Diamond-Nb density
\r\n\tThe WHO classification in 2007; was based on the histogenesis and cell origin of the tumor. In the latest classification made in 2016; to better characterize the tumor and obtain better data on its prognosis; The combination of molecular and genetic biomarkers and histopathological features of the tumor was used. Despite all current treatment approaches, the median survival time is around 12 months in most GBM patients. Compared with the situation of some types of successfully treated cancers; the survival time of GBM patients is not at an acceptable level today. In the treatment of CNS tumors; surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation treatments (x-rays, gamma rays, electron and proton beams) are used. The therapeutic potential of chemotherapy; New strategies are needed to increase drug concentration at the diseased site, as this largely depends on the ability of the chemotherapeutic agent to achieve effective concentrations at tumor localization. Based on our better understanding of the genetic and molecular characteristics of CNS tumors; Targeted therapies, including vaccines, and treatment protocols such as immunotherapy are promising developments.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book supposes to be written by many authors who have an internationally honored place in their field to share their ideas about the treatment of CNS tumors. Surgery, Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy and Antiangiogenic Therapy Protocols, Immunotherapy, Molecular Therapy, Specific target-agents therapy with Nanoparticles and Gene Therapy for CNS tumors among the book chapters.
\r\n\tIn these sections; there are many practical pieces of information that can help the students who graduated from the Medicine Faculty and specialist doctors who are interested in Neurosurgery.
Superhard superconducting materials are of considerable interest for the creation of high pressure devices for investigating electrical and superconducting properties of various materials. The superconducting composites consisting of superconductors and superhard materials that are in thermal and electrical contacts may satisfy very conflicting requirements imposed on superconducting materials for special research cryogenic technique, wear-resistive parts of superconductor devices, superconducting micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), etc. The design of materials combining such properties as superconductivity, superhardness, and high strength is an interesting task for both scientific and applied reasons. Superconducting composites may be used for the production of large superconducting magnetic systems (Gurevich et al., 1987).
The discovery of superconductivity in heavily boron-doped diamonds (Ekimov et al., 2004; Sidorov et al., 2005) has attracted much attention. Superconducting diamonds are the hardest known superconductors. The potential applications of superconducting diamonds are broad, ranging from anvils in research high-pressure apparatus to supecronducting MEMS. However, the highest value of the superconductivity onset temperature in boron-doped diamonds was found just about 7 K in thin CVD-grown films (Takano et al., 2004) and at about 4 K in bulk diamonds grown at high-pressure and high-temperature (Ekimov et al., 2004; Sidorov et al., 2005). In these pioneering works bulk polycrystalline diamonds with micron grainsize have been synthesized from graphite and B4C composition (Ekimov et al., 2004) and graphite with 4 wt% amorphous boron (Sidorov et al., 2005). The synthesis have been carried out at 8-9 GPa pressure and 2500-2800 K temperature in both cases. Later Dubrovinskaya et al., 2006, carried out synthesis of graphite with B4C composition at much higher pressure value 20 GPa but the same temperature of 2700K and found the superconducting state transition at lower temperature 2.4 - 1.4 K in the obtained doped polycrystalline diamonds. Due to the sharpening of the temperature interval of the superconductivity transition in magnetic field they suggested that superconductivity could arise from filaments of zero-resistant material. An alternative method for the creation of composite diamond superconductors was suggested by one of the authors of the present article, G. Dubitsky, who used sintering of diamond powders with molybdenum to fabricate special research high-pressure anvils with
By sintering diamond micropowders with metal powders (Nb, Mo) and using metal-coated diamond micropowders at high static pressure and temperature we obtained superhard superconductors with
The alternative route is the sintering of superconductor powders with superhard fullerites - new carbon materials produced from C60 and C70 fullerenes (Blank et al., 1998, 2006). Under high pressure and temperature treatment soft C60 and C70 powders transform into fullerene polymers and other carbon structures with various hardness including superhard and even superior to diamond. There are known many alkali metal-fullerene superconductors with relatively high
The highest critical temperature of superconductor transition among known "regular" superconductors has magnesium diboride MgB2 with
Using high-pressure-high-temperature sintering method we manufactured the following composite superhard superconducting materials: diamond-Nb, diamond-Mo, diamond-MgB2, cubic boron nitride-MgB2, fullerite C60- MgB2, diamond-Ti34Nb66, diamond-Nb3Sn, what will be described in this chapter.
Experimental samples of the target materials were obtained by treatment at high static pressures and temperatures. The experiments were carried out using modified “anvils with cavity”-type high-pressure apparatus (Blank et al., 2007). Pressure value was calibrated by electrical resistance jumps in reference metals Ba (5.5 GPa), Bi (2.5, 2.7, 7.7 GPa), Pb (13 GPa) and ZnSe (13.7 GPa) at known phase transitions. The temperature graduation of the chambers was performed using Pt/Pt-10%Rh and W/Re thermocouples. The initial components were placed into a tantalum-foil shell of 0.1 mm thickness. Samples were heated by ac current through a graphite heater with a tantalum shell as a part of the sample system. The materials have been obtained at pressures in the range of 7.7 - 12.5 GPa and temperatures of 1373 - 2173 K. The heating time was 60 – 90 s. The samples were quenched under high pressure with a rate of 200 K per second. After pressure release the samples were extracted from the high-pressure cell. Small cylinder-shaped samples with a diameter of 4.5 mm and a height of 3.5 mm were obtained. The parallelepiped samples 3.9×2.51×1.54 mm3 size were made by laser cutting and polishing. The examples of optical images of polished surfaces for 2 different samples are presented in Fig. 1.
The examples of images of the polished surfaces of diamond-Nb sample (a) and micro-nanodiamod-NbTi sample (b).
The pictures show grains of superhard compound like diamonds and superconducting compounds like metal alloys in between the grains. The X-ray diffraction analysis revealed formation of metal carbides on the boundaries of diamond micro- and nanocrystals and nanocarbon phases originated from C60 fullerene in the samples synthesized with C60 powder. The carbide phases provide strong chemical bonding of superconductor matrix with superhard carbon grains, thus the target composites possess very high strength.
We investigated the phase content of the samples by the powder X-ray diffraction method using an ARL X’TRA diffractometer with Si-Li semiconductor detector and Cu Kα radiation (λ = 0.1541 nm) source. The electrical resistance of the resulting samples was measured by the conventional four probe method. Electrical contacts were made using conducting silver paste. The temperature dependence of the resistance was measured in the interval 1.7 < T < 300 K. We applied the magnetic field up to 5T to determine the effect of magnetic field on the superconductivity transition temperature.
The Vickers microhardness was measured using PMT-3 device at an indenter load of 5.5 N. Sound velocities in 3 samples were measured using a wide-field pulse scanning acoustical microscope (WFPAM) in reflection mode (time-of-flight method) at a driving frequency of 50 MHz. The mean diameter of the acoustic beam in the specimen was about 0.1 mm. This experimental procedure was described in detail in (Prokhorov et al., 1999).
Synthetic diamond powder with 80 – 100 µm crystallites covered with a niobium film by vacuum sputtering was used as the initial material. The total amount of niobium in the initial material was 24 wt %. The experiments were carried out at a pressure of 7.7 GPa and a temperature of 1973 K for 60 s. The diffraction patterns exhibited peaks associated with diamond and NbC monocarbide (Fig. 2 ). A small fraction of NbO2, practically traces, was also found. The NbC monocarbide synthesized at the boundaries of the crystallites had a face-centered cubic lattice with the cubic parameter
X-ray diffraction pattern of sintered diamond-niobium sample. Diffraction reflections of NbC, diamond and NbO2 are denoted.
The critical temperature of the transition to the superconducting state in all the measurements was fixed at the onset of the transition. According to an analysis of the temperature dependence of the resistance, the critical temperature of the transition of the synthesized samples to the superconducting state was equal to
The microhardness values varied in the range of 35 –95 GPa depending on the actual place of indentation (Dubitski et al., 2005, 2006). According to (Toth, 1971), the Vickers microhardness of NbC is approximately equal to 17 GPa. This value is significantly lower than the results obtained in our work for microdomains enriched in NbC The hardness of
Temperature (a) and magnetic field (b) dependences of the resistance for the sample obtained in the diamond-niobium system.
\n\t\t\t | P g cm-3 | \n\t\t\tVL km s-1 | \n\t\t\tVT km s-1 | \n\t\t\tE GPa | \n\t\t\tB GPa | \n\t\t\tG GPa | \n\t\t\tσ | \n\t\t
Diamond-Nb | \n\t\t\t4.1± 0.1 | \n\t\t\t12.1± 0.5 | \n\t\t\t6.9± 0.25 | \n\t\t\t490± 95 | \n\t\t\t340± 30 | \n\t\t\t195± 14 | \n\t\t\t0.26± 0.04 | \n\t\t
Polycrystalline diamond "carbonado" | \n\t\t\t3.74± 0.05 | \n\t\t\t16± 0.5 | \n\t\t\t9.6± 0.3 | \n\t\t\t850± 120 | \n\t\t\t490± 30 | \n\t\t\t340± 24 | \n\t\t\t0.22± 0.04 | \n\t\t
Diamond-Nb density
such microdomains is high apparently due to the effect of the of diamond crystallites, which have much higher hardness (100 – 150 GPa along different faces, depending on the quality of the crystals). The velocities of sound and the elastic modules are 30 – 40% less than in pure bulk polycrystalline diamond (Table 1). Nevertheless they are comparable with the values for the next very strong superhard material: cubic boron nitride (c-BN).
High-pressure - high-temperature treatment of C60 and C70 fullerenes leads to polymerization and transformation into new metastable carbon structures (Blank et al., 1998, 2006). Among various polymeric forms, the 3D-polymeric ones are the hardest
The X-ray diffraction pattern (a) and the temperature dependence of the resistance (b) for the sample obtained in the C60- diamond-niobium system.
(Blank et al., 1998). The density of superhard (
In this system, a synthetic-diamond powder with a granularity of 40 – 100 µm and a molybdenum powder with a particle size of 1 – 5 µm were used as the initial materials consisting of 60 wt % of diamond and 40 wt % of molybdenum. A compact material was obtained by holding at a pressure of 7.7 GPa and a temperature of 2173 K for 90 s. The phase content of the samples was determined by the same method as for the diamond-Nb system. The following phases were identified in the samples: the diamond, the α-MoC phase with a cubic lattice with the parameter
Temperature dependence of the resistance for the sample obtained in the diamond-molybdenum system.
The composites obtained in the reaction of diamonds with molybdenum are superconductors with characteristic features. First, the onset of the transition to the superconducting state is
Magnesium diboride, whose superconductivity was discovered 10 years ago (Nagamatsu et al., 2001; Zenitani & Akimitsu, 2003) has much higher critical temperature
As the initial material, we used industrial MgB2 powders in which the content of the basic product was equal to 98.5%. The particle size was reduced to 5 – 10 µm by additional powdering. The prepared mixtures consisted of 80 wt % of the superhard component and 20 wt % of MgB2. The granularity of the diamond and cubic boron nitride powders was equal to 40 – 100 and 28 – 40 µm, respectively. The assembly of the high-pressure cells and the experimental procedure were the same as those used for the diamond-molybdenum system. In one of the experiments, a niobium-coated diamond powder was used. The samples were obtained by sintering at a pressure of 7.7 GPa and a temperature of 1373 K for 60 s.
Using XRD analysis, diamond, MgB2 and MgO were identified in the system diamond-MgB2 after the synthesis.
The temperature dependence of the resistance of the samples shows that the temperature of the transition to the superconducting state is
The microhardness of the samples indicates that the composite matrix (consisting of cubic boron nitride or diamond) occupying the major part of the body of the samples has a
, g cm-3 | VL, km/s | VT, km/s | E, GPa | B, GPa | G, GPa | Hv, | ||
Diamond- MgB2 | 3.40.1 | 5.60.3 | 3,30.15 | 9020 | 574 | 353 | 0.230.04 | 2578 |
cBN -MgB2 | 3.30.1 | 6.00.3 | 3.70.15 | 11025 | 607 | 454 | 0.190.04 | 2457 |
Diamond- MgB2 and cBN-MgB2 composites density
Temperature dependence of the resistance (a) and transition range (b) for the composite samples obtained in the systems (1) cubic boron nitride-MgB2,
microhardness of 57 – 95 GPa. Such microhardness values are characteristic for superhard compact polycrystalline materials based on cubic boron nitride and diamond that are used to produce various abrasive and cutting tools (Shul’zhenko et al., 1987). The specific gravity and velocities of longitudinal and transverse sound waves were measured and elastic modules evaluated (Table 2). Though the elastic modules are not very high, such materials have good potential for applications.
We synthesized and investigated a set of composite materials obtained from MgB2 superconductor and C60 fullerite mixed in various bulk ratios (Kulbachinskii et al., 2010). The same commercial MgB2 powder with 98.5% of MgB2 and commercial C60 powder with 99,8% C60 and the rest 0,2% of other carbon components were used as the initial compounds for the synthesis. The superconducting superhard composite possesses superconductivity due to MgB2 fraction and superhardness due to polymerized C60 part (Blank et al., 1998).
Diffraction data composites MgB2:C60. Parameters of synthesis are shown at figures.
The particle size was reduced to 5–10 µm by additional powdering. We prepared polycrystalline composite MgB2:C60 with different wt. content of C60 up to 60%. The samples of the materials were obtained at high static pressures 7.7 GPa and temperatures 1273 - 1373 K. The Vickers microhardness values of composites MgB2-C60 were in the range of 18 – 59 GPa. The lowest value has been measured at the local point with dominating MgB2 grains and the highest ones at the point with dominating superhard compound. According to (Prikhna et al., 2002), the Vickers microhardness
a) Temperature dependence of resistivity for composites with different content MgB2:С60: 1 – 80:20; 2 – 40:60; 3 – 50:50 wt%; b) logarithm of the relative change of the resistivity versus T-1/4.
MgB2:C60 we identified MgB2, MgO and superhard 3D-polymerized C60. MgO was revealed in the initial magnesium diboride, its content increased with the increasing of sintering temperature. In Fig. 7 diffraction data are shown for two samples with different MgB2:C60 ratio.
It was found that up to 20 wt. % C60 the composite MgB2:С60 is a superconductor. The superconducting transition temperature of composite MgB2:С60 – 80%:20% is
The resistivity of the superconducting composite MgB2:С60-80%:20% increases near the transition to the superconducting state (39<T<80 K). It is not typical for the host MgB2. We suppose that in this temperature range C60 clusters play a significant role in the temperature dependence of the resistivity. For clusters of C60 the resistivity increases when temperature decreases (Buga et al., 2000, 2005).
When the content of C60 increases above 20 wt. %, the superconductivity disappears and the temperature dependence of the resistivity changes. Mott variable range hopping conductivity was observed, following the law:
Fig. 8b. shows the relative change of resistivity in logarithmic scale on T-1/4. The linear dependence is clearly visible in the temperature range 4.2- 60 K. When the content of С60 is >60 wt. % the resistivity slowly increases with the temperature decrease as it is shown in Fig. 8 for sample MgB2:С60-40%:60%. This takes place because the main superhard carbon component which appeared after C60 transformation has graphite-like cross-linked layered structure with semimetallic type of conductivity (Buga et al., 2000).
The crystal structure of MgB2. Axes of hexagonal unit cell
MgB2 has hexagonal crystal structure ((Nagamatsu et al., 2001). This structure (Fig. 9) consists from a sequence of hexagonal closed packed layers of Mg and graphite-like layers of B. In such structure atoms of Mg have ionic bonding with atoms of B. Inside the boron layer B atoms have covalent 2D bonding.
The critical field value
Temperature dependence resistance of R for MgB2:С60 - 80:20 wt. % at different magnetic field (a), and temperature dependence of critical magnetic field
Recently a method has been developed for synthesizing superconducting heterofullerides of the Fe and Cu groups with the composition K2MC60 (Bulychev et al., 2004). For example, Fig. 11a shows the temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility
Temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility x of fullerides of composition K2MC60 (M = Fe, Ni, Cu) and K3C60 for comparison (upper) and compounds RbCsTlC60, KCsTlC60, Rb2TlC60 (down).
the heterofullerides studied is smaller than that of K3C60, apparently because substitution of the potassium ion by an ion of smaller diameter decreases the lattice constant. Thus there is a correlation between the superconducting transition temperature and the crystal lattice constant: a decrease of a leads to a decrease of T
Fullerides RbCsTlC60 and Rb2TlC60 have superconducting transition temperature T
The NbTi alloy is a superconductor which has one of the best strength and high critical magnetic field. A set of new composite materials were synthesized from Ti34Nb66 and Nb3Sn superconductors mixed with microcrystalline diamond and nanodiamond powders in various bulk ratios. The particle size of superconductors was reduced to 5–10 µm by powdering.
The initial Ti34Nb66 alloy (Fig. 12) has a body-centered cubic crystal structure with I m͞ 3 m space group and the unit cell parameter а = 0.328 nm. The superconducting temperature T
The crystal structure of Nb34Ti66 is a homogeneous solid solution with statistical distribution of elements in a unit cell. Figure 13 shows diffractograms of samples obtained after sintering of the mixture of diamond powder and superconductor under pressure of 7.7 GPa at temperatures 1373 K and 1623 K. The lower diffractogram No. 4 (Fig. 13a) was obtained from the initial alloy, the next one (No. 3) of the sample obtained after sintering at 1373 K. No reflections of TiC or NbC appeared at this synthesis temperature.
The next two samples were sintered at 1623 K. The diffractogram No. 2 corresponds to the sample Nb34Ti66 (50%) mixed with 45% diamond micropowder covered by Nb and 5% of nanodiamond is added in this composition. The diffractogram No. 1 corresponds to the sample Nb34Ti66 (50%) mixed with 50% diamond micropowder. We will discuss in detail the difference of diffraction patterns of these samples and how it may affect on the superconductive transition temperature.
At the dffractograms of samples No. 1 and 2 the diffraction peaks from Nb34 Ti66 alloy are easy visible because they have maximal amplitude. They are slightly shifted one to another and the shift is larger at wide angles (2θ ∼ 90 ÷ 1000). A cubic unit cell parameter of Тi34Nb66\n\t\t\t\t
The crystal structure of Nb34Ti66 alloy. Nb and Ti atoms have no determined positions.
alloy calculated with the wide angles (see fig. 13) а=0.329 nm of sample No. 1 is slightly less than а = 0.330 nm of sample No. 2. The intensities of the main peaks are different in these two samples. The intensities of TiC and NbC peaks are different in these samples as well. In sample No. 1 the intensity of TiC-reflections is higher than NbC-reflections while in sample No 2 the intensity of NbC-reflections is higher than TiC-reflections. As for example, at 2θ = 70÷750 and 85÷900 regions (Fig. 13b) NbC-reflections of diffractogram No. 1 disappear. The additional Nb covering diamond crystals in sample No. 2 leads to higher quantity of NbC in this sample. Apparently, 5% of nanodiamond in sample No. 2 increases a separation of Nb. Taking into account that the atomic radius of Ti (0.146 nm) is higher than the atomic radius of Nb (0.145 nm) and that the intensities of NbC – reflections increased, we suppose that the concentration of Nb in sample No. 1 is higher than in sample No. 2. That is why the cubic parameter is smaller. This leads to higher Т
The appearance of NbC and TiC evidences partial decomposition of Nb34Ti66 alloy during the synthesis. Carbides were synthesized under high pressure 7.7 GPa without melting of metals though temperature of synthesis 1625 K is less than the necessary for direct synthesis of carbides. Their melting temperatures exceed 2000 K. The large part of carbon (50%) in samples promotes formation of carbides. However, the content of carbides is not sufficient to rise the T
Table 3 shows the Vickers microhardness of Ti34Nb66 –diamond composite samples No\'s 1 and 2. The value of microhardness has a wide range as well as in the other composites: the lowest value of hardness has been measured for the Ti-Nb-alloy located in superconductive channels (35 GPa in sample No. 1 and 42 GPa in sample No. 2) and the highest ones in superhard matrix (93-98 GPa). We suppose that the higher hardness of channels (42 GPa) in sample No. 2 has place due to nanodiamond fraction in this sample.
No. 1: 50% Ti34Nb66 + 50% diamond micropowder, T
No. 2: 50% Ti34Nb66 + 45% diamond micropowder covered by metallic Nb + 5% nanodiamond, T
a) Diffractograms of (Ti34Nb66 + diamond micropowder) samples sintered at high pressure 7.7 GPa and high temperature 1373 K and 1623 K. The composition of samples: 1) 50% Ti34Nb66 + 50% diamond micropowder, T=1623 K; 2) 50% Ti34Nb66 + 45% diamond micropowder covered by Nb + 5% nanodiamonds, T=1623 K; 3) 50% Ti34Nb66 + 50% diamond micropowder, T = 1373 K; 4) initial Ti34Nb66 alloy.
(b) X-ray diffractograms of samples No\'s. 1 and 2.. D – diffractional reflections of diamond, NbC and TiC – diffractional reflections from Nb and Ti carbides. TiNb and the wide angles of 2θ0 are denoted for Ti34Nb66 reflections.
Temperature dependence of resistance in two superhard composites sintered at T = 1623 K and P =7.7 GPa.
Sample No. | Composite | Component ratio, wt.% | Vickers microhardness, GPa | Tc, K |
1 | Ti34Nb66 –diamond micropowder | 50:50 | 35-93 | 8.9 |
2 | Ti34Nb66 –(diamond micropowder covered by Nb + 5% nanodiamond) | 50:50 (45:5) | 42-98 | 6 |
The Vickers microhardness and the temperature of superconductive transition T
An intermetallic Nb3Sn compound crystallizes in cubic structure type A-15. Tin atoms are located in body-centered cubic positions, pairs of Nb atoms located on the cubic faces parallel to the coordinate axes (fig. 15). The unit cell contains 8 atoms: 2 Sn + 6Nb; the space group Pm3n, acub. = 0.529 nm. Nb-atoms generate cross-cut chains (fig. 15a). The interatomic distance for Nb-atoms in one chain is appreciably less than the distance in the different chains. The chains of Nb-atoms respond for the generation of quasi one-dimensional electronic spectrum of d-state in this structure.
Nb3Sn was mixed with micropowdered synthetic diamond and sintered at P = 7.7 GPa, T=1623 K. The diffraction pattern in Fig. 16 shows that under high temperature and pressure Nb3Sn partially decomposes to atoms of Nb and Sn. Metallic Nb creates NbC, while Sn in sample is in metallic state. It is worth to note that the temperature of synthesis 1623 K is much less than the melting temperature of Nb3Sn (2400 K). It means that niobium carbide was synthesized in solid state without melting of metal. The content of metallic Sn is very
The crystal structure of Nb3Sn. a –Positions of atoms in the unit cell, b – chains of Nb-atoms. The coordinate axes are denoted in the b-part where two unit cell are painted.
small. Positions of diffractions peaks of Nb3Sn correspond to the diffraction database (ICDD database PDF-2, card № 19-0875). Thus the decomposition of Nb3Sn is insignificant in spite of high parameters of sintering. The composite Nb3Sn with diamond powder is a superconductor with T
X-ray diffraction pattern of (50%Nb3Sn + 50% micropowder diamond) sample sintered at P = 7.7 GPa, T = 1625 K; D – reflections of diamond, NbC – reflections of niobium carbide.
Temperature dependence of resistance in different superhard composites: 1 – 50%Nb3Sn + 50% micropowder diamond (TC=15.6 K); 2 – 70%Nb3Sn + 30% micropowder diamond (Т
The superhard superconducting composites are the new large family of materials for cryogenic electro-mechanical tools and devices. We employed high-pressure-high-temperature technique for synthesis of various superconducting composites on the basis of the hardest known materials: diamond, cubic boron nitride, C60-fullerites. The best traditional superconductor alloys and relatively new, like MgB2 have been used for synthesis to provide a superconductivity of the target materials. The structure and properties of the synthesized composites have been investigated. The highest values of microhardness up to 98 GPa and the highest elastic moduli have been found in diamond-based composites. Among them diomond-niobium composite is the hardest and it possesses 12.5K superconductor transition temperature. The highest T
Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is the most important test for the diagnosis of esophageal disease. Accurate diagnosis is crucial for appropriate treatment of esophageal diseases, including surgical intervention. With advancements in the surgical treatment of esophageal diseases, the importance of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy has been increasing. In this chapter, the endoscopic techniques used in the examination of the esophagus are discussed.
During endoscope insertion, the cough or gag reflex is induced and the movement of the esophageal lumen increases, thereby making esophageal examination difficult. Therefore, proper endoscope insertion is essential for accurate examination of the esophagus.
The first obstacle encountered during endoscope insertion is the uvula. Access to the pyriform sinus can be gained without difficulty if the endoscope is carefully inserted to the right or left of the uvula, taking care not to make contact with the centrally placed uvula. The second and most difficult part of endoscope insertion is the insertion of the endoscope into the pyriform sinus. This part is sometimes problematic for beginners, as well as for board-certified endoscopists. Upon reaching the left pyriform sinus, a slight clockwise rotation of the scope with gentle pressure is recommended for insertion in the left pyriform sinus [1]. This technique is successful in most cases; however, in some patients with anatomical variations, endoscopists experience severe resistance that may lead to bleeding or even perforation. Two types of pyriform sinus are shown in Figure 1. In Figure 1a, there is no central ridge; thus, the clockwise rotation technique can be used. In contrast, in Figure 1b, a central ridge is present in the left pyriform sinus, and the true lumen is more medial than normal, but its path runs upward (i.e., medially). After traversing the pyriform sinus, the path goes downward (i.e., laterally). Thus, performing the clockwise rotation technique without checking for the central ridge can result in severe pyriform sinus injury. Further, air insufflation is needed to determine the presence of a central ridge.
Two types of pyriform sinus. (a) Left pyriform sinus without central ridge. (b) Left pyriform sinus with central ridge.
Chromoendoscopy entails the application of a chemical substance to the mucosal surface of the gastrointestinal tract to facilitate visualization and detection of dysplastic and malignant lesions [2]. Since the recent introduction and adoption of virtual chromoendoscopy methods such as narrow-band imaging (NBI), the importance of dye-based chromoendoscopy in day-to-day clinical practice has been decreasing [3]. Nevertheless, chromoendoscopy remains important in many clinical conditions. In this chapter, some chromoendoscopy methods still used in esophageal endoscopy will be discussed.
Acetic acid is a weak acid that breaks up the disulfide bridges of glycoproteins of the mucus layer, resulting in protein denaturation and surface pattern enhancement [2]. BE is a known risk factor of high-grade dysplasia (HGD) and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). Current nondysplastic BE surveillance guidelines recommend that random four-quadrant biopsy specimens be taken every 1–2 cm to check for dysplasia [4]. Due to the time-consuming and labor-intensive nature of the procedure, the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Technology Committee released the Preservation and Incorporation of Valuable endoscopic Innovations (PIVI) criteria for nondysplastic BE surveillance. These criteria help determine which advanced imaging technique with targeted biopsy can replace the current surveillance guidelines for the detection of HGD and EAC. The performance thresholds in the PIVI criteria are per-patient sensitivity ≥90%, negative predictive value ≥98%, and specificity ≥80% [1]. Based on these criteria, only acetic acid chromoendoscopy, NBI, and confocal laser endomicroscopy can replace the current guidelines [4]. However, the use of acetic acid chromoendoscopy is on the decline due to the long procedural time, uneven distribution of dye over the mucosa, and high interobserver variability due to lack of classification [5].
Lugol solution is an iodine-based solution used in the detection of dysplasia and cancer in squamous epithelia. Since iodine binds to glycogen, which is abundant in nonkeratinized squamous epithelium, and neoplastic tissues have low glycogen levels, they are not stained by Lugol solution [2]. Lugol staining has long been regarded as the gold standard for the detection and delineation of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and squamous dysplasia [6]. However, Lugol solution can cause thyrotoxicosis in patients with thyroid disease, iodine hypersensitivity, and retrosternal discomfort [2]. Regarding the avoidance of these side effects, several studies have compared Lugol’s iodine chromoendoscopy and NBI. A recent meta-analysis revealed no significant difference in diagnostic sensitivity between the two methods (88% versus 92%); it also revealed that NBI has a significantly higher specificity than Lugol’s iodine chromoendoscopy (88% versus 82%) [7]. Furthermore, several observational studies reported no significant difference in complete resection rate between the two methods [8, 9].
Electronic chromoendoscopy involves endoscopic imaging technologies that provide detailed contrast enhancement of the mucosal surface and blood vessels in the form of electronic signals that can be analyzed using various image-processing techniques [10, 11]. There are various types of electronic chromoendoscopy, and they include NBI, i-SCAN, and flexible spectral imaging color enhancement (FICE).
NBI is an endoscopic optical image enhancement technology based on the penetration properties of light. An NBI filter in front of a xenon arc lamp produces two narrow bands of light with wavelengths of 415 nm and 540 nm [10]. Capillaries in the superficial mucosa are highlighted by the 415-nm-wavelength light band and appear brown. The longer 540-nm-wavelength light band makes deeper-lying veins appear blue-green [11]. Due to an abundance of blood vessels in the submucosal layer, a normal esophagus appears pale green on NBI [12]. Thus, lesions can be observed in great detail as a result of the color contrast effect at the mucosa of the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) and in cases of early esophageal SCC (ESCC) [11].
i-SCAN (Pentax, Tokyo, Japan) is another postprocessing digital contrast technology that consists of three enhancement features: surface enhancement, which sharpens the image; contrast enhancement, where darker (depressed) areas look bluer; and tone enhancement, a form of digital narrowed-spectrum imaging [13]. It was reported in several studies that i-SCAN is superior to white-light endoscopy (WLE) in the detection of reflux esophagitis and dysplasia in BE [14, 15]. However, i-SCAN is a relatively recent technology compared with NBI, and further research is still needed.
The FICE system takes an ordinary endoscopic image of different parts of the gastrointestinal mucosa from the video processor and arithmetically processes and estimates it to produce an image of a given dedicated wavelength between 400 and 700 nm. Single-wavelength images are randomly selected and assigned the colors red, green, and blue to build and display virtually enhanced color images [16]. A previous study compared WLE and the FICE system for the diagnosis of BE, but additional research is needed [17].
In this section, understanding of the concepts of AI, machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), and convolutional neural network (CNN) is essential. AI is the broadest term used in the description of machines that mimic human intelligence [18]. ML is a subfield of AI, and DL is a subfield of ML. ML is divided into supervised learning and unsupervised learning. In supervised learning, labeled datasets are used to train algorithms to classify data or predict outcomes accurately. In contrast, in unsupervised learning, unlabeled datasets are used to train algorithms [19]. In DL, unsupervised learning and neural networks are used. CNN is a type of artificial neural network used in image recognition and processing that is specifically designed to process pixel data [20]. AI is extensively used or studied with regard to the esophagus and will be considered at the end of the discussion of each disease.
Esophagitis refers to inflammation or injury to the esophageal mucosa [21]. The types of esophagitis based on etiology include reflux esophagitis, infectious esophagitis, exfoliative esophagitis, eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE), and pill-induced esophagitis.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a condition in which stomach contents reflux into the esophagus or beyond (e.g., into the oral cavity, larynx, or lungs) causing troublesome symptoms and complications [22]. The extent of mucosal breaks due to erosion or ulceration is the sole determinant of severity grade [23]. Grade A refers to one or more mucosal breaks no longer than 5 mm that do not extend beyond two mucosal folds. Grade B refers to one or more mucosal breaks more than 5 mm long that do not extend beyond two mucosal folds. Grade C refers to one or more mucosal breaks that extend beyond two or more mucosal folds but involve less than 75% of the esophageal circumference. Grade D refers to one or more mucosal breaks that involve at least 75% of the esophageal circumference. Currently, due to lack of interobserver agreement, minimal changes are not included in the GERD Los Angeles (LA) classification [23]. Recently, a DL model that uses CNNs for automatic classification and interpretation of routine GERD LA grades was proposed [24]. However, given that the available data are limited, more studies are needed.
Esophageal candidiasis is the most common type of infectious esophagitis [25]. Immunocompromised patients are most at risk, and the most common symptoms are odynophagia, dysphagia, and retrosternal pain. Endoscopic examination is the best approach to diagnosing esophageal candidiasis, and multiple white plaques adherent to the mucosa are considered definitively diagnostic of the disease (Figure 2). The most common treatment is systemic and oral administration of fluconazole, an antifungal agent [25].
Esophageal candidiasis.
The two most common causes of viral esophagitis are herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV). HSV esophagitis ulcers are circumscribed ulcers with raised edges that are described as volcano-like ulcers [26]. CMV esophagitis ulcers are well-demarcated vertical or horizontal linear shallow ulcers that occur in the middle and distal portions of the esophagus [27]. It is sometimes difficult to differentiate between HSV esophagitis and CMV esophagitis because their endoscopic characteristics often overlap [28]. Recently, an ML model for differentiating CMV esophagitis from HSV esophagitis was developed. It was developed based on the analysis of 87 patients with HSV esophagitis and 63 patients with CMV esophagitis using 666 endoscopic images of HSV esophagitis and 416 endoscopic images of CMV esophagitis. The sensitivity and specificity of the model were 100% [28].
Sloughing esophagitis is characterized by superficial necrotic squamous epithelium and endoscopic plaques or membranes (Figure 3) [29]. The symptoms include dysphagia, odynophagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, heartburn, chest pain, hematemesis, and obstructive symptoms secondary to the accumulation of casts in the esophageal lumen [30]. The pathogenesis is thought to involve exposure to drugs that cause esophageal damage or autoimmune conditions accompanied by esophageal damage. Such drugs include dabigatran, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, bisphosphonates, and iron. The autoimmune conditions include celiac disease, pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, and lupus [30]. Prognosis is usually favorable, and long-term complications are rare. Treatment includes discontinuation of the offending agent and administration of proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs). Steroids may be helpful when a patient has an autoimmune condition [30].
Sloughing esophagitis.
EoE is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory condition of the esophagus. Its symptoms are mainly related to esophageal dysfunction and include vomiting, dysphagia, and feeding difficulties. Diagnosis of EoE requires endoscopy with biopsy. The endoscopic findings include furrows (i.e., vertical lines in the mucosa), concentric rings, white plaques, edema, and stricture (Figure 4). The American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) recommends a minimum of six biopsies. A finding of 15 or more eosinophils per high-power field in the maximally affected area is required for diagnosis [31]. The treatment options are PPIs, topical corticosteroids, and allergy testing–directed elimination diet. A previous study presented a graphical representation of a suggested management algorithm [32].
Eosinophilic esophagitis.
Pill-induced esophagitis may present as erosions, kissing ulcers, and multiple small areas of ulceration with bleeding mainly in the middle third of the esophagus [33]. Treatment of pill-induced esophagitis consists of discontinuation of the offending drug and use of PPIs or sucralfate to hasten esophageal mucosal healing [34].
BE is a condition characterized by metaplasia of normal esophageal squamous epithelium to specialized columnar epithelium with goblet cells [35]. The ACG guidelines recommend considering BE when the length of the columnar mucosa is at least 1 cm. When BE is suspected, at least eight random biopsy samples should be taken if the BE segment length is <2 cm, and in patients with suspected long-segment BE, four biopsy samples should be taken for every 2 cm of BE segment [36]. Based on the length of salmon-colored mucosa proximal to the GEJ, BE is classified into two groups: short-segment BE and long-segment BE (Figure 5). Long-segment BE is defined as BE with segment length ≥ 3 cm, and short-segment BE is defined as BE with segment length < 3 cm [36]. Screening endoscopy is recommended for patients with chronic GERD symptoms and three or more additional risk factors of BE (e.g., male gender, age > 50 years, white race, tobacco smoking, obesity, and history of BE or EAC in a first-degree relative) [35]. If screening endoscopy does not reveal dysplasia, surveillance endoscopy should be repeated in 3–5 years. Further, a histological grade of “indefinite for dysplasia” should be confirmed by a second pathologist with gastrointestinal expertise, PPI therapy should be initiated, and endoscopic biopsy should be repeated within 6 months [35]. When the histological grade is low-grade dysplasia (LGD), endoscopic mucosal resection or endoscopic submucosal dissection of all visible lesions should be performed, followed by ablation of the remaining BE segment (i.e., endoscopic eradication therapy [EET]) with the goal of complete eradication of intestinal metaplasia (CEIM). Alternatively, surveillance can be performed every 6 months for the first year and annually thereafter [36]. When the histological grade is HGD or intramucosal carcinoma (T1a), EET with the goal of CEIM should be performed. It is recommended to enroll patients with LGD or HGD for surveillance and reflux control after CEIM is achieved [35]. Surveillance at 1 year after CEIM and every 2 years thereafter is recommended for patients with LGD. Surveillance at 3, 6, and 12 months after CEIM and annually thereafter is recommended for patients with HGD or intramucosal carcinoma [35]. Esophagectomy is typically recommended for patients with EAC and submucosal invasion (T1b). Alternatively, EET can be considered for patients with superficial submucosal invasion (sm1, to a depth < 500 μm) and low-risk features such as negative deep margin, well-moderate differentiation, and absence of lymphovascular invasion [35]. Regarding neoplasia detection, the sensitivity and specificity of AI are >90% and > 80%, respectively. Further, regarding neoplasia characterization, the sensitivity and specificity of AI are 90% and 88%, respectively [37].
Barrett’s esophagus. (a) WLE. (b) NBI.
ESCC is the most common type of esophageal cancer worldwide; it is especially common in Asia and Africa (Figure 6) [38]. The risk factors for ESCC include long-standing exposure to tobacco and alcohol, achalasia, head and neck squamous cell cancer, tylosis, history of lye ingestion, celiac sprue, and hot liquid ingestion [39]. In addition, the etiological role of human papilloma virus infection is under study [39]. Endoscopic screening should be considered in the presence of risk factors. Infiltration depth prediction is important since it is primarily associated with lymph node metastasis [40]. The Japan Esophageal Society uses a simplified classification of vessel irregularities known as intrapapillary capillary loops (IPCLs) to predict infiltration depth. Type A vessel refers to a normal or abnormal microvessel without severe irregularity, that is, a microvessel with normal epithelium or inflammation and low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia [41]. Abnormal microvessels with severe irregularity or highly dilated abnormal vessels are classified as type B1, B2, or B3. Type B1 vessels have loop-like formations and a predicted invasion depth of epithelium (EP) or lamina propria mucosae (LMP). Type B2 vessels do not have loop-like formations, and their predicted invasion depth is muscularis mucosae or submucosa (SM1). Type B3 vessels have highly dilated vessels and a predicted invasion depth of the submucosa (SM2) or deeper [41]. ESD is recommended for lesions with invasion depth of T1a-EP/T1a-LMP, noncircumferential lesions, and circumferential lesions with lengths ≤5 cm. Furthermore, ESD can be used to remove noncircumferential lesions with invasion depth of T1a-MM/T1b-SM1. Surgery or chemoradiation should be considered when the invasion depth is T1a-EP/T1a-LMP and lateral extension is circumferential with length > 5 cm. It should also be considered when the invasion depth is T1a-MM/T1b-SM1 and lateral extension is circumferential [39]. In a recent study by Everson et al., it was reported that the sensitivity and specificity of AI using CNN for the classification of abnormal IPCL patterns were 89.3% and 98%, respectively [42].
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. (a) WLE, (b) tone enhancement mode with i-scan.
Esophageal diverticula are a rare condition that causes dysphagia, regurgitation, and chest pain [43]. They are classified into two: pulsion diverticula and traction diverticula. Pulsion diverticula are associated with increased intraluminal pressure, which causes herniation. Zenker’s diverticulum, which is a pulsion-type pharyngoesophageal pseudodiverticulum, is the most common type of esophageal diverticulum (Figure 7) [44]. Surgery can be considered for the management of Zenker’s diverticulum. However, the current first-line treatment involves cutting the entire septum and creating a common cavity between the esophagus and the diverticulum [45]. There are two methods of endoscopic septum division. The first is conventional flexible endoscopic septum division, which entails full-thickness incision of the mucosa, submucosa, and the muscular fibers to create a common cavity between the esophagus and the diverticulum. The second is Zenker’s diverticulum per-oral endoscopic myotomy, which entails minimal mucosal incision to advance the endoscope into the submucosal space of the septum. Complete septotomy is then performed, and the mucosal incision site is securely closed with several endoclips [45].
Zenker’s diverticulum.
Esophageal inlet patches (IPs) are well-circumscribed areas of mucosa that are salmon-pink in color, variable in size, and oval-round or even geographically shaped (Figure 8) [46]. Most IPs are located just below the upper esophageal sphincter or in the postcricoid region of the esophagus [46]. Since most IPs present with no symptoms and are located in the upper esophagus, where endoscopists tend to pass the endoscope quickly, it is difficult to identify and observe IPs in detail. However, since adenocarcinomas sometimes arise in IPs, careful observation is necessary [47]. It is recommended that WLE be used first when inserting the endoscope and NBI be used to observe the esophagus up to the pyriform sinus when retracting the endoscope.
Esophageal inlet patch. (a) WLE. (b) NBI.
Esophageal stricture is an abnormal narrowing of the esophageal lumen (Figure 9). It can be benign or malignant. The etiology of benign esophageal stricture includes corrosive substance ingestion, EoE, radiation injury, and drug-induced esophagitis. Treatment includes mechanical or balloon dilation, esophageal stents, or surgical management [48].
Esophageal stricture: (a) with a bean stuck in the stricture; (b) after bean removal.
Hiatal hernia is a condition in which the upper part of the stomach bulges through an aperture in the diaphragm (Figure 10). There are four anatomical classifications of hiatal hernia: types 1, 2, 3, and 4. Type 1 or sliding hernias are associated with symmetrical ascent of the stomach through the diaphragmatic crus. A patient with type 1 hernia who has reflux symptoms can first undergo PPI therapy with lifestyle modification. In contrast, a patient with symptomatic paraesophageal hernia (types 2, 3, and 4) is at high risk for obstruction, and surgery should be considered for such a patient [49].
Esophageal hiatal hernia: (a) sliding-type hiatal hernia; (b) paraesophageal hernia (mixed type).
Esophageal squamous papilloma is a wart-like exophytic mass located in the middle to distal esophagus (Figure 11). Most papillomas are benign, small, and can be easily removed during forceps biopsy. However, owing to the few reported cases of carcinomatous transformation of these lesions, definite removal is necessary if a papilloma bleeds, is unusually large, elicits foreign-body sensation, or shows atypical changes on histological examination [50].
Esophageal squamous papilloma.
Esophageal sentinel polyps (or sentinel folds) are inflammatory polyps at the GEJ associated with recurrent GERD (Figure 12) [51]. Although sentinel polyps are benign, biopsy is indicated if a lesion is discovered for the first time or if it changes in size or shape.
Sentinel polyp.
Hyperplastic polyps are uncommon lesions that most commonly occur at the GEJ (Figure 13) [52]. There are no reported cases of malignant transformation of esophageal hyperplastic polyps [52]. However, when the polyp size is larger than 10 mm, it is difficult to determine if the polyp originated from the GEJ or from the gastric cardia; in such cases, complete removal of the polyp should be considered [53].
Hyperplastic polyp at the GEJ.
Subepithelial lesions (SELs) of the gastrointestinal tract are tumors that originate from the muscularis mucosa, submucosa, or muscularis propria [54]. The most common (70–80%) benign esophageal SEL is leiomyoma [55]. However, carcinoid tumors, lymphomas, glomus tumors, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are malignant or have malignant potential and must be considered [56]. The 2022 European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guidelines do not recommend WLE or advanced imaging techniques for the characterization of SEL subtypes. Furthermore, the guidelines recommend endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) as the best tool for the characterization of features of SEL (e.g., size, location, originating layer, echogenicity, shape), but EUS alone cannot distinguish between the types of SEL. Tissue diagnosis is required for SELs with features suggestive of GIST, size >20 mm, high-risk stigmata, or requirement of surgical resection or oncological treatment. The ESGE suggests esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) surveillance at 3–6 months if asymptomatic SELs are found on EGD. EGD is recommended at intervals of 2–3 years for lesions <10 mm and at intervals of 1–2 years for lesions 10–20 mm in size. For asymptomatic unresected SELs >20 mm in size, the ESGE recommends surveillance with EGD plus EUS at 6 months, and then at intervals of 6–12 months [54].
Esophageal varices are dilated submucosal veins of the distal esophagus that connect the portal and systemic circulations (Figure 14) [57]. General rules for describing endoscopic findings of esophageal varix were proposed by the Japan Society for Portal Hypertension [58]. The rules define six main categories: location (L), form (F), color (C), red color (RC) signs, bleeding signs, and mucosal findings. Regarding location, Ls, Lm, and Li stand for Locus superior, Locus medialis, and Locus inferior, respectively. Regarding form, F0 denotes no varicose appearance, F1 denotes straight small-caliber varices, F2 denotes moderately enlarged and beady varices, and F3 denotes markedly enlarged, nodular, or tumor-shaped varices. Regarding color, Cw denotes white varices, Cb denotes blue varices, CwTh denotes thrombosed white varices, and Cb-Th denotes thrombosed blue varices. Regarding RC signs, RWM denotes red wale markings, CRS denotes cherry red spots, HCS denotes hematocystic spots, and Te denotes telangiectasia. Nonselective beta-blockers (e.g., nadolol, propranolol, carvedilol) should be considered if small (≤5 mm) varices with RWM or medium/large (>5 mm) varices are found on screening endoscopy [59].
Esophageal varix.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14464,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7509,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"58270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3440,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"26489",doi:"10.5772/28224",title:"Alternative and Traditional Medicines Systems in Pakistan: History, Regulation, Trends, Usefulness, Challenges, Prospects and Limitations",slug:"alternative-and-traditional-medicines-systems-in-pakistan-history-regulation-trends-usefulness-chall",totalDownloads:9220,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Shahzad Hussain, Farnaz Malik, Nadeem Khalid, Muhammad Abdul Qayyum and Humayun Riaz",authors:[{id:"73162",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"shahzad-hussain",fullName:"Shahzad Hussain"},{id:"82266",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"farnaz-malik",fullName:"Farnaz Malik"},{id:"124185",title:"Dr.",name:"Humayun",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"humayun-riaz",fullName:"Humayun Riaz"},{id:"124186",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qayyum",slug:"muhammad-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"125340",title:"Mr.",name:"Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"nadeem-khalid",fullName:"Nadeem Khalid"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14512,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:9021,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"77433",title:"Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and Herbs",slug:"extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-from-medicinal-plants-and-herbs",totalDownloads:1428,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",book:{id:"10356",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno"},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha"},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali"}]},{id:"26491",title:"Homeopathy: Treatment of Cancer with the Banerji Protocols",slug:"homeopathy-treatment-of-cancer-with-the-banerji-protocols",totalDownloads:54241,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Prasanta Banerji and Pratip Banerji",authors:[{id:"79939",title:"Dr",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"prasanta-banerji",fullName:"Prasanta Banerji"},{id:"79943",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratip",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"pratip-banerji",fullName:"Pratip Banerji"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7515,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"991",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. 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His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"