\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7441",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Micromachining",title:"Micromachining",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"To present their work in the field of micromachining, researchers from distant parts of the world have joined their efforts and contributed their ideas according to their interest and engagement. Their articles will give you the opportunity to understand the concepts of micromachining of advanced materials. Surface texturing using pico- and femto-second laser micromachining is presented, as well as the silicon-based micromachining process for flexible electronics. You can learn about the CMOS compatible wet bulk micromachining process for MEMS applications and the physical process and plasma parameters in a radio frequency hybrid plasma system for thin-film production with ion assistance. Last but not least, study on the specific coefficient in the micromachining process and multiscale simulation of influence of surface defects on nanoindentation using quasi-continuum method provides us with an insight in modelling and the simulation of micromachining processes. The editors hope that this book will allow both professionals and readers not involved in the immediate field to understand and enjoy the topic.",isbn:"978-1-78923-810-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-809-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-780-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75346",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"micromachining",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2084b93f70df82e634ec776962e871fd",bookSignature:"Zdravko Stanimirović and Ivanka Stanimirović",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7441.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7529,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 11th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 10th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"3421",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdravko",middleName:null,surname:"Stanimirović",slug:"zdravko-stanimirovic",fullName:"Zdravko Stanimirović",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3421/images/system/3421.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Zdravko Stanimirović has been active in research and development work for more than 25 years. He received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, the Republic of Serbia in 1999 and 2007, respectively. Dr. Z. Stanimirović is currently an associate research professor at Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade. He has predominantly worked in the field of thick-film technology, particularly modeling of low-frequency noise in thick-resistive films. Over the years he has published more than 70 scientific manuscripts including 6 book chapters and participated in several scientific projects funded by Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. Dr. Z. Stanimirović is the recipient of the IEEE Transactions on Components & Packaging Technologies best paper award. His current research interests include Micro/Nano Electro-Mechanical Systems and micro- and nano-scale sensors.",institutionString:"Institute for Telecommunications and Electronics IRITEL",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"3420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivanka",middleName:null,surname:"Stanimirović",slug:"ivanka-stanimirovic",fullName:"Ivanka Stanimirović",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3420/images/system/3420.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Ivanka Stanimirović has been involved in research and development work for the past 26 years. Currently, she is an associate research professor at Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade. Dr. I. Stanimirović earned her M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia in 1999 and 2007, respectively. She has predominantly worked on various aspects of thick-film technology, especially low-frequency noise investigations in thick-resistive films. Over the years she has worked on several scientific projects funded by Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Republic of Serbia and published more than 70 scientific manuscripts including 6 book chapters. She is the recipient of the IEEE Transactions on Components & Packaging Technologies best paper award. Her current research interests include micro- and nanoscale sensors and reliability issues in Micro/Nano Electro Mechanical Systems.",institutionString:"Institute for Telecommunications and Electronics IRITEL",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1404",title:"Manufacturing Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-manufacturing-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"69703",title:"Micromachining of Advanced Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89432",slug:"micromachining-of-advanced-materials",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Market needs often require miniaturized products for portability, size/weight reduction while increasing product capacity. Utilizing additive manufacturing to achieve a complex and functional metallic part has attracted considerable interests in both industry and academia. However, the resulted rough surfaces and low tolerances of as-printed parts require additional steps for microstructure modification, physical and mechanical properties enhancement, and improvement of dimensional/form/surface to meet engineering specifications. Micromachining can (i) produce miniature components or microfeatures on a larger component, and (ii) enhance the quality of additively manufactured metallic components. This chapter suggests the necessary requirements for successful micromachining and cites the research studies on micromachining of metallic materials fabricated by either traditional route or additive technique. Micromachining by nontraditional techniques—e.g., ion/electron beam machining—are beyond the scope of this chapter. The chapter is organized as following: Section 1: Introduction; Section 2: Requirement for successful micromachining: cutting tools, tool coating, machine tools, tool offset measuring methods, minimum quantity lubrication, and size effect; Section 3: Effect of materials: material defects, ductile regime machining, crystalline orientation, residual stress, and microstructure; Section 4: Micromachining: research works from literature, process monitoring, and process parameters; Section 4.1: Micromilling; Section 4.2: Microdrilling; Section 4.3: Ultraprecision turning; Section 5: Summary; and References.",signatures:"Wayne N.P. Hung and Mike Corliss",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69703",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69703",authors:[{id:"281595",title:"Dr.",name:"Wayne",surname:"Hung",slug:"wayne-hung",fullName:"Wayne Hung"},{id:"310090",title:"Mr.",name:"Mike",surname:"Corliss",slug:"mike-corliss",fullName:"Mike Corliss"}],corrections:null},{id:"65209",title:"Pico- and Femtosecond Laser Micromachining for Surface Texturing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83741",slug:"pico-and-femtosecond-laser-micromachining-for-surface-texturing",totalDownloads:1896,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The pico- and femtosecond laser micromachining has grown up as a reliable tool for precise manufacturing and electronic industries to make fine drilling and machining into hard metals and ceramics as well as soft plastic and to form various nano- and microtextures for improvement of surface functions and properties in products. The ultrashort-pulse laser machining systems were developed to describe the fine microdrilling and microtexturing behavior for various materials. Accuracy in circularity and drilled depth were evaluated to discuss the effect of substrate materials on the laser microdrilling. Accuracy in unit geometry and alignment was also discussed for applications. A carbon base mold substrate was micromachined to transcribe its microtextures to transparent plastics and oxide glasses. Three practical examples were introduced to demonstrate the effectiveness of nano-/microtexturing on the improvement of microjoinability, the reduction in friction and wear of mechanical parts and tools, and the surface property control. The fast-rate laser machinability, the spatial resolution in laser microtexturing as well as the laser micromanufacturing capacity were discussed to aim at the future innovations in manufacturing toward the sustainable society.",signatures:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa and Tadahiko Inohara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65209",authors:[{id:"251217",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatsuhiko",surname:"Aizawa",slug:"tatsuhiko-aizawa",fullName:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa"},{id:"289331",title:"Mr.",name:"Tadahiko",surname:"Inohara",slug:"tadahiko-inohara",fullName:"Tadahiko Inohara"}],corrections:null},{id:"65065",title:"Silicon-Based Micromachining Process for Flexible Electronics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83347",slug:"silicon-based-micromachining-process-for-flexible-electronics",totalDownloads:1382,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce silicon-based micromachining process and devices for flexible electronics application. Silicon-based flexible electronics have the unique advantage over other polymer-based process that leverage the traditional standard CMOS process and can be integrated with scalable IC technology. While integrating with CMOS process, special considerations must be taken into account, such as release process, transfer process, and process integration, in order to produce silicon-based flexible electronics. Several efforts and process developments will be illustrated in this chapter with the highlights of imager and wearable electronics application.",signatures:"Jiye Yang and Tao Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65065",authors:[{id:"275067",title:"Prof.",name:"Tao",surname:"Wu",slug:"tao-wu",fullName:"Tao Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"68335",title:"CMOS Compatible Wet Bulk Micromachining for MEMS Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88487",slug:"cmos-compatible-wet-bulk-micromachining-for-mems-applications",totalDownloads:804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wet bulk micromachining of silicon is a convenient and economical method for realizing various silicon-based microsensors and actuators. Tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) based anisotropic wet etching is popular due to it being less toxic and CMOS compatible. The etch rate of TMAH depends on the wafer’s crystal plane orientation and temperature/concentration of solution. While using TMAH to realize a pressure sensor diaphragm, the etching of {111} planes causes underetching, causing a deviation in the intended size of the diaphragm, inducing variation in the designed characteristics of the device. It is necessary to estimate and minimize these deviations. Experiments were designed and the rate of etching for (100) and (111) planes using 25 wt.% TMAH have been determined at different temperatures. Linear fit equations are obtained from experimental data to relate the underetch per unit depth to the solution temperature. These findings are extremely useful in the fabrication of silicon diaphragms with precise dimensions. While using anisotropic wet etchants to realize proof mass for accelerometers, the etchants attack the convex corners. This necessitates a suitable design of compensating structure while realizing microstructures with sharp convex corners. Experimental studies are carried out to protect convex corners from undercutting and the results are reported.",signatures:"S. Santosh Kumar and Ravindra Mukhiya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68335",authors:[{id:"280699",title:"Dr.",name:"S Santosh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"s-santosh-kumar",fullName:"S Santosh Kumar"},{id:"282545",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravindra",surname:"Mukhiya",slug:"ravindra-mukhiya",fullName:"Ravindra Mukhiya"}],corrections:null},{id:"65029",title:"Physical Processes and Plasma Parameters in a Radio-Frequency Hybrid Plasma System for Thin-Film Production with Ion Assistance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82870",slug:"physical-processes-and-plasma-parameters-in-a-radio-frequency-hybrid-plasma-system-for-thin-film-pro",totalDownloads:863,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The results of the study of the plasma reactor on the combined magnetron discharge and radio-frequency (RF) inductive discharge located in the external magnetic field are presented. Magnetron discharge provides the generation of atoms and ions of the target materials, while the flow of accelerated ions used for the ion assistance is provided by the RF inductive discharge located in an external magnetic field. Approaching the region of resonant absorption of RF power by optimizing the magnitude and configuration of the external magnetic field makes it possible to obtain a uniform within 10% radial distribution of the ion current across the diameter of 150 mm. When the RF power supply power is 1000 W, the ion current density on the substrate can be adjusted in the range of 0.1–3 mA/cm2. The use of ion assisting results in a fundamental change in the structure and properties of functional coatings, deposited using a magnetron.",signatures:"Elena Kralkina, Andrey Alexandrov, Polina Nekludova, Aleksandr Nikonov, Vladimir Pavlov, Konstantin Vavilin, Vadim Odinokov and Vadim Sologub",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65029",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65029",authors:[{id:"235769",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Kralkina",slug:"elena-kralkina",fullName:"Elena Kralkina"},{id:"286645",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Alexandrov",slug:"andrey-alexandrov",fullName:"Andrey Alexandrov"},{id:"286646",title:"Dr.",name:"Polina",surname:"Nekludova",slug:"polina-nekludova",fullName:"Polina Nekludova"},{id:"286647",title:"Mr.",name:"Aleksandr",surname:"Nikonov",slug:"aleksandr-nikonov",fullName:"Aleksandr Nikonov"},{id:"286648",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Pavlov",slug:"vladimir-pavlov",fullName:"Vladimir Pavlov"},{id:"286649",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantin",surname:"Vavilin",slug:"konstantin-vavilin",fullName:"Konstantin Vavilin"},{id:"286650",title:"Mr.",name:"Vadim",surname:"Sologub",slug:"vadim-sologub",fullName:"Vadim Sologub"},{id:"286651",title:"Prof.",name:"Vadim",surname:"Odinokov",slug:"vadim-odinokov",fullName:"Vadim Odinokov"}],corrections:null},{id:"64763",title:"Study on Specific Coefficient in Micromachining Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82472",slug:"study-on-specific-coefficient-in-micromachining-process",totalDownloads:708,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study proposed an important micro-specific coefficient based on the mathematical modeling of micro-cutting resistance to predict the mechanic conditions at cutter-edge radius. For the steady-state chip formation in the micro-cutting process, the differential angle is usually constant, and the plowing angle and rake angle are relative to the tool-edge radius, cutting resultant force, plowing resistance, surface roughness, and shearing resistance on the tool-workpiece. The optimal process included a cut of depth of 0.001 mm, cutting length of 0.003 mm, cutter-edge temperature of 38°C, and an edge radius of 0.0005 mm on workpiece Al-7075; the optimal cutting force in x-axis was 0.0005 N (Avg.) and the optimal cutting force in y-axis was 0.00028 N (Avg.) for better surface roughness Ra = 0.16. The higher temperature was 42.16°C on the workpiece and tool HSS, and the maximum strain rate occurred on the chip shearing zone was 9.33E6 (/s), which obeyed the generalized cutting criterion by numerical analysis. While the micro-specific coefficient is close to 1, the plowing zone will increase friction, stress, resistance, and even cutting excited vibration, resulting in discontinuous chipping. Besides, the process developed the micro-MDOF cutting dynamics model and applied a fractal equation to simulate the micro-cutting process. The validation can be proved as the derived theory agreed well with the simulation in the micro-cutting process.",signatures:"Sung-Hua Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64763",authors:[{id:"279813",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Hua",surname:"Wu",slug:"sung-hua-wu",fullName:"Sung-Hua Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"65671",title:"Multiscale Simulation of Surface Defect Influence in Nanoindentation by a Quasi-Continuum Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84240",slug:"multiscale-simulation-of-surface-defect-influence-in-nanoindentation-by-a-quasi-continuum-method",totalDownloads:862,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microscopic properties of crystal aluminum thin film have been investigated using the quasi-continuum method in order to study the influence of surface defects in nanoindentation. Various distances between the surface pit defect and indenter and various sizes of the pit have been calculated. In this simulation, as the distance between the pit and indenter increases, the nanohardness increases in a wave that goes up in a period of three atoms, and it is found closely related to the crystal structure of periodic atom arrangement on {1 1 1} atomic close-packed planes of FCC metal; there is almost no influence on the nanohardness when the adjacent distance between the pit and indenter is more than 16 atomic spacing. We have modified the theoretical equation of the necessary load for elastic-to-plastic transition of Al film with the initial surface defect size. Furthermore, when the size coefficient of width (of height) equals about one unit (half unit), the yield load experiences an obvious drop. When it reaches about two units (one unit), the yield load is nearly close to that of the nanoindentation on a stepped surface. Additionally, compared to the width, the height of surface pit defect displays a greater influence on the yield load of thin film.",signatures:"Zhongli Zhang, Yushan Ni, Jinming Zhang, Can Wang and Xuedi Ren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65671",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65671",authors:[{id:"276367",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Zhongli",surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhongli-zhang",fullName:"Zhongli Zhang"},{id:"281408",title:"Prof.",name:"Yushan",surname:"Ni",slug:"yushan-ni",fullName:"Yushan Ni"},{id:"281414",title:"Mr.",name:"Jinming",surname:"Zhang",slug:"jinming-zhang",fullName:"Jinming Zhang"},{id:"281415",title:"Mrs.",name:"Can",surname:"Wang",slug:"can-wang",fullName:"Can Wang"},{id:"281416",title:"Prof.",name:"Xuedi",surname:"Ren",slug:"xuedi-ren",fullName:"Xuedi Ren"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5830",title:"Extrusion of Metals, Polymers, and Food Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a69184f72a3f46dd5e4db6313f248509",slug:"extrusion-of-metals-polymers-and-food-products",bookSignature:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21687",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayyad Zahid",surname:"Qamar",slug:"sayyad-zahid-qamar",fullName:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The question, “what are they thinking?” in reference to horses has been addressed in many horse monographs and by many clinicians. Our intent is not to choose amongst suggested answers but to address the question by presenting a few of our own scientific studies. Science-based horsemanship can improve insight into horse behavior, contribute to the welfare of the horse, and improve safety for those interacting with a horse.
The statistics on injury related to handling or riding horses are consistent in every country in which they have been collected. The incidence of horse-related injury is due to the things that the horse does and to things that people do. The former includes things like “the horse spooked” or “the horse ran off” while the latter include things like broken or unsecured tack.
Horse-related injuries outnumber injuries obtained in other sports, including contact sports such as rugby, football, and hockey [1, 2, 3]. Injuries occur almost as frequently when a person is at home, on a farm, or at an equestrian center. Injury is equally likely when a person is on the ground handling a horse as it is when they are riding a horse. Injury is more likely if a person is a beginner than if experienced. The average age of an injury is about 30 years of age, but injuries can happen to people of all ages, with injuries more severe in females than in males. The highest risk of injury is to young females, perhaps because so many are engaged in equestrian sports.
Although a good deal has been written on the incidence and type of injury related to handling and riding horses, less attention has been given to prevention [2]. There are ways to reduce the chance of having an accident, and in the case of an accident, to reduce severity. Inexperienced riders can take lessons from a coach who teaches safety and riders can wear helmets. Owners or buyers can ensure that a horse is well trained. But even with such precautions the statistics on horse-related injuries do not seem to change, except that head injuries are less severe if a helmet is worn.
A science-based approach to handling and training horses can improve safety with horses. Starling et al. [4] outline a 10-point approach in which understanding horse ethology is the first point. Horse ethology is the study of the natural behavior of horses. For example, ethological studies show that feral horses are herd animals. They spend up to 16 h a day feeding. They are on the move much of the day. They are flight animals and run when frightened or threatened. But a central question is, how does horse ethology translate into a relationship with humans in typical equestrian interactions?
The purpose of the present chapter is to elaborate one aspect of horse ethology that has not received much attention, the horses’
We took 18 horses, varying in age and sex, individually into a riding arena, released them, and filmed them for 30 min [8]. This is a test that has been given to other animals in laboratory studies and it reveals how they adapt their behavior to an environment that is different from their home. We found that the horses spent most of that 30 min at the end of the area near the door through which they had entered the arena. Figure 1 shows a sketch of the movement of one horse during the 30-min test. The horse did periodically go out into the arena, each of its excursions initially got a little longer than the first one, but soon the number of excursions decreased as did the size of the excursions until finally the horse remained near the door. This representative horse did not make it past the midpoint of the arena on any excursion.
The organization of the exploratory behavior of a single horse released into an arena for 30 min. (A) The horse spent most of its time near the entrance gate, its home base. Periodic excursions consist of an outward leg (blue) and a homeward leg (red) but none of the excursions went past the center of the arena. (B) Activities centered on the home base consisted of stops, pacing, pushing against the gate, and rolling.
We did this experiment with our 18 horses and we have also informally watched many other horses in similar situations. The behavior of the horses was similar whether they were geldings or mares, whether they had frequently been ridden in the arena, or had only occasionally been ridden in the arena. Their behavior was similar when the arena was completely new to them, having been hauled to the arena from another farm. The behavior was similar for horses stabled inside, stabled right beside the arena, or at some distance away. Some of the horses were Thoroughbreds, some were American Quarter Horses, and some were mixed breeds. They all behaved in much the same way. On many occasions we have observed handlers turn their horse out in the arena to exercise only to find them loitering by the gate. To encourage them to exercise, the handler might then chase them away from the gate.
The location at which an animal hangs out when placed in a novel environment is called a home base. Many different species of animal have been found to choses one or more locations—home bases—in the test area in which they spend most of their time. The behavior was first described in laboratory rats [9, 10]. Rats placed in a new environment initially remain in an area close to the entrance point and make excursions from there only to return again. If they find a more secure location, as defined by a corner or a part of the arena where a dark object is located, they move their home base to that location. Rats like areas beside walls and they like dark places. The home base for the horse in our study was the entrance point. The horses appear to otherwise avoid walls and avoid dark locations. People display home base behavior as well. Scientists have observed the behavior of small children who were taken to a novel room with their mother [11]. The children made excursions away from the mother but always returned to her. The mother’s location defines the child’s home base.
Behavior in a home base is characteristic. This is where a horse paces back and forth against the wall, looks out over the gate in a direction away from the arena, leans against the gate, and rolls (see Figure 1). Home base behavior for the horse is organized and it is different from behavior that takes a horse away from a home base.
When horses leave a home base, their away behavior is also organized. Each trip forms a loop, in which a horse ventures away from the starting point and then returns to it. The outward trip is generally slow and sometimes features stops. The homeward trip is faster with stops less likely. If the loop takes a horse well into the arena, it may trot or even gallop back. On an outward trip a horse will often lower its head and sniff the ground. When reaching the apex of an excursion, it may stop and look toward the far end of the arena with head erect and ears pointing forward. It may then put one ear back, indicating the direction in which it will turn, drop its head, and with ears in a relatively neutral position or back, make the homeward trip. To highlight major features of this organization we call the behavior “sniff, look, and loop” and it is illustrated in Figure 2. Note that the horse in Figure 2 has its tail up at the sniff and look points, suggesting waryness.
Stop, look, and loop. Activities that occurred on a single excursion. (A) Sniff, the horse’s head is lowered as it sniffs the ground on the outward leg of an excursion. (B) Look, a horse looks and sometimes stops and looks, with head erect and ears forward toward the far end of the arena. (C) Loop, the horse turns, often signaling the direction of turn with the retraction of the ipsilateral ear, and returns to its starting point, usually with ears back and head somewhat lowered. (D) Home base, the horse stands and looks outward. Note: tail up postures at sniff and look.
Sniff, look, and loop describe the organized ways that a horse investigates the area surrounding the home base. Sniffing the arena likely helps it to determine what other horses may have been there. A horse has one of the largest eyes of all animals and excellent vision and so it need not go to the far end of the arena to visually investigate it [12]. Its ears forward posture allows it to investigate sounds both inside and outside the arena. Its homeward trip is quicker because its investigatory excursion is over and it can hurry back to the home base. According to the principles of optimal foraging theory, when business is done on an outward trip, it is safest not to tarry on the homeward trip [13]. Having its ears neutral or back on the homeward trip seems to suggest that a horse may be attending to what might be behind it, perhaps the unexplored arena, with which it is not comfortable. It may also be relaxing as it returns to its home base.
One explanation of home base behavior is that a horse stays near the gate because that is where it entered the arena. That location might be perceived as the shortest way back to its home paddock and its herd, which is its actual home. In short, it wants to “be at home with its buddies,” as every horse person can attest. We examined this idea by giving four horses the same 30 min test as described above and observed that these horses set up their home base near the gate. We then brought a pair mate into the arena and tied it at the far end of the arena for another 30 min test. The horse that was free to move immediately moved to the far end of the arena, the area of the arena that it previously avoided, and spent the half hour near the pair mate (Figure 3).
Movement in two 30-min tests. When a horse was alone, it spent its time near the gate (red paths). When a familiar horse was tethered at the far end of the arena, the free horse moved to the far end of the arena (blue paths).
This experiment suggests that what motivates the horse to remain near the gate end of the arena is that this is a place that is closest to its herd. For horses that were stalled individually in the arena, the herd explanation may still apply because they can see neighboring horses and so treat them as the herd.
The home paddock may also be attractive to a horse, however, because that is where it ordinarily finds safety and where it is fed. We tested this idea by turning out pair mates at liberty in the arena. When free the horses still displayed home base behavior and spent most of their time near the door where they also rolled. Rather than pacing, however, they spent time investigating objects near the door. Their loop excursions were much larger and frequently much faster. Figure 4 illustrates the movements of one horse when it was in the arena alone and the movements of the same horse when it was in the arena with a pair mate. These experiments show that one reason a horse may form a home base near the door is that it wants to return to its pair mate but another reason is that it wants to return to its home territory. In its natural ecology, the two coincide.
The movements of a horse when in the arena alone (red paths) and when with a pair mate (blue paths). The area of movement of the horse expanded with the pair mate present but movement was centered on the “home base” door area.
We asked what a horse’s spontaneous behavior would be like if it were ridden but otherwise left alone. We used reining horses for the experiment because they are well schooled. All were familiar with the arena because it was their home arena and they had been frequently ridden there. We asked whether a horse would display elements of sniff, look, and loop behavior when ridden? We had riders do our 30-min test. We asked them to encourage the horse to leave the area entrance but once the horse began to do so, put down the reins and let the horse proceed as it wished. If the horse returned to the entrance, then after a pause, again ask the horse to leave. All of the horses made an excursion into the area when asked to do so and then they spontaneously stopped and looked down the arena, turned and returned to the starting point more quickly. For one of the horses the outward leg of the excursion was quite long and this was the only horse that went past the midpoint of the area. For all of the horses, successive excursions initially got a little longer and then progressively got shorter (Figure 5). The horses also came back more directly and more quickly than they went out. One horse first trotted back but on successive trips its speed increased until on one excursion, it galloped back. Two of the horses also sniffed the ground on the way out and all were more likely to have their ears up on the outward leg of a loop and their ears back on the homeward leg of a loop. These results suggest that the exploratory behavior of a horse under saddle reflects its behavior when it is at liberty.
Loops made by a horse under saddle. The horse was asked to walk into the arena and then released from control. Note: the horse made repeated loops near the gate area of the arena. The colored bar indicates time.
We investigated whether stop, look, and loop behavior would influence a more typical riding session. We had riders enter the area singly and trot their horse around the edge of the arena, with the horse on a loose rein, so that the horse was free to choose its speed. At the same time, we timed the away and back legs of each of 10 trips. All of the horses spontaneously slowed their trotting speed as they left the gate end of the arena and they spontaneously increased their trotting speed as they left the far end of the arena on their trip back toward the gate. Consequently, the times taken to return were statistically shorter than the times to venture out. In addition, as a horse left the near end of the arena, it most often had its ears forward and looked toward the far end of the arena to which it was going. On the homeward leg of the trip, it noticeably lowered its head and frequently had its ears back (Figure 6). Thus, even though the horses were willingly circling the area under the guidance of a rider, they were noticeably engaging in behavior that they displayed when making sniff, look, and loop trips when on their own—their going out was slow and their coming back faster and their ear position reflected their relative concern with the two ends of the arena.
Ear position on outward and inward directions when circling an arena under saddle. (A) On the outward leg of the circle the horse frequently directs its ears forward. (B) On the homeward leg of a circle the horse frequently directs its ears backward. Ear position may signal caution on the outward leg and relaxation on the homeward leg.
The observation that ear position is a marker of the inward and outward loops of spontaneous excursions and excursions under saddle suggests that ear position could be a marker of behavior in the show pen. We used videos from the nonpro National Reining Horse Association reigning futurity held in Oklahoma City in 2015. The horses were performing Pattern 6, a pattern in which they walk to the center of the arena to begin the pattern and walk much the same path to the entrance gate after making their last stop. We rated ear position on the inward and outward walks. As is illustrated in Figure 7, inward walks were overwhelmingly associated with periods of ears forward position whereas outward walks were associated with a relatively neutral or ear back position. It is noteworthy that many riders try to minimize “look” behavior on the outward walk by collecting their horse. These results suggest that just as horses treat the outward portion of a spontaneous loop as stressful, even when well-trained they display the same behavior when performing in an arena.
Number of horses displaying either mainly ears forward or neutral position when walking into an arena or walking out of the arena as a part of reining Pattern 6. Results obtained from the non-pro National Reining Horse Association futurity in Oklahoma City in 2015.
The similarity of home-base behavior of horses that were familiar with the arena and those who were taken to the arena for the first time might suggest that horses have a poor memory of the arena. Horses that are familiar with the arena seemed to behave as if they are being introduced to it for the first time, as judged by a comparison of their behavior to the behavior of horses that were new to the arena. Many studies have noted that horses have good memory [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19], but our question related to the memory for an arena they had previously visited. We tested arena memory with five horses that had been ridden in the arena a number of times each week for many weeks. The arena baseboard was painted white but was covered with dust and scuff marks from being hit by the tires of the tractor that was used to groom the arena. We placed a novel object on the arena wall, a three-inch wide two-foot long strip of cloth. If the horses were treating the arena as a completely new place, they should not notice the cue because it would look to them like other marks on the wall. If they had a memory for the arena, they might notice the cue. The riders were unaware of our experiment. We took any especially attentive or avoidance behavior of the horses toward the cue as a sign that they recognized that the cue was there.
All of the horses immediately noticed the cue when the riders first circled the arena past the cue, and two of the horses shied noticeably, surprising the riders who did not seem to have noticed the cue themselves. The results of this experiment suggest to us that the horse have an excellent memory for the arena—excellent in the sense that they recognize something new against a background that is familiar to them. Accordingly, their home-base behavior and seeming avoidance of the far end of the arena on the exploratory tests cannot be explained in relation to poor memory for the arena. They were not avoiding the far end of the area because they had no memory of ever being there.
In the course of studying why horses might sniff the ground during a warm-up for riding, we observed that the horses would notice objects on the ground, go toward them and sniff them. The objects could be as small as a cigarette butt or a blade of hay, a sunbeam from a window, or the droppings left by a previous horse. We collected observations of sniffing and checking behavior as a way of assessing visual attention and memory. We found that horses would notice a small object as far as 10 feet away and a large object, such as the dropping from another horse, from as far as 30 feet away. When given the opportunity, the horses were very attentive to the ground and their inspection of the arena did not just consist of looking at objects in the distance but also consisted of inspecting the ground on which they were walking and approaching objects that they saw there.
In the course of studying this sniffing behavior we observed that a horse very seldom returned to an object once it had sniffed it. That they did not return to objects indicated that they remembered them. To further examine this form of object memory, we purposefully manipulated the delay between the first approach to sniff of an object and subsequent responses to the same object. We had a rider allow a horse to approach and sniff an object and then return along the same path to see whether the horse would again approach the object. We varied the return time by minutes, as measured by a complete circle around the arena at a walk, to a half an hour, as timed with a watch. We found that the interval did not matter, of 297 instances of return visit opportunities, only 9 were associated with a second visit to an object (results collected from four horses). We also did tests of having the horses approach the object from a different direction. Again, of 75 instances of returns, only four were associated with the second inspection of an object. The second visits were all associated with visits to droppings.
Accordingly, we made droppings a focus of examination. We allowed a horse to walk directly toward a dropping and sniff it and we timed the duration of the sniff. We then varied the time of our next visit on which we allowed the horse to walk directly toward the dropping. Of 150 such samples, on 137 occasions the horses did not sniff the dropping on the second trip but passed by. On the few occasions on which they sniffed on a return visit, the duration of sniffing was shorter than on the previous visit. There was no effect of the intertrial interval, as horses mainly ignored a target that they had recently sniffed as much as they ignored a target that they had sniffed a half hour previously.
We placed two plates containing droppings approximately 30 ft. away from each other and had a rider walk a horse toward the center of the space between the objects (Figure 8). Even at quite a long distance away, the horses veered toward one of the objects to sniff it. Then within a few minutes to as long as 30 min later, the test was repeated. Each horse then got a third trial, with the expectation that once they had examined both objects, they might ignore them on the third trial. The horses were given one test each day—with test at the short interval and the test at the 30-min interval alternated each day. For the tests, the objects were at different locations in the area each day. Thus, over 20 days the horse had 10 tests at the short interval and 10 tests at the long interval. The results are shown in Figure 9. One horse got 10/10 (they alternated on each of 10 trials) at both the short and the long interval and the other horse got 9/10 at the short interval and 9/10 at the long interval. On their third trial, both horses ignored both objects on 10/10 trials, so indicating that they remember that they had explored them. This experiment indicated that horses have an excellent short-term memory of objects that they get to sniff.
Two choice memory test. (A) A horse ridden to the center point between two plates containing droppings, approaches the right plate and sniffs the target. (B) About 5 min later, the horse is given a second choice and chooses the left target. (C) About 5 min later, the horse is given a third choice and passes both targets without investigating either.
Two choice test results (percent choices). On the second choice given either 5 or 30 min after the first choice there is a high probability that the horses choose the target not chosen on the first trial. On the third choice, there is a high probability that the horses choose neither target. Both results show that a horse remembers targets that it has investigated.
Our memory experiment shows that the horses always treated objects as novel on each day’s encounter. We also tested horses in an outdoor arena, where droppings and other objects tended to be left because the arena received infrequent grooming. There, we found that the horses explored as many as six objects and remember them on a same day test. There too, when they were returned on the following day, they behaved toward the object as if they had never previously seen them. This experiment suggests that when removed from the arena for a day, a horse resets its memory and treats the objects in the arena as new.
The experiments on memory show that horses are motivated to investigate/check small objects on the ground and they then remember those objects during the period of time that they are in the arena. It is well known that horses shy at novel objects and we reasoned that if we increased the size of the objects, their behavior should transition from investigatory to avoidance behavior. We made round cut outs of cardboard of various sizes and measured approach and avoidance behavior as we rode the horses around the arena. We found that as the size of the object increased, the probability of avoidance behavior increased. This behavior is very similar to that described by Ewart [20] for toads, which approach to eat small objects that he presented to them and who avoided larger objects that he presented, treating them as predators. We also varied the location of the objects in the arena and found that objects were avoided with more vigor at the far end of the arena. Often, an intermediate size object that was avoided at the far end of the arena was investigated at the near end of the arena. Interestingly, the horses were still likely to shy at large objects when returned to the object a short time later. Since their memory for objects in an arena is good, repeated shying appeared unlikely due to poor memory.
These experiments tell us two main things about what a horse is thinking when it is taken into an arena. First, the arena is a source of stress and it is likely that it is anxiety provoking. Second, a horse views the arena as a place that is novel and that requires inspection and when not novel a place that must be patrolled and checked. In responding to these two influences, horses display a
Figure 10 illustrates our model of a horse’s spatial view of the world in relation to its actual home, the location of its herd. The model is constructed in the shape of a loop with the base of the loop representing a horse’s actual home, its paddock or stall. The blue color of the spectrum of colors in the loop indicates low stress and is associated with the actual home. The color spectrum becomes redder as distance from that home increases to signify an increase in a horse’s stress in proportion to the distance from its home. The model is shaped as a loop not only to signify an actual loop but also to signify avoidance of walls or other large objects that will also provoke an increase in stress.
A model of the spatial gradient. The colored bubble represents a loop pattern of excursion color coded to represent comfort (blue) to anxiety (red). Maximal comfort is in the home paddock and maximum anxiety is at the apex of the loop. When superimposed on the arena the anxiety gradient indicates the entrance, nearest to the paddock, features lowest anxiety and the far end of the arena indicated maximum anxiety.
Research on horses in herds that have been together for some time show both that a herd is stable and within the herd social relationships are structured, with horses maintaining favorite relations [21]. Substantial information suggests that that removing an animal from its social group is stressful and remains stressful even after repeated removal [22]. The loop model when superimposed onto an arena explains why the horse chooses the gate area of the area as a home base, why it avoids the walls of the arena, why its movement pattern forms a loop and why it limits its excursion to the near end of the arena. The model also explains why its behavior remains much the same even after attempted adaptation to an arena. It will attempt to confine its activities to the blue regions that are less stressful because they are perceived as closest to its actual home.
On the basis of our model, we have experimented with the idea that when beginning a ride or when warming a horse up for a ride when the horse is alone, a rider mimics the horse’s natural behavior. Accordingly, a ride begins with small loops each of which bring the horse back to the starting gate and then extend to include more of the arena. On each outward leg of a loop, the horse’s anxiety likely increases but then on the return leg to the starting point its anxiety decreases. Over a training session and over days of training, a horse learns that outward excursions will always end with homeward excursions and in this way its behavior becomes managed. A rider might not force a horse down a wall but build up to approaching walls as the ride proceeds.
We have seen aspects of our suggestion in play when young horses are first started. Some trainers first halter-break and lead-break a horse when it is in its stall and adapt a horse to a saddle while it is in its stall. We have also observed one horse trainer making the first mount and taking the first ride with horses in their stall. The stall is home and the location of a horse’s lowest level of anxiety. Some trainers, when taking a horse to an arena for training might begin the training from the back of another horse. The other horse is a surrogate for its herd and serves to reduce anxiety. A trainer might begin the first ride in arena by making small circles when first asking the horse to move forward under saddle. It is likely that experience has led to training strategies that are integrated into a horse’s spatial gradient. The spatial gradient also suggests that any added stress to a horse, including first separation from pair mates or pressure to perform more correctly or quickly, will shift the color gradient in our model from blue to red. It is also likely that when stressed, a horse attributes the stress to the environment and not the handler and so resistance to walls, shying at objects, and moving through the far end of an arena increase in proportion to stress [23].
We have observed handling behaviors that are inconsistent with a horse’s spatial gradient. A rider might force a horse to go to the far end of an arena even though it resists. A rider might begin a ride with a horse collected and unable examine the area visually or to examine the ground by sniffing. A handler might take a horse to the center of an arena and lunge it there. Lunging will likely not substitute for arena inspection and object checking. These handling methods might maximize anxiety and result in horse/handler conflict. It is likely that rides taken outside an arena are also subject to the spatial gradient, the further a horse is taken from its paddock, the greater the stress. Many riders taking a horse out alone have experienced the anxiety gradient in a number of ways. If a horse is going to “act up” it is likely this will happen on the outward leg of a trip. A rider might also notice that a horse returns more quickly than it embarks on a ride.
The second point raised by our experiments is that each day that a horse is taken to an arena it treats the arena as new. This is not because it does not remember being in the arena or because it does not remember objects in the arena. Rather, it is likely that it wants to ascertain that the arena is safe. Many animal species that maintain home territories patrol and check their territories regularly [24]. It is likely that they want to be certain that the representation that they have of their environment matches the environment. Therefore, to ensure that the arena is safe, a horse needs to sniff the ground and objects in the arena as well as look at them. One clinician explained a horse’s display of anxiety as, “there might be a bear there.” What could be more threating, however, is the presence of an unknown horse. The many new smells on the ground of the arena, the dropping of another horse left in the arena, are a sign that other horses have been there. Ecological studies of many animal species suggest that daily conspecific aggression is much more likely than is predatory aggression [25]. Previous studies of olfactory memory in horses show that a horse’s memory of others is particularly good for horses that have been aggressive toward them [26, 27, 28, 29].
With this description of our experiments we suggest that a handler can appreciate a horse’s thoughts with respect to an arena into which it is taken. In the area, the further a horse goes from the entrance, the greater the stress and the more it will want to leave. Most riders will confirm that even a well-trained horse will need to be encouraged to go into an area and during a ride and will speed up when moving back in the direction of the starting point. Many horses will appear afraid of the far end of the arena and so it will be difficult to get them to go there. Once there, they will not perform as well as they do in the close end of the arena. Many horses will also avoid the wall of the arena and beginning riders may have difficulty getting their horse to stay near the wall when circling an arena. These behaviors are reflected in our model of the horse’s spatial gradient. In adapting a horse to an arena, a rider might find that if given the chance, a horse will explore using vision, olfaction, and touch and it will do so each day that it comes to the arena. It has to check or patrol. Allowing a horse to explore might reduce its anxiety by making an arena more like the home paddock. In short, being aware of what a horse is thinking when it is taken out of its paddock to work will improve a horse handling experience as well as improve the chances that the handling experience is accident free. We view the present contribution to scientific based horsemanship as preliminary [30]. There are many aspects of horsemanship that can be further investigated with the arena/home base model, including sex differences, which have only been touched upon here, and genetic [31], developmental [32], and brain influences.
The authors thank Bob McCutcheon for the use of his arena, Cathy Spencer, Meagan Reader, Josh Entz, Heather Holinaty, Bryan Kolb, and Jill West for the use of their horses.
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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\n\nIn order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\nIf you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\nPlease note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\nPlease be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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