on the Susquehanna Reservoir System, USA. Model executed a decision support system to overcome the uncertainties of unevenly distributed water resources systems. Hickey et al. [3] used Hec-5 software in reservoir simulation for flood analysis in response to the destructive floods of 1983, 1986, 1995, and 1997. The main targets of study are model development, with a focus on headwater and major terminal reservoirs, and potential improvements to the flood damage reduction system. Emphasis is laid on model development and analyzing the influence of reservoirs in flood hydrology. Kim et al. [4] developed a deterministic optimization model named Coordinated Multiple Reservoir Operating Model (CoMOM) for real-time multi-reservoir operations in the Han River basin in Korea. Matondo and Msibi [5] created a DSS support with three major components, that is, the model input, modeling options, and outputs screens. The output of the DSS comprises the optimal rationing (%), monthly reservoir volume for the desired duration as well as a graphical representation of the reservoir response over the old and new scenario.
Bekele and Knapp [6] coupled storage routing and multi-objective evolutionary algorithms to simulate reservoir release rates of “Shelbyville and Carlyle Lakes” on Kaskaskia River, USA. The resulting coupled model can provide simulations of storage and reservoir pool elevations for the two lakes under varying water use conditions. All the long-term studies proved that the modeling techniques for the management of reservoirs are very helpful and efficient. Todd et al. [7] published studies on reservoir simulation using different techniques. Focuses on the four modeling systems: Reservoir System Simulation (HEC-ResSim), River and Reservoir Operations (RiverWare), River Basin Management Decision Support System (MODSIM), and Water Rights Analysis Package (WRAP). Though fundamentally similar, the four modeling systems differ significantly in their organizational structure, computational algorithms, user interfaces, and data management mechanisms. The Bureau and Tennessee Valley Authority jointly sponsored the development of RiverWare at the Center for Advanced Decision Support for Water and Environmental Systems of the University of Colorado [8, 9]. The Tennessee Valley Authority applied RiverWare in optimizing the daily and hourly operation of the system of multipurpose reservoirs and hydroelectric power plants. The Lower Colorado River Authority also applied RiverWare in daily time step modeling of water supply operations for reservoirs on the Colorado River of Texas [10]. MODSIM is a general-purpose reservoir/river system simulation model based on a network flow linear programming developed at Colorado State University [11, 12]. MODSIM has been used to study several reservoir/river systems in the western United States and throughout the world. The objective function coefficients used in MODSIM are factors entered by the model used to specify relative priorities that govern operating decisions.
The development of WRAP at Texas A&M University began in the late 1980s. WRAP has been greatly expanded since 1997 in conjunction with implementing a statewide Water Availability Modeling (WAM) System [13]. WRAP simulates water resources development, management, regulation, and use in a river basin or multi-basin region under a priority-based water allocation system. In WRAP terminology, a water right is a set of water use requirements, reservoir storage and conveyance facilities, operating rules, and institutional arrangements for managing water resources. Simulation results stored as DSS files accessed with HEC-DSSVue (a program used to manipulate data from HEC-DSS databases) for plotting and other analyses [14, 15]. According to the comparative studies of the basic modeling techniques for the reservoir operational studies, HEC-ResSim is recommended as the most productive and efficient modeling software. In 2004, for evaluation and reservoir management of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers system in Iraq, HEC-ResSim 2.0 was employed by Hanbali [16]. The study included six main reservoirs, three off-stream reservoirs, and seven small reservoirs, and many diversion dams for diverting water from Tigris and Euphrates rivers. HEC-ResSim 2.0 was used for simulation history events especially flood and drought periods.
Babazadeh [17] employed HEC-ResSim for reservoir modeling and stated that the application of simulation models is one of the most efficient ways of analyzing water resources systems. Model verification results indicate that this model can simulate the behavior of the system very well. Modeling resulted in increasing irrigation efficiency by 20% and reducing failures in the system by 12%. McKinney [18] developed a flow model of Lancang Cascade Dams, China, to maximize hydropower production and calibrate the model to match outflow at downstream gauge with the data of most recent year available data. HEC-ResSim came out to be capable to model dams in series. Piman [19] used HEC-ResSim and SWAT simultaneously for the assessment of flow changes from hydropower development and operations in Sekong, Susan, and Srepok Rivers of Mekong Basin, Vietnam. To access the magnitude of potential changes, daily flows were simulated over 20 years using the HEC-ResSim and SWAT models for a range of dam operations and development scenarios. Goodarzi [20] practiced a combination of LINGO and HEC-ResSim models to determine monthly operating rules for the Zayandehrud reservoir system in Iran. The results show that optimizing the operation of the Zayandehrud reservoir system could increase its storage by 88.9% as well as increase the reliability index of regulated water for all downstream demands by more than 10%. Lara [21] employed the HEC-ResSim model on Tucurui Dam, Brazil. It was subsidized by daily observed data from 2001 up to 2006 of pool elevation, inflow, and outflow discharge. HEC-ResSim was established as a powerful tool to support the decision-making of reservoir operations and an interesting alternative for risk management and flood control. Klipsch and Hurst [22] developed the HEC-ResSim 3.1 user’s manual which provided great support and learning in employing HEC-ResSim 3.1 for the management of Pong Dam. Along with the software support, HEC-ResSim user’s support by socio-networking website played a great role in the execution of the study (HEC-ResSim user’s blog). In the present study, the reservoir storage volume and reservoir levels are modeled using Hec-ResSim 3.1 reservoir understudy is “Pong Dam” on Beas River in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India. Reservoir level and reservoir storage’s target information are generated which enhance the decision-making capabilities related to reservoir management works. The input data is reservoir inflow and outflow time-series, reservoir physical data, reservoir area-volume-depth relationship, etc. In this paper, HEC-ResSim 3.1 is employed to the reservoir for the generation of a decision support system to regulate the reservoir elevation and reservoir volume which further enhances the reservoir operations (flood control, irrigation water supply, and hydropower generation). The study will help the reservoir management to tackle the future incoming water challenges and also to create simulations to practice the sudden situations like cloud bursts, surprise snowfall, uneven rains, etc. which are very common events over the region. All these parameters demand an improved operational system for the reservoir. The main objectives of the presented study are:
To employ HEC-ResSim 3.1 for modeling the real-time situations of the Pong Dam in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India.
To carry out a comparative evaluation of simulated elevation and storage targets with the recorded data.
The simulation software used in the present study is HEC-ResSim (version 3.1) created by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers—Hydrologic Engineering Center. The software has three main modules: Watershed Setup, Reservoir Network, and Simulation. Res-Sim has a graphical user interface (GUI) and utilizes the HEC Data Storage System (HEC-DSS) for storage and retrieval of input and output time-series data. ResSim is used to simulate reservoir operations including all characteristics of a reservoir and channel routing downstream. The data requirements for HEC-ResSim include the physical and operational characteristics of the dam and reservoir. The physical reservoir data is described through the use of the volume-area and elevation curves (Figures 1 and 2).
Elevation-volume curve of Pong reservoir.
Elevation-area curve of Pong reservoir.
The physical data of the dam include the type and capacity of each outlet. The operational data includes the zone definitions along with the rules governing the operations in each zone. There are three main management zones or pools, that is, the inactive pool, the conservation pool, and the flood pool.
The model allows the user to define alternatives and run their simulations simultaneously to compare results. Network elements include reservoirs, routing reaches, diversions, and junctions. In ResSim, watersheds include streams, projects (i.e., reservoir, levees), gage locations, impact areas, time-series locations, hydrologic and hydraulic data for the specific area. In the present paper, the reservoir operational rule curves data shown in Figure 3 are employed to perform the HEC-ResSim simulations and represent the operational patterns of the Pong Dam. “Top of the Dam” shows the physical top-most part of the dam and “flood control curve” shows the max level for emergency releases. Till now maximum pool level achieved by the reservoir is shown by the “maximum pool elevation curve.” “Conservation curve” shows the saved usage and operational levels of the reservoir for the past years. Similarly, buffer storage level and inactive pool levels are also described in the Figure 3.
Observed operational rule curves for Pong Dam.
Pong Dam modeling is performed in a systematic pattern using HEC-ResSim 3.1. In the first step, the Pong watershed is set up to employ HEC-ResSim 3.1. To set up Pong watershed features are added, stream alignments are drawn, configurations created, and project elements placed into configurations. The next reservoir network is developed over the watershed. In this routing reaches and junctions are added and edited simultaneously. Reservoir data like physical data (pool, dam, and outlet properties) are added. Then operation sets are added by applying zones and rules. Also, reference to the observed data created here. Alternatives by selecting network are defined. Run control settings are determined by the operation set for the simulation. The look-back date is defined. Simulation identifies time-series records and observed records from alternatives. To perform simulation a predefined alternative to the current simulation is selected. In the simulation module, the output result is analyzed, simulated results for the reservoir elevation and reservoir volume are extracted and the efficiency of simulated output is computed. The efficiency is computed using two methods: that is, graphical method, that is, to find the coefficient of determination, and statistical method, that is, to find Root Mean Square Error (RMSE).
where
Pong Dam on Beas River is located in the wetland zone of the Shivalik Hills of western Himachal Pradesh, India at 32.0167°N, 76.0833°E. It is the highest earth-fill dam in India. The reservoir is a well-known wildlife sanctuary and one of the 25 international wetland sites declared in India. India. Figure 4 shows the geographical presence of the Pong Dam in India.
Location map of the study area.
Beas River is one of the biggest rivers of Himachal Pradesh. The starting point of this permanent river is the snow-covered mountain at Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, India. Annual volume of water carried by Beas River as measured by monitoring stations in 40 years’ time series is 9701.82 MCM. Pong Dam collects water drained from the catchment area of 12,613.998 Sq. km. First of all, operation reservoir volume is 7290 MCM at elevation 426.72 m from sea level and inactive level is 384.5 m above sea level. The length of the dam crest is 1951 m and its height from the river bed is 105.86 m and its crest width is 13.72 m. This dam has six Francis turbines with a capacity of 66 MW each. This is a single-purpose dam designed and constructed to serve irrigation to downstream areas. However, flood control, hydropower, and fisheries are the complimentary benefits. Based on field survey and published data from Pong Dam Operation Company, that is, Bhakhra Beas Management Board, agricultural sector use of water from dam reservoir is shown in Figure 5. Irrigation water release is the major operation of the Pong Dam. Release decisions depend upon many seasonal factors and crop water demands.
Irrigation water release from Pong Dam (1998–2012).
Also, there is a daily record for the reservoir inflow from 1998 to 2012 which acts as a very useful parameter for simulation (Figure 6). As presented earlier (Figure 5) the irrigation water supply is nearly constant but the incoming water to the reservoir is very flashy. Touching extreme peaks during monsoons and consistently very low during the rest of the year. Such flow patterns demand proper management and regulation of water releases from the reservoir.
Pong reservoir inflow (1998–2012).
HEC-ResSim 3.1 is employed to model the pong reservoir’s operational setup and comes out as shown in Figure 7. It includes a stream, pong reservoir, computational points, penstock tunnel outlet, and irrigation water supply outflow. Penstock outlet is before the spillway and meets to the stream again downstream from where whole water diverted to the irrigation water supply. As hydropower generation is a complimentary operation over the irrigation water supply, the water indent for the powerhouse completely depends upon the irrigation water demand in the downstream fields.
Model layout of Pong reservoir and component setup in river Beas.
Secondary data of the reservoir (inflow, outflow, reservoir level, storage, and power generation as daily data) are collected from Bhakhra Beas Management Board (BBMB). Figure 8 shows the behavior of the reservoir as generated by the real-time data records. Reservoir inflow is touching extreme peaks during monsoons, that is, July–September whereas inflow is very low during the rest of the seasons. This makes the River understudy very flashy, hence requiring proper management.
Observed parameters of Pong storage dam operation.
For the study of accuracy and validation of the model, observed data from different years are compared with the respective simulated data. Therefore, input data, output data, and reservoir and dam properties were supplied to the model for variable durations of simulation for different years. Here results are shown for the 4 months of 2012 tagged with the time-series data of the whole year 2012.
When we talk about the head formation for hydropower generation or preparing the reservoir for flood control, the first thing that comes to the manager’s mind is the reservoir elevation. If one achieves the target elevation, the further operations of the reservoir become more efficient and safe. Hence if we can predict the future hydrologic condition of the reservoir we can simulate the target reservoir elevation in that situation. Also, we can practice some random expected flood values to check the elevation operation in that situation. In this way, we can prepare our-self for the worst condition even if that situation had never hit before. Figure 9 shows the comparative plot for the actual reservoir elevations and the simulated reservoir elevations. It is showing results for 4 months of simulation and is utilized for the calculation of RMSE for reservoir elevation. RMSE for the operation of reservoir elevation is 0.78 m. This RMSE value is acceptable and recommends HEC-ResSim 3.1 for such reservoir modeling efforts.
Comparison of observed reservoir elevation and simulated reservoir elevation for the simulation period of August to November 2012.
To check the efficiency of the model both the simulated and actual values of the simulation were analyzed in the regression curve (Figure 10). Daily observed and simulated data related to reservoir elevation for the 123 days of the simulation period (August–November 2012) plotted in the regression chart to analyze the second efficiency parameter, that is, Coefficient of Determination.
Regression curve for the observed and simulated reservoir elevations for the simulation period of August to November 2012.
The “Coefficient of Determination” for the plot was evaluated as 0.98, hence we can say that the simulated reservoir elevation values are 98% correct. If we want to employ HEC-ResSim for Pong Dam elevation simulation then it can be a trustful and powerful tool.
Reservoir storage is the main point of concern when we have to manage the outflow with the downstream demands like agricultural irrigation, etc. Also for hydropower optimization, the elevation-storage curve is the backbone of the process. If the reservoir is very prone to sedimentation then also the storage volume of the reservoir plays a key role in changing reservoir geometry. So there is a great deal if there is a technique to simulate reservoir storage volume. If one achieves the target storage volume, the further operations of the reservoir become more efficient and safe. Hence if we can predict the future hydrologic condition of the reservoir we can simulate the target reservoir storage in that situation. Also, we can practice some random expected flood values to check the storage operation in that situation. In this way, we can prepare our-self for the worst condition even if that situation had never hit before. Figure 11 shows the comparative plot for the actual reservoir storage and the simulated reservoir storage. It is showing results for 4 months of simulation and is utilized for the calculation of RMSE for reservoir storage. RMSE was calculated for the reservoir storage values obtained from the simulation duration. RMSE was evaluated as 151.81 MCM for the simulation of reservoir storage. This RMSE value is acceptable and recommends HEC-ResSim for such reservoir modeling efforts.
Comparison of observed reservoir volume and stimulated reservoir volume for the simulation period of August to November 2012.
To check the efficiency of the model both the simulated and actual values of simulation are analyzed in the regression curve (Figure 12). Daily observed and simulated data related to reservoir storage for the 123 days of the simulation period (August–November 2012) plotted in the regression chart to analyze efficiency parameter, that is, Coefficient of Determination.
Regression curve for the observed and simulated reservoir volumes for the simulation period of August to November 2012.
The coefficient of regression for the plot was evaluated as 0.92, hence we can say that the simulated reservoir elevation values are 92% correct. If we want to employ HEC-ResSim for Pong Dam storage simulation then it can be a trustful and powerful tool.
HEC-ResSim is also capable of predicting unknown flows from the reservoir. In the initial conditions, we have entered irrigation release as an outflow only and kept spill zero. But after simulation, HEC-ResSim found some extra unregulated water in the reservoir which should be thrown out except irrigation release. This aids the management of release decisions even if we do not have any previous record of any such releases. Calculating all the inflow, outflow, elevation, and storage patterns in a synchronized manner and considering rule curves, HEC-ResSim predicted the target water spillage for all 4 months of simulation. Figures 13-16 show the predicted water spillage from the reservoir for the simulation months of August, September, October, and November, respectively for the year 2012.
Simulated and predicted outflow for August 2012.
Simulated and predicted outflow for September 2012.
Simulated and predicted outflow for October 2012.
Simulated and predicted outflow for November 2012.
According to the results presented in this paper, HEC-ResSim is an interesting alternative to reduce the uncertainties of outflow forecasts and support the improvement of the flooding warning program of the Pong Dam. Putting the Pong Dam’s hydrological database together with HEC-ResSim, one could reproduce operational aspects of the dam and test different operational scenarios, even in real-time. Since for this model, the availability of data and information falls short but concerning the available data, it was able to prove that Hec-ResSim is a very efficient way to analyze any reservoir for different climatic conditions.
This article attempts to study the performance of the Pong storage dam in actual conditions and simulated conditions using HEC-ResSim and evaluation indices. Results of model validation showed that the model was capable of simulation with suitable accuracy.
HEC-ResSim is a powerful tool, which can support the decision-making of the managers and operators at the Pong Dam. The model presents capabilities to improve the precision of the flooding warnings, reduce dam safety costs, and increase hydropower production. In addition, Hec-ResSim supports a minimum computation time of 15 minutes, which can generate decision support for every 15 minutes of the simulation period. HEC-ResSim is also an interesting alternative for risk management and water control. Moreover, it can further come out to be more precise with the attachment with GIS. It can work a long way with power plants up-to-the turbines level if there is the availability of detailed data regarding it. HEC-ResSim can support the real-time decision, using a real-time integrated database along with a user-friendly interface integrator like HEC-RTS or DELFT-FEWS. HEC-RTS—Real-Time Simulation is another U.S. Army Corps of Engineers tool, which provides support for operational decision-making. HEC-ResSim integrated with HEC-RTS or HEC-HMS allows the water control manager to make short-term (typically a few days or weeks) forecasts of hydrologic conditions at the catchment scale.
Hydrologic Engineering Center-Reservoir Simulation United States Hydrologic Engineering Center Root Mean Square Error Network Flow Programming Warfighter’s Simulation-Model Coordinated Multiple Reservoir Operating Model Decision Support System Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II Corps of Engineers National Weather Service Stream-flow Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation Flood Control Operating Plan Water Rights Analysis Package United States Army Corps of Engineers Graphical User’s Interface Hydrologic Engineering Center-Flood Impact Analysis Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System Bhakhra Beas Management Board HEC-Data Storage System Visual utility engine Water Availability Model Hydrologic Engineering Center-Hydrologic Modeling System River Basin Management Decision Support System Meters Above Sea Level Computational Point
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\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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