The atomic percentage of phosphorus in SP and fluorine in SB/F samples for different doses of Co-60 gamma-rays, as estimated from the EDAX measurements.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\r\n\tFacts about the role of calprotectin and other biomarkers were accumulated. Participation of neutrophils appears an attractive way to explain the involvement of different subpopulations of immunocompetent cells and cytokines in mucosal inflammation. Over the last five years, scientific developments in the field have discovered more genes involved in the pathogenesis of mucosal inflammation elucidating the interaction of innate immune mechanisms with the microorganisms in the gut and their role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. Besides, the science aims at identifying and characterizing immune and non-immune cells involved in the emergence and maintenance of chronic inflammation.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims to cover the developing diagnostic methods for identifying the mucosal inflammation, towards a better analysis of the inflammation, understanding of the relationship between genetic and proteomic markers and response to therapy; and improving therapeutic options for patients who have mucosal inflammation.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"2e7bde3621cdf64518356b76e3132542",bookSignature:"Dr. Tsvetelina Velikova",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8843.jpg",keywords:"Inflammation, Neutrophils, Cytokines, Mucosal Biomarkers, Gut Tolerance, Antigen Tolerance, Mayo Score, Lesions, Acute Inflammation, Chronic Inflammation, Gut Permeability, Asthma",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 16th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 7th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Velikova research focuses on autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease, IBD, diabetes, asthma, as well as on the delicate autoimmunity mechanisms involving Th17 and Treg cells, cytokines, biomarkers, novel biologic therapies. She has been engaged in fifteen projects in the field of immunology and internal medicine. She is an editorial board member and reviewer for several medical journals and has publications in eminent journals and book chapters in the field of gastrointestinal immunology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180979",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsvetelina",middleName:null,surname:"Velikova",slug:"tsvetelina-velikova",fullName:"Tsvetelina Velikova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180979/images/system/180979.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tsvetelina Velikova received her MD and Ph.D. degrees, both with honors, from the Medical University of Sofia, Bulgaria. Subsequently, she became involved in active immunology research and teaching. Dr. Velikova also received advanced training in Clinical Immunology at University Hospital St. Ivan Rilski, Sofia, Bulgaria. \r\nShe is currently an assistant professor of Clinical immunology affiliated to the Sofia University and University Hospital Lozenetz, Bulgaria. \r\nHer research focuses on autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease, IBD, diabetes, asthma, as well as on the delicate autoimmunity mechanisms involving Th17 and Treg cells, cytokines, biomarkers, novel biologic therapies and their implication in clinical practice.\r\nDr. Velikova has been engaged in fifteen projects in the field of immunology and internal medicine. She is an editorial board member and reviewer for several medical journals and has publications in eminent journals and book chapters in the field of gastrointestinal immunology.",institutionString:"Lozenetz Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Lozenetz Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16075",title:"Electromagnetic-wave Contribution to the Quantum Structure of Matter",doi:"10.5772/16335",slug:"electromagnetic-wave-contribution-to-the-quantum-structure-of-matter",body:'The quantum theory of matter does not describe real matter until electromagnetic theory is used to account for such diverse radiative phenomena as spontaneous emission and the shift of quantum energy levels. Classical electrodynamics fails to account quantitatively for these radiative effects in the structure of matter. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) does successfully account for radiative effects in the structure of matter once an infinite contribution to the energy, which diverges linearly with electromagnetic-wave frequency, is subtracted from the theory based on physical argument that such contribution is already included, to zeroth order in perturbation theory, in the description of a radiative as opposed to a nonradiative or bare electron. This mathematical procedure is known as mass renormalization and introduces the concept that total mass comprises both material and electromagnetic contributions, neither of which is observable by itself.
In Section II of this paper a theory is presented which describes both the material and radiative properties of matter in a single, inseparable form. We show that the time-domain relativistic-wave equation of Paul Dirac can be inferred from the Lorentz invariant obtained from the scalar product of the electron’s four-momentum and an electromagnetic four-potential, once an electromagnetic carrier-wave frequency is formally identified with the rest-mass energy of the electron divided by
In Section III we provide an analytic proof that Dirac’s temporally harmonic solution of his equationis equivalent to solving temporally coupled equations by adiabatic elimination, which is a widely-used approximation method to solve temporally coupled equations in the optical-physics literature. In a wordDirac’s temporally harmonic solution is approximate, but his solution ofthe resulting time-independent or energy-domain equation, which is astaple of the relativistic quantum mechanics literature, is exact.The current interpretation of Dirac’s theory as describing only the material properties of matter derives from Dirac’s solution of his time-domain equation using the harmonic substitution,
In Section IV numerical results are presented for the general solution of Dirac’s time-dependent equation. Fourier analysis of the generaltime-dependent solution shows that the spectrum of quantum states for the Coulomb problem comprises coupled positive- and negative-energy states. The wave function is a mixture of bound and continuum states, with an unbound component propagating away from the atom in a manner which satisfies the Lorentz-invariant relationship or causality between position and time, r**2 - (ct)**2 = 0. The unbound behavior has long been known as Zitterbewegung for a free electron, and here we show its counterpart for the Coulomb problem. In view of the Dirac-Maxwell relationship elucidated in Section II we postulate that the physical interpretation of Zitterbewegung is the emission of a photon with energy of order 2mc**2 due to the presence of empty negative-energy states in the general time-dependent solution. Dirac\'s artifice of filling up the negative-energy levels with electrons to stabilize the atom is not available in the general time-dependent solution.
In Section V equations of motion for the photon are given. In Section VI subatomic bound solutions are discovered which are expected due to the temporally second-order nature of the time-domain Dirac equation. Subatomic bound solutions do not exist for Dirac’s time-independent equation (hereafter called standard Dirac theory) due to his use of the single-frequency temporally harmonic form discussed in Section III. Thus the existence of a complex neutron cannot be ruled out in the case of the general time-dependent solution as it was earlier in the case of standard Dirac theory [6]. These solutions resemble known Dirac energy-domain functions for Z > 137. The spectral content of these solutions comprises a spectral peak at -mc**2 for an electron and a spectral peak at +mc**2 for a positron - yes this state exists for a positive Coulomb potential. An electron can thus make an upward transition into the positive-energy continuum with transition energy 2mc**2, as in standard Dirac theory, while a positron can make a downward transition into the negative-energy continuum with transition energy -2mc**2. The upward transition is considered to be a matter transition, while the downward transition is considered to be an anti-matter transition.
There exists a physical equivalency between Dirac and Maxwell theories which can be stated as follows. It is well known that Lorentz’ equation is the Lorentz invariant formed by taking the scalar product of the four-gradient and the electromagnetic four-potential,
Recall that the scalar product of four-vectors is always a Lorentz Invariant. One may postulate that a four-potential exists for the electron, such that an electron equation of motion can be written as the Lorentz invariant formed by taking the scalar product of the electron\'s four-momentum and the electron\'s four-potential,
The electron scalar and vector potentials can be written in the form of carrier-wave expansions,
from which on substituting Eqs. (3) into Eq. (2) and separately setting the coefficients of the exponential factors equal to zero, we obtain,
On setting
Identically if the carrier-wave energy is equal to the rest-mass energy
where
An electromagnetic contribution to the mass of the electron due to the quantum radiation field associated with its motion is a well known concept in QED. Indeed the carrier-wave frequency of the electron\'s four-potential [Eqs. (3)] is equal to mc**2/hbar, which is the high-frequency cut off for the quantum radiation field assumed in QED atomic structure calculations. The present derivation of Dirac’s equation suggests thatthe total mass of the electron is electromagnetic in nature. This result is consistent with a previous result in which the charge of the electron was derived from Maxwell’s equations [7].
Although the time-dependent Dirac equation can be written in the Schroedinger form,
where HD is the Dirac Hamiltonian and
equation can be written in the Schroedinger form,
unless one requires that all components of
Eqs. (5) are rewritten in the standard Dirac form,
where
where we have specialized to an electromagnetic field free problem by setting
where we have used the identity,
Dirac’s harmonic ansatz for his time-dependent equation gives him aenergy-domain equation which is exactly solvable for the free-electron and Coulomb problems. The Schroedinger form of the temporal solution, which is exact for Schroedinger’s scalar wave equation but not for Dirac’s vector wave equation, is in effect a form of calibration of Dirac theory to Schroedinger theory and has cast Dirac theory in the limited role of “correcting” Schroedinger theory primarily for relativistic effects in atomic structure. Probably as a result of its restricted use in electron physics, time-domain Dirac theory until recently had not been used to discover the a priori physical basis for Fermi-Dirac statistics [8], which is a spin-dependent phenomenon. The history of quantum mechanics instead followed a path of ensuring that Schroedinger wave functions satisfy Fermi-Dirac statistics on the basis of experimental observation and not a priori theory by using the Slater determinantal wave function to solve Schroedinger’s wave equation for many electrons, even though Schroedinger theory, in which particle spin is absent, contains no physical basis for Fermi-Dirac statistics. One must instead turn to time-domain Dirac theory and the Dirac current to discover the physical basis for Fermi-Dirac statistics, which is elucidated using spin-dependent quantum trajectories [8]. Richard Feynman [9] once asked if spin is a relativistic requirement and then answered in the negative because the Klein-Gordon equation is a valid relativistic equation for a spin-0 particle. The correct answer is thatspin is a relativistic requirement to insure Lorentz invariance in a vector-wave theory such as the Dirac or Maxwell theories. In the sense that Fermi-Dirac statistics depends critically on spin and yet is a phenomenonof order (Zc)0, where c is the speed of light and Z is the atomic number, it would appear that authors [10] are misguided who present the quantum theory of matter as fundamentally based on Schroedinger theory as augmented by Dirac theory for “relativistic corrections” of order Z4c-2 due to the acceleration of an electron moving near a nucleus with atomic number Z.
In this section the general time-dependent solution is presented free of any harmonic bias. Solving the Coulomb problem (
follows from the well-known substitutions,
where the angular functions are Dirac’s two-component spinors.Eq. (11) is solved numerically in the variables r and ct for the hydrogen-like ground state (
At the point t=t’ the Crank-Nicolson implicit integration procedure is used in order to insure that the time integration of the equation itself is unconditionally stable. Fig. 1 shows the spectrum of states calculated from the inverse temporal Fourier transform of the wave function [11-12]. The spectrum has a strong peak in the positive-energy regime and a weak peak in the negative-energy regime, which lies in the negative-energy continuum and thus accounts for the unbound tail (Fig. 2). This temporally expanding tail appears to be the Coulomb counterpart of the Zitterbewegung solution calculated by Schroedinger [13] using the time-dependent Dirac equation for a free electron.
Fig. 2 shows the real part of radial wave function times r. Notice that the wave function is unusual in that it behaves like a bound state close to the nucleus but yet is unbound with a small-amplitude tail along the r axis whose length is equal to ct. In other words the tail propagates away from the nucleus at the speed of light. Nevertheless I have normalized the wave function for unit probability of finding the electron within a sphere of radius rmax. The amplitude of the interior portion flows with time between the real part (Fig. 2) and imaginary part of the wave function such that the probability density is steady within the radius of the atom. (ct)max is chosen to be three-fourths of rmax in order that the propagating piece of the wave function stays well away from the grid boundary at rmax. Calculations show that the results are Insensitive to rmax and therefore to (ct)max as long as rmax is well outside the region represented by the bound piece of the wave function, that is well outside of the radius of the atom as represented by standard Dirac theory. Notice that if the dynamical calculation were extended to very large times, then the wave function would fill a verylarge volume. In principle after a sufficient time the wave function could fill a volume the size of the universe although its interior part would remain the size of an atom.
What is the physical interpretation of Zitterbewegung? In view of theMaxwell-Dirac equivalency elucidated in Section II, we postulate here thatit is a photonic energy of order 2mc**2, which is the energy gap betweenthe positive- and negative-energy electron continua and which was identified in Section II as an electromagnetic carrier-wave energy equal to
Spectrum showing weak coupling of the positive- and negative-energy regions. The continuum edges are at
Solid: imaginary part of the solution of Eq. (
In the general time-domain solution presented here it appears that theatom is self-stabilizing due to the mixed material-electromagnetic natureof the electron. Recall that in Section II we postulated that the electron’sequation of motion should be the scalar product of its material four-momentum and its electromagnetic four potential. The solution of the equation of motion shows that the electron can share two ground-state material energy levels with energy conservation and without temporal decay of its quantum state as long as the energy difference between the two ground-state levels is converted to the energy of a continuously-emitted photon.
In this section equations of motion for the photon are given and used to calculate a divergence-free Lamb shift [14-15]. As in the case of the electron in Section II we assume that a complex four-potential exists for the photon such that a photon EOM can be written as the Lorentz invariant formed by taking the scalar product of the photon\'s four-momentum and the photon\'s four-potential,
for either electric or magnetic fields
The electron scalar and vector potentials can be written in the form of carrier-wave expansions,
from which on substituting Eqs. (14) into Eq. (13) and separately setting the coefficients of the exponential factors equal to zero, we obtain,
On setting
Writing
where we have used the identity,
Dirac’s time-domain equation can be cast in the form of an equationsecond order in space and time; thus we should expect a second spatial-temporal solution to exist which is independent of the first spatial-temporal solution which we have elucidated in Section IV. I show that a regime exists in which an adiabatic solution to the time-dependent Dirac equation is not justified even in an approximate sense. The existence of the regime is easily recognized by writing Dirac equations in the form given by Eq. (11) for the large component with a reversal of charge and for the small component with no reversal of charge and then seeking solutions for which the phase in the exponential factor vanishes for all times. These equations are,
Eqs. (20) are solved numerically for Z=1 and
Although the wave function is pulled inward toward the origin, its extent is still large compared to the radius of the proton rp=1.3x10-13 cm = 2.46x10-5 au.
The spectral energies are those which cancel the terms
The bound behavior of the positronic-electronic wave function shown in Fig. 4 can be understood as follows. Recognizing that the first and third terms on the left side of Eq. (20) cancel from the spectral values
A solution to Eq. (20) is sought in the form
Spectra from the solution of Eq. (
Real part of the positronic or electronic solution of Eq. (
Figs. 5-6 show plots of the real part of f and of the real and imaginary parts of g respectively for r=ct and
Simulation using Eqs. (
Unnormalized wave function obtained from Eq. (
The author is grateful to T. Scott Carman for supporting this work. This work was performed under the auspices of the Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, (LLNS) under Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344.
As one of the high-performance polymers, aromatic polyimides (PIs), find applications in many high-tech fields due to their excellent thermal and oxidative stabilities, high mechanical strength, flexibility, and good dielectric properties. Its importance has been established on the basis of exceptional and versatile properties, which is unparallel to most other classes of macromolecules. There are both thermosetting and thermoplastic PIs. In fact, there are many published comprehensive works on PIs’ chemistry, synthesis, characterization, and applications [1, 2, 3]. PIs were first synthesized by chemists at Dupont in the 1950s and are popular by the trade name of Kapton. Most often, this aromatic form of PI is used for space applications. Kapton is prepared through condensation polymerization of pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) and oxy-di-aniline (ODA).
PIs are used extensively in aerospace, gas separation, memory devices, and in the microelectronics industry. PI also finds application in the electrical industry as insulation coating of electromagnetic wirings. It can withstand the temperature of 425°C for short time exposures without undergoing any degradation or deformation. For this reason, PI finds application in supersonic aircraft and in space vehicles. Most of the materials developed for the space application were initiated during the 1960s, when Sputnik—“Satellite I” was launched by the Soviet Union. Then onwards space programs were developed in various directions. The applications involved the requirements in various earth orbits and interplanetary missions. Earth orbits are classified as low Earth orbit (LEO), between 200 and 800 km, geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) defined at 36,000 km above the equator, and medium Earth orbit (MEO), existing between LEO and GEO. Each orbit is employed for specific applications, like navigation, communication, and for use in Earth observation satellites.
However, prolonged use of spacecraft materials and their exposure to the space environment leads to the degradation of thermal, electrical, mechanical, and optical properties, which can subsequently result in an early mission failure. Materials used in space are exposed to various hazards, which include ultraviolet (UV) radiations and other ionizing radiations (like energetic electrons, protons, and heavy ions) [4]. Ground-simulated research is, therefore, extensively required to safeguard the properties of PI from these radiations [5].
Further, due to the developments in micro and nanoelectronics which are approaching smaller and smaller sizes at increasing production costs, many small- and medium-sized manufacturers have realized the difficulty of survival due to the harsh competition. Here polymeric electronics offers the solution with flexible thin-printed transistor electronics which can provide large-size displays. These nanosized structures are capable of covering the bridge between the “classical” silicon-based, and the new polymer-based electronics. One such development is based on the ion tracks in polymers: similar to those formed in photoresist and SiO2 (both of which are the vital components of many silicon-based structures). Now silicon/track hybrid structures may be designed inside the polymers. These ion tracks in polymer foils will form a multitude of new interesting applications not only in electronics but also in other fields such as medicine or optics.
Ion tracks [6] are formed in polymers when high-energy ions damage the polymer by the process of chain scission and cross-linking along their passage. As a result of bond breaking in the polymer, gases like hydrogen, CO2, CO, or CH4 are liberated along the trajectory. When these gases get emitted out of the surface, they create holes and thus form the tracks which are often called Latent Tracks. After chemical etching and removing the damaged matter using a suitable etchant, these tracks get opened up. They are visible with a microscope and are called Etched Ion Tracks [6]. If such tracks are filled with an appropriate material like silver or gold, they can generate nanowires or nanorods within the polymer [7]. By generating such structures in PI and filling the tracks with silver, Fink et al. [6] have successfully fabricated micro-transformers. Petrov et al. [8] have reported on the effects of time of irradiation on the crystallinity, conductivity, and wall thickness of the nanotubes [8].
The use of PI in electronic applications is also exhibited by its good electrical and dielectric stability, apart from its mechanical strength. In general, polymers are low dielectric constant (έ) materials. Polyimide for example has a dielectric constant equal to ∼3.15. Inorganic materials and oxides have relatively higher values of dielectric constant (between 4 and 9). The values of the dielectric constant can be therefore tailored by making composites or by doping an external material into the host polymer. To find suitable applications as an insulator, the material should preferably have a low dielectric constant. In fact, both, the dielectric constant and dielectric relaxation (τ) are especially important in deciding the suitability of the polymer in technological applications. These properties are controlled to some extent by the defects and space-charge, generated, within the folded chains of a polymer. Defects generated during the synthesis also lead to the formation of dipoles within the polymer matrix and they control the dielectric properties. This results in the dielectric-relaxation described by the value of dissipation factor, tan δ, and its relation with
Here,
Due to its high mechanical and thermal stability PI is used as an excellent dielectric material for spacecraft technologies. There are reports [11] whereby using the nano-foam morphology the dielectric constant of PI has been lowered from 3.2 to 2.5 at ambient temperatures, and from 2.9 to 2.3 at 100°C. On the other hand, there are reports [12] where the refractive index (directly related to the dielectric constant) has been increased in fluorinated PI when it is irradiated with 25 keV electrons at a fluence of ∼5 × 1015 e/cm2. The dielectric constant is also very influential in controlling the signal transmission and its attenuation when PI is used for packaging in high-speed microelectronic devices [13]. High values of the dielectric constant are useful when the polymers are used as insulating layers in the high voltage capacitors. Such studies have been, therefore, carried out with PI from the point of view of finding its applications in the micro-electronic and optoelectronic fields [14, 15, 16, 17]. However, the bulk resistivity of a polymer should be as high as possible to protect its insulating characteristics. These are often the fundamental issues that are aimed at while tailoring the dielectric properties of polymers.
Again, while talking about the space applications of PI its interaction with high energy ionizing radiations becomes quite imperative. Effect of ionizing radiations on polymers, radiation processing of polymers, surface modifications, and use of radiations for nanotechnology [18, 19, 20, 21, 22] have been largely reported. In general, the irradiation on polymer leads to the formation of reactive species such as free radicals.
PI is used as a shielding material in different application areas. These include space missions, automotive industries, and nuclear electronics. In these applications, its optical reflectivity also plays an important role. It is also used as a thermally strong insulator in several electronic circuits [23, 24]. There are reports where its thermal and mechanical properties are studied as a function of high energy radiations such as 3 MeV protons [24] and 2 MeV electron irradiation [25]. Effects of 2 MeV electron irradiation have been reported to alter the mechanical properties of PI [26]. The change in the hardness and Youngs Modulus by 4 MeV light ions on different kinds of PIs are also reported [27]. Radiation processing using high-energy electron irradiation is especially preferred for polymers because of their high dose rates and high-energy deposition in lesser time intervals. High processing rates are achieved because a high dose rate also initiates a high rate of cross-linking as oxidation effects are relatively weak at the high dose rates. Moreover, electron irradiation facilities are easily controllable and one can achieve steady dose rates without any interruption of homogeneous energy deposition [28, 29]. In particular, the effects of high-energy pulsed electron irradiation for studying the surface processing of PI need more attention.
In satellites, PI is used for different applications such as shielding material for thermal control, insulating material in electronic circuits, and similar others. The satellites that are designed to operate in the low Earth orbits region (LEO) [30, 31] are exposed to atomic oxygen in addition to other space radiations such as electrons, protons, and UV radiation [32, 33, 34]. As the period of exposure to this radiation increases, the physicochemical, mechanical, optical, thermal, and electrical properties of polymers degrade at a faster rate [32]. Effects of Atomic Oxygen (AO) having energies between 5 and 20 eV carries significant importance since the space shuttle in the LEO region is exposed to such atomic oxygen species.
In space, the AO is generated when the short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation (>5.12 eV, <243 nm) dissociates molecular oxygen present in the upper atmosphere [33, 34, 35]. The space vehicle normally moves with a velocity of 7–8 km s−1 in the LEO region. The energy of the atoms of oxygen is decided by the velocity of the space vehicle. The energy with which the atoms of the oxygen impinge on the spacecraft surface, moving with a high velocity, becomes around 5 eV. In this LEO region, the flux of the atomic oxygen varies from ∼1012 to 1015 atoms cm−2 s−1 [36]. The surface region of the polymer which is used as a shielding material over the spacecraft, therefore, receives fluences of ∼1019–1022 ions cm−2 in a period of about 1 year. During the mission period of the spacecraft in the LEO region, the deterioration observed on the surface of the polymer is therefore mainly correlated to the irradiation effects of the atomic oxygen [37]. The polymer-like PI which is used as a shielding material then gets eroded and loses its weight. The rate of weight loss depends on the flux of the atomic oxygen. In general, the weight loss increases with increasing irradiation period [38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
In addition, at Low Earth Orbit, oriented spacecraft experiences asymmetric fluxes because of the interactions between the radiations with the environment. As a result, prior to the exposure to atomic oxygen, the spacecraft comes across other space radiations such as electrons, protons, and UV radiations [43, 44, 45, 46]. The shielding material on the spacecraft then interacts with all these radiations during its passage which may be more detrimental for the polymer surface. With increasing time of interaction all the physicochemical and related properties of the polymers degrade at a faster rate [47]. Ionizing radiations produce defects mainly by cross-linkages and chain scission. These processes are assisted by bond breakages or weakening of the bonds resulting in the emission of gaseous species from the surface. Moreover, atomic oxygen is very reactive due to the lone pair of electrons it has. Several interactions can occur over the polymeric surface, such as oxidative reactions with surface atoms or adsorbed molecules, both elastic as well as inelastic scattering recombination, association, or excitation of species. Atomic oxygen can very strongly react chemically with a surface and cause the formation of volatile oxides from polymers. The surface layer gets eroded. Although PI is a thermally stable polymer it is also seen to get degraded by AO. As a consequence of such degradation, research in this area still remains one of the hot topics with PI. The erosion yield of the polymer is also influenced by other physical parameters like the impact angle, temperature, flux, and total fluence of atomic oxygen, synergistic effects of other radiations, and the energy during the impact of the atomic oxygen [48, 49].
There is no dearth of literature where the effect of one kind of radiation alone has been investigated on the change in the properties of PI. For example, Hill et al. have studied the effects of 3MeV proton radiation on the mechanical properties [24], Plis et al. have investigated the spectroscopic and thermal properties of 2MeV electron irradiation [50], Sasuga et al. report the effect of 2MeV electron radiation on the mechanical properties [26] and Cherkashina et al. have studied the effect of 4MeV light ions on the hardness and Youngs’ modulus [51] of various polyamides. In our earlier publication [52] it has been shown that 1 MeV pulsed electron beam can be used to simulate conditions similar to space radiations. The surface and bulk properties of PI were modified to investigate the role of electron fluence. Our group has also reported [53, 54, 55] the erosion properties of PI and studied the rate of weight loss as a function of the flux of atomic oxygen generated in Electron Cyclotron Plasma. Recently we have investigated the synergetic effects of electron irradiation on the surface erosion properties of PI by AO. The samples were irradiated with 1 MeV electrons prior to exposing them to the atomic oxygen. The electrons having fluence, ranging from 5 × 1014 to 20 × 1014 electrons/cm2, were obtained from the electron accelerator whereas, the atomic oxygen was generated in a plasma system. Post-characterization of the irradiated samples, using weight loss measurements, indicated that the extent of erosion by oxygen ions increases if the sample is pre-irradiated with 1 MeV electrons [42]. The paper also reports a larger extent of degradation in the optical transparency when samples were pre-irradiated by electrons.
The chapter highlights the effects of radiations (electrons and gamma radiations) in multiple ways. It is used in modifying the dielectric properties and also for elemental doping by radiation-enhanced diffusion process. The surface erosion properties by atomic oxygen, obtained by a ground-based electron cyclotron resonance plasma simulator are also discussed. The use of swift heavy ions in fabricating the micro-electronic device is also presented. The results of different experiments carried out with PI are sequentially described in separate sections.
Studies related to the dielectric measurements have been extensively carried out in our group and are reported in our earlier communication [53] (Alegaonkar APL 2002). Here, we have chosen a polyimide (C22H10N2O5, PMDA-ODA, Kapton-H) sheet having a thickness of ∼50 mm. The electron irradiation was carried out with a microtron accelerator which was used in the pulsed mode of operation by varying the electron fluence over the range of 1014– 1015 e/cm2. The weight loss of the PI samples after electron irradiation, having dimensions of 12 mm × 12 mm, was monitored. All the electron-irradiated samples were subjected to dielectric relaxation measurements over a frequency range of 100 Hz–7 MHz. The values of dielectric constant έ, and the dielectric loss ἔ, were also estimated at each frequency by using the measured values of the capacitance and tan δ. Apart from this the value of the refractive index has been monitored at a wavelength of 622.8 nm, by using an ellipsometer.
The paper also discusses the effect of boron diffusion on the dielectric properties of the polyimide films and compares the effects with those of electron irradiated films. Gamma irradiation from Co-60 with a dose rate in the range from 6 to 48 Mrad was used in the process of radiation-assisted diffusion using BF3 solution. The depth distribution of boron inside the film was studied using the technique of neutron depth profiling [56] and the presence of fluorine was confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic measurements. Moreover, it was revealed that boron and fluorine had diffused from both the surfaces up to a depth of ∼2 μm on account of gamma irradiation.
The paper reported that the frequency distribution of dielectric loss, ἔ, and the dielectric constant, ἔ, were influenced by the fluence of irradiation Ф. The measured refractive index has also been shown to depend on the electron fluence. The graphical representation of these parameters is shown in Figure 1 (reproduced with permission Alegaonkar et al. [53]). The paper also highlights a small shift in the second peak in Figure 1(a) towards lower frequency and correlates it to an increase in the relaxation period with increasing electron fluence. This is governed by the relation: ω •
(A) Variations in dielectric loss, ἔ, with log(f) for PI samples irradiated with 1 MeV electrons at different fluences, Ф. (B) Variations in dielectric constant, ἔ, with log (f) for PI samples irradiated with 1 MeV electrons at different fluences, Ф [plots (a)–(c)] and for a PI sample immersed in BF3 solution and irradiated with Co-60 gamma rays [plot (d)]. (C) For 1 MeV electron-irradiated PI samples, variation in refractive index, n, with electron fluence, Ф. Reproduced with permission from Alegaonkar et al. [
The paper also reports a measurable weight loss arising from the emission of gases such as oxygen, hydrogen, etc., from the PI matrix during irradiation. Thus, in this case, the density of the PI has been shown to decrease with increasing electron fluence. The result has been reproduced in Figure 2. It shows that the percentage of weight loss, WL, increases with increasing electron fluence.
For 1 MeV electron-irradiated PI samples, variation in weight loss, WL (%), with electron fluence, Ф. Reproduced with permission. (Reproduced from Alegaonkar et al. [
Apart from the irradiation with electrons, our group has also studied [58] the influence of doping the PI with boron and fluorine as stated in the earlier paragraph. Even though boron and fluorine were diffused up to a depth of ∼2μm from each side, they lowered the dielectric constant of ∼50 μm thick PI quite effectively. The variations in the dielectric constant, έ, and dielectric loss ἔ, with frequency, were almost similar to those irradiated with 1 MeV electrons at a fluence of 1015 e/cm2. These results are important in view of finding the application of 50-μm thick PI, where lower values of dielectric constant are preferred.
In another report from our group [59] phosphorus, boron, and fluorine were doped into the PI films by the radiation-assisted diffusion. The dielectric constant, έ, of the PI, was again tailored over a small range around the value of 3.15.
Similar to the work which has been discussed in the previous section relating to the diffusion of boron into the surface layer of PI, we have also carried out investigations by doping phosphorous and compared the results with those obtained by doping with boron. The results have been reported in our earlier communication [59]. 50 μm thick PI samples of 15 mm × 15 mm were doped with phosphorous and fluorine by using the technique of radiation-assisted diffusion process. Solutions of H3PO4 and BF3 were used to diffuse the elements of phosphorous and B/F into the matrix of PI. The doped samples were designated as SP, in the case of P doping and SB/F in the case of boron and fluorine doping. Similarly, the unirradiated virgin PI samples are designated as SV. Different doses of gamma rays, ranging from 64 kGy to 384 kGy from Co-60 were used as the source of radiations.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to confirm the presence of phosphorus in SP and fluorine in SB/F. The atomic concentrations (%) found from these measurements were as shown in Table 1. The paper describes the experimental results of the Rutherford Backscattering Technique which provided the depth of the diffusion of the phosphorus and fluorine in the PI samples. The RBS spectra for the SP and the SB/F samples are as shown in Figure 3(a) and (b), respectively. The RBS spectrum was deconvoluted and the elements present in the PI surface were identified. The average depth of diffusion of phosphorus or fluorine atoms in the PI, estimated at ∼10% concentration relative to the peak concentration at the surface, was ∼3 μm.
Dose of gamma-rays dose (kGy) | Atomic percentage (%) | |
---|---|---|
Phosphorus | Fluorine | |
64 | 0.7 | 1.05 |
96 | 1.12 | 1.68 |
128 | 1.5 | 2.22 |
192 | 1.82 | 2.66 |
288 | 2.03 | 2.92 |
384 | 2.21 | 3.12 |
The atomic percentage of phosphorus in SP and fluorine in SB/F samples for different doses of Co-60 gamma-rays, as estimated from the EDAX measurements.
(a) and (b) RBS spectra of the PI samples which were immersed in H3PO4 solution and BF3 solution respectively. The samples were irradiated with Co-60 gamma-rays at a dose (a) 0 kGy; virgin, (b) 192 kGy and (c) 384 kGy. (Reproduced from [
The reported RBS spectra have indicated the presence of phosphorus and fluorine as has been reproduced in Figure 3. The area under the RBS peaks has been shown to be proportional to the number of phosphorus or fluorine atoms diffused in the PI sample. In addition, the concentration of phosphorus or fluorine (relative %) is shown to increase with an increasing dose of Co-60 gamma-rays. From the results of the EDAX measurements shown in Table 1, Riyadh et al. [58] have reported that the atomic percentage of phosphorus, as well as that of fluorine, has increased with the dose of Co-60 gamma-rays. The results have been discussed in view of the defects induced in PI as an effect of gamma irradiation, which includes vacancies, cross-linking and bending of bonds, and formation of voids due to the diffusion of gaseous molecules [13]. The gases such as H, O, and C are normally evolved as an effect of radiolysis. The process of diffusion of external atoms into polymer surface is normally explained using the model based on free volume [58, 59].
Here, the depth of diffusion of the phosphorus and fluorine atoms is reported to be ∼3μm. The authors [58] have further analyzed the results with the XPS spectrum (not shown here). The analysis is reported to have further indicated that phosphorus and boron atoms have formed bonds with oxygen atoms [60] in PI, whereas fluorine atoms have formed bonds with the carbon atoms [61] in the surface region. Here, the concentration, Cs, of the phosphorus and fluorine (Cs in relative %) in the SP and SB/F samples have been obtained after normalizing the intensity of each XPS peak with respect to the corresponding photoelectric cross-section. The variations in the phosphorus and fluorine concentrations with the dose of Co-60 gamma-rays were determined which are represented in Figure 4(a) [62].
Variations in the relative concentrations of phosphorus and fluorine with the dose of Co-60 gamma-rays. Variations in the dielectric constant, έ, with frequency, f, for the PI samples doped with phosphorus, boron, and fluorine at different doses of Co-60 gamma-rays over the range ∼64–384 kGy; (i) virgin (a), (ii) phosphorus-doped (b), (c) and (d) and (iii) fluorine and boron-doped (e), (f) and (g). Reproduced with permission [2006] ©Copy right 2002, Nuclear Instruments and Methods–B. (Reproduced from [
The dielectric constant, έ, estimated over the frequency range 100 Hz–7 MHz. are shown in Figure 4(b). The spatial distribution of boron was studied with the neutron depth profiling technique using the nuclear reaction for 11B (n, α) 7Li. The experimental method was similar to that reported earlier for HDPE [57, 58].
The paper (reproduced from [58]) also reports the surface morphology using the atomic force microscope technique, in the non-contact mode. A few typical recorded surface images are reproduced in Figure 5. The micrograph (a) is for virgin SV, and the micrographs (b) and (c) are for the SP samples and (d) and (e) are for the SB/F samples.
AFM photographs showing surface images of the PI samples (i) (a) virgin, (ii) doped with phosphorus at gamma-ray dose of (b) 64 kGy, (c) 384 kGy and (iii) doped with boron and fluorine at gamma-ray dose of (d) 64 kGy, (e) 384 kGy. Reproduced with permission [
The AFM images reproduced in Figure 5, are indicative of the change in surface morphology of PI as a result of doping with phosphorus, boron, and fluorine The RMS values of the surface roughness as reported for the SV, SP, and SB/F samples were 8.1 nm, 10.4 nm, and 16.7 nm respectively. As compared with the virgin, the surface roughness of the PI is reported to increase marginally after phosphorus doping but significantly after boron and fluorine doping. The authors have found that the mechanical properties of phosphorus, boron, and fluorine diffused PI were almost similar to those of the virgin PI.
The paper also reports the discussion on the variation of the dielectric constant
Where,
It is further assumed that as a result of fluorine doping, the free volume of the PI must have increased because an appreciable number of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine atoms which are larger in size. It is known that the electric polarizability of a C▬F bond is lower than that of the C▬H bond [14]. The electronic polarization is assumed to have decreased with an increasing number of fluorine atoms in the PI. The plots in Figure 4(b) is reproduced from [58] indicates that the dielectric constant, έ, decreases with the increasing concentration of fluorine, but it is seen to increase with the increasing concentration of phosphorus in the PI. Boron is also assumed to increase the free volume in the chains of PI. As a result, the number of polarizable groups per unit volume has decreased with the increasing concentration of fluorine or boron atoms in PI.
For 6 MeV irradiation, Mathakari et al. [64] used a PI sheet with a density ∼ 1.43 gm/cm3 and thickness of 50 μm. The sheet was cut into pieces of size 100 mm × 15 mm × 50 μm for stress-strain studies. Whereas for other characterizations, thin films of size 15 mm × 15 mm × 50 μm were used. The samples were irradiated with a 6 MeV electron beam obtained from the Race track microtron laboratory of the Department of Physics, University of Pune, India. The irradiation was performed in the air under normal thermodynamic conditions. The beam diameter was kept ∼15 mm and the strips were irradiated at the central location, for mechanical measurements. Whereas, for other samples of dimension 15 mm × 15 mm × 50 μm, they were exposed to the uniform electron beam. Electron fluence was varied in the range of 1–4× 1015 electrons/cm2. Stopping power ∼ 1.836 MeV cm2/g and range ∼2.36 cm for 6 MeV electrons in PI was calculated from the ESTAR program. Calculated doses from the stopping power and range were estimated to be 294–1176 kGy. Following this, pre and post-irradiated samples were characterized by various techniques. The irradiated strips used subjected to stress-strain measurements, carried out using a tensile testing machine (UTM). Testing parameters such as load cell, strain rate, and gauge length were, respectively, kept 100 kg, 20 mm/min, and 50 mm. For each pristine and irradiated, an average of measurements on four samples was taken. From obtained stress-strain profiles, numerous mechanical parameters like tensile strength, percentage elongation, strain energy, and Young’s modulus were calculated. By measuring coordinates of breaking points on stress-strain profiles, the tensile strength, and percentage elongation were calculated, whereas, strain energy was calculated from the measured stress-strain curve area. Young’s modulus was computed from the initial slope of stress-strain curve.
Figure 6 displays recorded stress-strain profiles for PI irradiated with 6 MeV electrons. The stress-strain curve was distinctly becoming large with an increase in electron fluence and indicative of enhancement in mechanical properties of PI by electron irradiation.
Stress-strain profiles for pristine and 6 MeV electron irradiated PI. Reproduced with permission [Mathakari et al. [
Calculated mechanical parameters like tensile strength, % elongation, strain energy, and Youngs’ modulus (from stress-strain profiles) are, respectively, shown in Figure 7(a–d). Notably, tensile strength, percentage elongation, and strain energy is observed to be increased from the pristine values of 73–89 MPa, 10–22%, and 4.75–14.2 MJ/m3, respectively, @ maximum value of fluence (4 × 1015 electrons/cm2) with, corresponding, relative % increments noted to be 22%, 120%, and 199%. Enhancement in mechanical properties is attributed, fundamentally, to change in cross-linking. Upon irradiation, both scission and cross-linking take place in polymer simultaneously, and depending upon polymer, radiation type, and amount of dose rate scission and cross-linking, one or the other may dominate. From the obtained results, Mathakari et al. [64] were of the opinion that in their case cross-linking had dominated over scissioning. The dose rate of 6 MeV electrons was additionally high ∼2000 kGy/h. In such a case scenario radiation density induced large area spurs (zones enriched with highly reactive free radicals) overlapping each other. This results in free radicals cross-linking. Further, depending upon dose rate and extent of radiation-induced oxidation; the dominance of scission or cross-linking takes place. But the oxidative changes are weak when dose rates are high [21]. The presence of a large concentration of carbonyl groups in the PI monomer may offer high resistance to oxidation [65]. Thus, the high dose rate and carbonyl-assisted oxidation resistance of PI resulted in extremely low oxidative changes. And hence, crosslinking has dominated over scissioning. Notably, Mathakari et al. [64] observed enhancement in tensile strength, % elongation, strain energy, whereas, Youngs’ modulus was found to be decreased, marginally, from the pristine value of 1700–1160 MPa @ 3 × 1015 electrons/cm2 and then increased up to 1600 MPa @ 4 × 1015 electrons/cm2. The overall decrease was reported to be 6% and attributed to an increase in % percentage elongation which was considerably larger than the increase in the value of tensile strength. This lead to a conclusion that 6 MeV electron irradiation has considerably enhanced chain dynamics in PI.
Recorded profiles of (a) tensile strength, (b) percentage elongation, (c) strain energy, and (d) Young’s modulus as a function of fluence for irradiated PI. Reproduced with permission Mathakari et al. [
Figure 8(a) displayed FTIR spectra recorded for pristine and electron irradiated PI@ different fluences. Peak @ 3085 cm−1 is assigned to C H stretching, carbonyl (CO, stretching) in PMDA is located between 172 and 1781 cm−1, hydroxyl (OH) @ 3630 cm−1 whereas 1260–1289 cm−1 showed C▬O▬C str. in monomer ODA. Peaks @ 3486 and 1602 cm−1 are assigned to N▬H str. and bend, respectively. The cyclic imide (C▬N▬CO) group was scrutinized using peaks that appeared @ 1376–1390 (C▬N stretch). The imide stretching was observed @ 1380 and 1117 cm−1 and corresponding deformation @ 725 cm−1 [66, 67]. Mathakari et al. noted that the absorbance of almost all the bonds remains intact upto ∼4 × 1015 electrons/cm2. That revealed scission and crosslinked products have the same absorption spectra as that of pristine PI. More importantly, absorbance at 1725–1781 cm−1 corresponding to carbonyl groups remained unchanged till maximum fluence which is indicative of the fact that PI is not oxidized after irradiation.
Recorded (a) FTIR spectra and (b) for pristine and 6 MeV electron irradiated PI. Reproduced with permission Mathakari et al. [
Further to reconfirm the absence of oxidation effects; Figure 8(b) shows only marginal variations in oxygen contents.
Figure 9 shows UV-vis spectra for pristine and electron irradiated PI. They noted, no marked changes in absorption edge and overall absorbance between 700 and 200 nm regions. By and large, PI showed a gradual red shift in the absorbance edge and overall increase in the absorbance due to carbonization and oxidation that confirmed bond structure retention of PI that has not undergone oxidation after irradiation.
Recorded UV-vis spectra for pristine and 6 MeV electron irradiated PI @ various fluences. Reproduced with permission Mathakari et al. [
In Figure 10, reported by Mathakari et al., photographic images of distilling water droplet of volume ∼10 μl onto the surface of pristine and electron irradiated PI (@4 × 1015 electrons/cm2 is shown. Data of contact angles, roughness, adhesion work, and area fraction of liquid-solid interface @ pristine and electron irradiated PI is provided in Table 2. They noted that contact angle decreased from its original (pristine) value of 59–32° @4 × 1015 electrons/cm2. The observed reduction is ∼46% and indicative of significant surface modifications in PI surface by 6 MeV electrons. The work of adhesion, roughness and area fraction of the liquid-solid interface is found to be increased with the fluence.
Photographic images of contact angle measurements displaying distilled water droplet of 10 μl volume onto the surfaces of (a) pristine and (b) 6 MeV electron irradiated PI@ 4 × 1015 electrons/cm2. Reproduced with permission Mathakari et al. [
Sr. no. | Fluence (×1015) | Contact angle (°) | Roughness (r) cos Ɵ′ = r cos Ɵ | Adhesion work (WA = γLg (1 + cos Ɵ)) | Area fraction (f) @ liquid-solid interface cos Ɵ′ = f cos Ɵ + f – 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.0 | 59 | 1.00 | 110.3 | 1.000 |
2 | 1.0 | 51 | 1.22 | 118.6 | 1.075 |
3 | 2.0 | 49 | 1.27 | 120.6 | 1.093 |
4 | 3.0 | 35 | 1.59 | 132.4 | 1.201 |
5 | 4.0 | 32 | 1.65 | 134.5 | 1.210 |
Data of contact angles, work of adhesion, and area fraction @ liquid-solid interface of pristine and 6 MeV electron irradiated PI.
γLg = surface tension of liquid-gas interface = 72.8 mJ/m2. Ɵ = contact angle of the flat pristine sample. Ɵ′ = contact angle of the rough sample after irradiation.
Reproduced with permission Mathakari et al. [28] ©Copy right 2010, Nuclear Instruments and Methods–B.
From data of contact angle measurements, a significant reduction in contact angle is observed and, correspondingly, increase in work of adhesion and fractional area @ liquid-solid interface has, mainly, attributed to the radiation-induced surface roughening. By Wenzel formulation: cos Ɵ′ = r cos Ɵ, for hydrophilic surfaces contact angle decreases with an increase in surface roughness. The observed increase in roughness reveals that there is a greater amount of fractional are available for the contact @ solid/liquid interface [68, 69]. Both the enhanced parameters reduced the contact angle. Further, irradiation of PI surface may also cause the opening of imide rings that lead to carboxylic acid and carboxamide formation. They might have played a significant role in reducing contact angle. Thus, a decrease in contact angle is indicative of the hydrophilic nature of PI surface facilitated by irradiation. Such peculiar surface properties with increased hydrophilicity can be used for a number of applications such as grafting, adsorption, or adhesion of organic or inorganic species onto the surface.
Thus, analysis of Mathakari et al., showed electron irradiation-induced surface roughening is responsible to reduce contact angle. This is reconfirmed in AFM and profilometry. Figure 11 (upper pan) displays AFM images and (lower part) surface profilograms of pristine and electron irradiated PI@ 4 × 1015 electrons/cm2. They noted the surface roughness enhancement after electron irradiation. And the average magnitude of roughness (Ra) is calculated from the profilograms as shown in Figure 11. The roughness is found to increase from 0.06 to 0.1 μm and is attributed to the electron beam-induced evolution of gases from the PI surface. The evolution of gases takes place in different regions to a different extent. Chain dynamics seems to be prominent on the surface causing scission and crosslinking in PI modifying surface properties. At bulk, this has implications on change in free volume and induces void type defects, which diffuse up onto the surface enhancing roughness [70].
Upperpart: AFM images (a) pristine and (b) 6 MeV electron irradiated PI at the fluence of 4 × 1015 electron/cm2. Lower portion surface profile grams of (a) pristine and (b) 6 MeV electron irradiated PI at the fluence of 4 × 1015 electrons/cm2. Reproduced with permission Mathakari et al. [
In the next section, irradiation effects of oxygen ions on PI are discussed and vis-a-vis compared with fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP).
In a study carried out by Riyadh et al., atomic oxygen plasma ions are produced in Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) plasma system. The system is comprised of two stainless steel chambers, one for generating microwave power-induced gas plasma and the other for sample irradiation by plasma. The plasma chamber is configured at a height of ∼150 mm and dia. ∼125 mm and also function as a microwave cavity resonator in TE111 mode. A magnetron (power ∼ 500 W, freq. 2.45 GHz) was coupled to a plasma chamber through waveguides. The magnetic field required for generating the ECR plasma was produced via pair of solenoid coils, mounted around the plasma chamber. The irradiation chamber at a height of ∼300 mm and a diameter of ∼200 mm has numerous ports that were used for mounting different systems such as reaction gas injector, mechanical support to the samples holder, feed through for electrical measurements, vacuum gauges, window view, etc. The coupling between irradiation and plasma chamber was done in such a fashion that the ions produced in ECR plasma could directly interact with the samples mounted onto the irradiation chamber. In order to measure the energy and flux of oxygen ions, a three-grid retarding field analyzer (RFA) was mounted on the chamber. In both chambers, a pressure of ∼10−6 mbar was maintained with an appropriate vacuum system. A schematic design and irradiation setup for the ECR plasma system is shown in Figure 12.
(a) A schematic design, and (b) experimental set-up of ECR Plasma system. Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
For plasma treatment, PI and FEP samples were obtained by cutting ∼50 μm thick sheets into small pieces of dimension ∼15 × 15 mm2. After cleaning and drying, the samples were stored in a dry and clean atmosphere. Before plasma treatment, the weight of each (PI and FEP) sample was measured by Riyadh et al. using a digital balance, with an accuracy of ±1 μg.
After obtaining base pressure ∼10−6 mbar and making electrical connections, pure oxygen gas (99.9%) was inflected into the plasma chamber via a mass flow controller. Numerous experimental parameters like oxygen flow rate, microwave power, axial magnetic field, oxygen pressure, etc., were optimized to obtain a stable oxygen plasma into the reactor chamber. Energy and oxygen flux of plasma ions at certain positions along with the axial chamber position and @different pressures were measured using three grid RFA. Measurements were repeated and the system was calibrated for ion energy and flux at different positions of plasma. ECR plasma was also characterized by quadrupole mass spectrometry. The intensity of atomic oxygen ions was found to be almost one order of magnitude higher than that for molecular oxygen ions, at all the energies of oxygen ions. Since the abundance of atomic oxygen ions was very high compared to molecular oxygen ions. Four samples of PI and FEP were mounted on the sample holder such that the separation between two conjugate samples was ∼3 mm. Samples were, subsequently, irradiated with plasma at 8 × 10−3 mbar, at a position where the energy of plasma species was ∼10–14 eV. However, ion flux was maintained at maxima with an energy of ∼12 eV. The flux of ions with ∼12 eV of average energy was ∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1. The sample holder was mounted onto insulating support that was functioned as a Faraday cage. A current integrator, connected to the sample holder, was used to measure a current due to ions received by samples during ion irradiation. Four samples at a time were exposed to oxygen ions at a flux of ∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1. Ion fluence was varied by changing the time of irradiation that was estimated from the charge received by the samples during ion irradiation. Ion fluence was varied from sample to sample in a range ∼5 × 1016 to 2 × 1017 ions cm−2 with time. Plasma-treated samples were characterized by various techniques.
Riyadh et al. reported in Figure 13 that, for both PI and FEP samples, weight loss was increased with increasing plasma exposure, t (s). They speculated a small amount of surface atoms got eroded out when plasma ions impinge onto the polymer surface. However, they noted that the cross-section of this process was small at the set ion energy. Another process noted was chemical reactions. In this atomic oxygen, ions interact with near-surface atoms and slash the weak bonds. This results in the evolution of gaseous species from polymers during plasma treatment. The observed weight loss in the polymer is therefore reported to be a combined effect of atoms that are removed from the surface and redeposited onto the surface during irradiation. The erosion yield (Ey) was calculated by equation [2]:
Weight loss (ΔW) (μg/cm2) variations with time of exposure t (s) to the atomic oxygen ions at a flux of ∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1 (a) PI (b) FEP. Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
where,
In Figure 14 micrographs reported by Riyadh et al. shows image (1a) and (2a), revealing surface regions of virgin counterparts of PI and FEP. They were reported to be smooth and featureless. However, after plasma treatment, the surface texture of PI exhibited blister formation and nano-particles of different dimensions. They confirmed that these changes are caused mainly due to variations in local erosion rates. On exposure to oxygen plasma, various gaseous moieties like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine could be evolved from the surface region of polymer. The blisters on the surface of PI were reported to be ∼1.4 μm and nano-particles formed in FEP and PI were, respectively, of dimensions ∼50 to ∼80 nm. By and large, their results showed that on exposure to plasma degradation PI was greater than in FEP under identical irradiation conditions. The obtained results were found to be consistent with estimated values of erosion yield for FEP and the PI.
Micrograph 1 is recorded SEM for (a) virgin PI, and (b) plasma-treated PI. Image 2: for (a) virgin FEP and (b) plasma-treated FPE. (@Ion fluence ∼2 × 1017 ions cm−2). Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
Samples of PI and FEP were exposed to plasma ions for about 1 h, followed by characterization using the XPS technique. The data were deconvoluted using origin with Gaussian fittings and FWHM ∼1.6 eV as trial value for deconvolution. Binding energies were calibrated with respect to C 1s peak @ 285 eV (binding energy) in order to compensate for surface charging effects. Tables 3 and 4 summarize the results. Peaks for both, PI and FEP, were assigned as per literature reports [37, 38, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77]. Peaks corresponding to C〓C, C▬C, and C▬H, bonds in aromatic rings of PI appeared at 283.8, 284.6, and 285.5 eV for virgin PI and at 284.2, 284.9, and 285.7 eV for plasma-treated PI, respectively. Peak position shift was indicative of modification in imide structure that revealed the opening of the backbone benzene ring. For aromatic carbon, peaks emerged at 286.4 eV (virgin PI) and at 286.8 eV (plasma-treated) were assigned for its bonding with oxygen. Peak intensity of 286.8 eV was reduced by ∼50% compared to peak @ 286.4 eV. For virgin PI, peak at 288.5 and for plasma-treated PI peak @288.7 eV were assigned to a carbonyl group. They are also associated with esoteric and acidic functionality.
Binding energy (eV) atomic oxygen | |||
---|---|---|---|
Sample | Virgin | Irradiated | Assignment |
PI | 288.5 | 288.7 | Shake up |
286.4 | 286.8 | C▬O▬C | |
285.5 | 285.7 | Aromatic ring | |
284.6 | 284.9 | Aromatic structure | |
283.8 | 284.2 | Benzene ring | |
FEP | 285 | 284.7 | C▬C or C▬H |
– | 286.3 | C▬O | |
– | 288.6 | C=O | |
290.8 | 290.6 | ▬CF | |
292.9 | 292.5 | ▬CF2 | |
295 | 294.5 | ▬CF3 |
C-1s binding energy values estimated from XPS peaks for virgin and plasma-treated PI and FEP.
Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [55] ©Copy right 2006, Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids.
Sample | Concentration % | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C 1s | O1s | N1s | F1s | C:O | C: N | O: N | F:C | O: F | ||
PI | Virgin atomic oxygen irradiated | 68.23 | 29.3 | 2.6 | — | 2.6:1 | 26.2:1 | 11.3:1 | — | — |
80.9 | 17.5 | 1.6 | — | 4.6:1 | 50.6:1 | 10.9:1 | — | — | ||
FEP | Virgin atomic oxygen irradiated | 32.6 | 2.1 | — | 65.3 | 10:06 | — | — | 2.1 | 0:0.03:1 |
37.5 | 19.2 | — | 43.3 | 1:15:1 | 0.44:1 |
Concentration of elementals, their ratios for virgin and plasma-treated PI and FEP.
Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [55] ©Copy right 2006, Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids.
For virgin FEP, peaks at 285, 290.8, 292.9, and 295 eV were, respectively, assigned to C▬H or C▬C, ▬CF, ▬CF2, and ▬CF3 groups. Due to the large relative abundance of ▬CF2; the presence of ▬CF and ▬CF3was indistinguishable. For plasma-treated FEP, peaks @ 284.7, 286.3, 288.6, 290.6, 292.5, and 294.5 eV were, respectively, assigned to C▬H or C▬C, C▬O, C〓O, ▬CF, ▬CF2, and ▬CF3. For FEP, the intensity of ▬CF2 peak was found to be reduced by ∼60% compared to virgin counterpart. The formation of free radical species with oxygen; led to the emergence of prominent oxidized carbon signals. After plasma treatment, positions of carbon in PI were shifted to higher energy and in FEP to the lower side. This can be explained on the basis of bond weakening in polymers. Table 3 shows for FEP two additional oxygen-related moieties were formed due to oxygen replacement by fluorine. By and large, oxygen is comparatively less electronegative than fluorine. Therefore, in FEP binding energies were shifted in the lower regime for C-1s, whereas, in PI, the binding energy shift at the higher side was due to weak electronegativity of hydrogen as compared to oxygen. The imide structure was found to be modified by plasma by breaking aromatic rings [77] and inducing polarization near carbon sites. These processes showed an increase in the binding energy of C-1s in the XPS peaks of the PI.
The ratios of C:O, C:N, and O:N for PI and ratios of F:C, C:O, and O:F for FEP are provided in Table 4. The values were obtained after normalizing the intensity of each XPS peak with respect to the corresponding photoelectric cross-section. They were indicative of an increase in the concentration of carbon, whereas, reduction in O and N for plasma-treated samples. For hydrogen, XPS is relatively insensitive, and atomic oxygen and hydrogen are reactive to form water vapors out diffusing from a carbonaceous layer of polymer.
In PI, an increase in the ratio of C:N from 26.2:1 up to 50.6:1 for post-treated samples was attributed to atomic oxygen interactions with C▬N bonds [77] and the formation of new C▬O▬N species. However, it was speculated that during plasma exposure, C▬O▬N bonding would be broken leading to new species like NOx on PI surface that might have been pumped out of the reactor. Desorption of water vapors and NOx species leads to a reduction in N and O with enhancement in C by plasma exposure. For FEP surfaces plasma treatment showed a significant increase in O, with a marginal increase in C including an appreciable reduction in F. This resulted in an increase in ratios of O:C and O:F on surfaces of plasma-treated FEP.
Figure 15 showed that, peaks in FTIR spectra recorded for virgin and plasma-treated PI (a) C▬O stretching @ 1050–1250 cm−1, (b) C▬C backbone aromatic ring @ 1504 cm−1, (c) N▬H bend @ 1602 cm−1, (d) carbonyl stretch @ 1724 cm−1, and (e) O▬H and N▬H stretch @ 3080–2872 cm−1 [77]. They were similar to each other, except for small changes in intensities. Spectrum provided bulk information that was not so prominent in the surface region. Overall reduction in peak intensities was attributed to changes in the surface region mainly due to the erosion factor. Figure 15 showed that peaks appeared at (a) 680–780 cm−1 were due to the presence of weaker band bending for C▬F group, (b) @ 980 cm−1 due to ▬C▬C▬ stretch in side-chain C▬CF3 group, (c) @ 1100–1400 cm−1 for C▬F coupled to C▬C stretch, and (d) @2370 cm−1 for ▬CF2 stretch [78, 79, 80].
FTIR recorded for (a) (i) virgin and (ii) plasma-treated PI, (b) (i) virgin and (ii) plasma-treated FEP (all @ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2). Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
For plasma-treated FEP, peak intensities were lowered with slight modifications in shape when compared with virgin FEP. Their results of FTIR supported the results of weight loss, SEM, and XPS for PI and FEP. The decrease in peak intensities revealed that the corresponding concentration of moieties had lowered due to atomic erosion from the polymer surface. From FTIR spectra of virgin and plasma-treated PI showed in Figure 15, it is clearly observed that the intensities of the absorption peaks at 1050–1250, 1504, 1602, 1724, and 3080–2872 cm−1 corresponding to C▬O, C▬C, N▬H, C〓O, and O▬H, respectively, have decreased after exposure to atomic oxygen ions. Similarly, from the FTIR spectra of FEP shown in Figure 15, it is observed that the intensities of the C▬F peaks at 680–780, 980, and 1100–1400 cm−1 have decreased after exposure to atomic oxygen ions. It is clear from these FTIR spectra that the bonds are more or less equally affected in FEP and PI after exposure to the atomic oxygen ions. However, the absorption peaks corresponding to O▬H and N▬H bonds showed a significant loss in the peak intensity. Their results, therefore, indicated that weight loss in PI was higher than in FEP. XPS analysis also revealed that C▬O peak intensities in PI and intensities corresponding to fluorocarbon bonds in FEP have decreased, significantly, after exposure to plasma. Overall FTIR revealed that surface and sub-surface regions of PI and FEP were modified due to atomic erosion. Notably, the surface of FEP was reported to be more resistant to plasma attack. Riyadh et al. speculated that diffusion of fluorine into surface layers of PI may provide protection against atomic oxygen radiation degradation and have promised in space applications.
In this work, carried out by Majeed et al., samples of dimensions 15 mm × 15 mm × 50 μm were cut out from a PI sheet. The irradiation with electron beam was carried out by keeping samples inside a thin-walled polyethylene bottle mounted on the Faraday cup cage. From Race-track-microtron of Pune University, India, a pulsed electron beam of energy 1-MeV energy was obtained with pulse width ∼ 1.6 μs and pulse repetition rate 50 pps. Beam was scattered elastically by a thin tungsten foil of thickness ∼40 μm in order to obtain a uniform intensity on samples. The intensity of beam uniformity over a circular area of ∼40 mm was measured to be ∼5%. A current integrator, mounted in the system was used to measure electron flux incident on Faraday cup. Four different electron fluences 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 × 1015 e/cm2 were chosen with constant flux. Thus, by varying irradiation time, electron-fluence was changed followed by exposure to plasma flux at different fluences of atomic oxygen ions. The experimentation was carried out in a separate setup. In this, reference samples were PI taken to be samples without electron irradiation.
For atomic oxygen plasma treatment, experiments were carried out in the in-house-developed, microwave-based Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) plasma system as described in Section 5.1, Figure 12. The specific parameters such as energy and ion flux, in ECR plasma at different axial positions of the chamber. Chamber pressure variations were measured using a three-grid retarding field analyzer (RFA) as reported in our earlier publication [55]. For plasma treatment, samples were irradiated at an operating pressure of 8 × 10−3 mbar, at maximum energy position (10–14 eV) of oxygen ion with maximum flux (∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1) with mean energy ∼12 eV. Plasma was also characterized by a quadrupole mass spectrometer. They noted almost one order magnitude of variation at the higher side in the intensity of atomic oxygen ions than that of molecular oxygen over the entire energy range. Thus, they reported an abundance of molecular oxygen-less compared to atomic oxygen. Total fluence was varied by time variations in sample exposure, covering a range 5–20 × 1016 ions cm−2.
Gravimetric measurements of virgin and radiation treated (electron + plasma) were performed using a microbalance with an accuracy of ±1 μg.
Surface-wetting characteristics with de-ionized water were estimated by measuring contact angle “θ” in which measurements were performed with NRL-C. A. goniometer (RameHart. Inc. USA) with an optical protractor. Wettability measurements were immediately performed after removing samples from the plasma chamber. The wettability technique used was the sessile drop technique with 2 μl droplet volume. Three measurements were taken and values reported by Majeed et al. were the mean value of three measurements recorded for each sample. Measurement accuracy was ±1 degree. The work of adhesion (WA) related to surface wettability was calculated which is [81] is given by: WA = γLV (1 + cosθ), where, LV is interfacial surface tension @ liquid/vapor interface, and θ is contact angle (LV = 72.8 mJ/m2 for water).
Figure 16 shows variations in weight loss in % with plasma exposure time. Net weight loss in virgin PI was reported to be increased with plasma exposure time. Notably, for 1 MeV electron-irradiated PI rate of weight loss increased with increasing fluence of electron irradiation.
Variations in % weight loss with plasma exposure for equivalent flux ∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1, for PI irradiated with 1 MeV electrons @ fluences: (a) 0 to (e) 20 × 1014 e/cm2. Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
Erosion (volume per atom) yield quantification was carried out using the expression: Ey = ΔΜ/ (ρ.Α.Φ.t), where, ∆M is mass variation, ρ, is density (1.42 gm cm
Fluence of 1 MeV electron (×10 14 e/cm 2) | Maximum erosion yield (×10−22 cm3 atom−1) (accuracy 1%) |
---|---|
0 (virgin) | 7.28 |
5 | 8.92 |
10 | 10.56 |
15 | 12.53 |
20 | 14.81 |
Maximum erosion yield (Ey) for PI irradiated @ different electron fluences with subsequent exposure to oxygen plasma flux@ ∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1. Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [55] ©Copy right 2006, Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids.
Data revealed that, average erosion yield after exposing PI to electrons has increased by a factor of 2 as compared to virgin PI which was indicative of PI upon electron irradiation becomes more susceptible to plasma erosion.
In order to reveal the nature of radiation-induced surface modifications; hydrophilic characteristics of polymer surface were investigated by measuring wettability. Wettability depends upon surface roughness and surface chemical composition. Change in surface properties was, in turn, reflected in modification in measured contact angle. Figure 17 shows variations in contact angle plasma exposure time, for PI irradiated with 1 MeV electrons @different fluences. They noted a reduction in water contact angle, θ, to a larger extent as compared to virgin PI. Corresponding WA was calculated and displayed in Table 6.
Contact angle variations with plasma exposure (@ ∼5 × 1013 ions cm−2 s−1 flux) for PI irradiated with 1 MeV electrons with fluences: (a) 0 (virgin), (b) 10 × 1014 e/cm2, and (c) 20 × 1014 e/cm2. Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
Time of exposure (s) | Virgin PI samples | 1 MeV electrons irradiated samples at fluence | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(10 × 10 14 e/cm 2) | (20 × 10 14 e/cm 2) | |||||
Contact angle“θ” (°) | Work of adhesion (WA) mJ/m2 | Contact angle“θ” (°) | Work of adhesion (WA) mJ/m2 | Contact angle“θ” (°) | Work of adhesion (WA) mJ/m2 | |
0 | 75 | 91.6 ± 1.3 | 72 | 95.3 ± 1.2 | 68 | 100.1 ± 1.2 |
600 | 67 | 101.2 ± 1.2 | 62 | 107 ± 1.1 | 56 | 113.5 ± 1.1 |
1200 | 58 | 111.4 ± 1.1 | 53 | 116.6 ± 1.0 | 45 | 124.3 ± 0.9 |
1800 | 51 | 118.6 ± 1.0 | 45 | 124.3 ± 0.9 | 38 | 130.2 ± 0.8 |
2400 | 45 | 124.3 ± 0.9 | 39 | 129.4 ± 0.8 | 32 | 134.5 ± 0.7 |
3600 | 36 | 131.7 ± 0.7 | 31 | 135.2 ± 0.7 | 25 | 138.8 ± 0.5 |
Data for θ and WA for virgin and electron irradiated PI before and after plasma exposure for different periods of time.
Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [55] ©Copy right 2006, Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids.
The obtained data was indicative of θ change with WA for electron irradiated PI which was observed to be much higher than that for virgin reference. Significant reduction in θ with improved wettability was mainly attributed to electron irradiation-induced surface modifications.
Morphological analysis was carried out by investigating changes in surface roughness. In Figure 18(a) and (b), SEM micrographs, comparatively show surface-morphologies of PI exposed to plasma; with and without electron pre-irradiation. Although surface roughness was noted to be enhanced marginally when pre-irradiated alone (b-i) or oxygen alone (a-ii). However, for electron irradiated surfaces (@ 20 × 1014 e/cm2) that were subjected to plasma (@ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2) a drastic change in surface roughness was observed, as seen in (b-ii). The surface texture of electron-irradiated PI that was subsequently exposed to plasma was observed to consist of globules, cavities, and blisters of various sizes. This may be attributed to synergetic electron-irradiation and plasma-induced surface erosion in PI. Majeed et al. reported that defects introduced in the surface region by electron irradiation indent roughness which became more susceptible to oxidative erosion by plasma treatment. The chain scission process seems to be responsible for causing surface degassing from the samples. Due to the coagulation of emerging molecular species, blisters were formed. Nonuniform degassing may lead to significant surface roughness. They reported secondary effects too such as chain scission might have re-crosslinked leading to a subsequent change in surface free volume, which resulted in the imperfect surface after radiation [52] treatment.
SEM micrographs: (a-i) virgin, (a-ii) plasma treated (@ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2), (b-i) electron irradiated, (b-ii) combined (electron + plasma treated) @ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2. Electron fluence @ 20 × 1014 e/cm2for both samples in (b). Reproduced with permission [
As discussed earlier, polymer on encountering energetic radiations breaks in chain and link as well simultaneously. However, chain scission or cross-linking depends upon the type of polymer, radiation, and dose rate. As reported in earlier literature [52] it appears that MeV electrons can effectively produce cross-linking in PI. Moreover, the dose rate of electrons is considerably high. In such cases radiation density induced zones nucleates in reactive free radicals that expand and get overlapped resulting in cross-linking of free radicals. Moreover, the dominance of scission or cross-linking also depends upon the extent of radiation-induced oxidation.
The combined effect of radiation-induced changes was further analyzed by Majeed et al., using vibrational i.e. FTIR spectroscopy. Figure 19 shows recorded FTIR spectra for and electron-irradiated PI before and after exposure plasma exposure. Four spectra are displayed in the figure. Basic spectrum corresponds to virgin i.e. profile (i), (ii) plasma-treated, (iii) electron irradiated, (iv) combined electrons + oxygen plasma. Intensities in (i), can be compared with those in other spectra. Prominent absorption was observed corresponding to (a) C▬O str. @ 1050–1250 cm−1 (b) CO▬N▬CO cyclic imide appeared @1376–1390 (〓C▬N str.), (c) C▬C backbone aromatic ring @ 1504 cm−1, (d) N▬H bend. and str., respectively, @1602 cm−1 and 3486 cm−1, (e) carbonyl str. @ 1724–1780 cm−1, (f) C▬H str. @ 3085 cm−1, and (g) hydroxyl ▬O▬H @ 3630 cm−1 [66, 82, 83]. By and large, Majeed et al., noted a marginal reduction in intensities of almost all emerged bands on exposure of the thin film to plasma, whereas, electron alone affected to a lesser extent showing shallow changes in absorption peaks. In contrast, IR absorption bands were extensively reduced for combined electrons and plasma effects. This showed electron irradiation alone does not extensively contribute to chain scission or cross-linking, whereas, plasma irradiation is capable of producing chain scission as well as cross-linking by the reactive oxidation process. This process got further prominent if the ionizing electron irradiation has created defect centers. As reported earlier, atomic oxygen reacts with C▬N species which is the weakest bond in PI, and establishes C▬O▬N bonding.
Recorded FTIR spectra of PI for (i) virgin, (ii) plasma treated @ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2, (iii) pre-electron-irradiated @ 20 × 1014 e/cm2, and (iv) electrons (@ 20 × 1014 e/cm2 + plasma (@ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2) treated. (a) to (g) indicate assigned functional groups described in the text. Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
Figure 20 showed UV visible transmission spectra of PI @ different radiation conditions. A combination of two doses (electron + plasma) was presented. The plots showed that the value of % transmission was observed to be decreased when PI got treated with electrons + plasma combinedly as compared to plasma alone. Thus, synergetic effects were operational by electrons irradiation causing surface erosion, and apparently plasma treatment effectively enhanced the roughness of polymer films. Such a rough surface was responsible to enhance light scattering and thus reducing the overall transmission property of the sample.
UV-visible transmission spectra of (a) virgin, (b) plasma treated, (c) electron irradiated + plasma treated (plasma @ 1 × 1017 ions cm−2) (d) plasma treated, (e) electrons + plasma treated (plasma @ 2 × 1017 ions cm−2). Reproduced with permission Riyadh et al. [
In a study carried out by Alegaonkar et al., common polymer foils were used such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), PI (PI), polycarbonate (PC), and silicone rubber, however, due to space crunch, herein, we have presented only the results of 10–20 μm thick PET and PI films (Goodfellows Ltd., Russian). These films were irradiated with 300–500 MeV Ar, Kr, Xe ions over the fluence 1–500 × 106 cm−2@ heavy ion accelerator @JINR Dubna (Russia) or @ HMI Berlin (Germany).
By and large, the choice of the projectile and its energy provides magnitude and distribution of transferred energy density along the ion track trail, which consequently determines the track-to-bulk etching rate. It also influences the shape of emerging pores called etched ion tracks (post-etching). For PET irradiated under certain conditions and etched in a typical condition yields rather cylindrical tracks, whereas, for PI conical (or hyperbolical if etched from both sides) had been reported. The angle of cone, χ, was observed to be increased with reducing an atomic number of projectile ion, χ ∼ 20° for PI. Post latent track etching of PET films was carried out using 3 mole/l NaOH at 45°C. Systematic observations on the etching track shapes were made in a regular time interval using ion transmission spectrometry (ITS) [84]. ITS technique records the energy spectrum of nearly monoenergetic (5.49 MeV) α particles from a 40 kBq241Am α source, transmitted through the etched films. With sequential etching, when for the first time α particles get transmitted through the etching film without any energy loss it is indicative of etching breakthrough can be achieved. One can calculate track radius, provided that one knows the areal track density [85]. The tracks etching has been done up to diameters in a range of ∼100 nm and a few μm.
By deposition of Ag, Cu, and Ni, we have carried out the production of conducting etched ion tracks. We adopted the chemical or electrodeless deposition (ELD) technique in order to deposit metal within the etched tracks [86]. Particularly for Cu and Ni deposition, we used commercially available solutions from M/s Doduco Ltd. Whereas, for deposition of Ag, we followed the reported procedure of St. Gobain (Brockhaus, 1895; Th Pone, 1955), due to the green approach. Deposition of Cu and Ag was carried out at 24°C, and Ni @ ∼88°C. Martin et al. [86] reported a strong surface-near reduction of the inner track diameter including the closure of track, however, we have not observed any such thing.
In order to achieve durable metal layers on polymeric substrates, it requires the existence of nucleation centers on polymer surfaces where the metal atoms could be deposited. For polymers used herein, for metal precipitation and nucleation the areal density intrinsic surface defects were too low for the formation of a continuous metallic layer. This led to the emergence of discontinuous metal tracks as seen in Figure 21(a). The creation of additional nucleation centers was observed to be generating continuous track tubules as seen in Figure 21(b). One can achieve this by surface activation process either chemically by bonding suitable metal atoms (e.g. Sn, Pd) or physically by creating dangling surface states by laser or ion irradiation.
Comparison of SEM micrographs for (a) intermittent and (b) continuous ELD-deposited tracks of Ag in PET. In this, image (a) shows preparation of deposition without activation, and image (b) displays the addition of chemical activation centers. Reproduced with permission Fink et al. [
We have carried out resistivity measurements along the track axis to assess the quality of emerging track deposition. This was carried out by contacting the front and rear sides of the etched track polymer films using Au electrodes under constant gentle pressure. Initially, high-track resistivities were registered. In order to determine very low track resistivities, some polymer films were irradiated through mask pinholes to reduce the areal density of tracks (which were counted).
Figure 22 shows the dependence of Cu-filled track quality with activation time that revealed a necessity to introduce a sufficient number of nucleation centers. For non-activated samples, the resistivity was (not shown here) closely resembled samples of 1s activation time (Figure 22). Analysis exclusively revealed that the metal was deposited onto intrinsic defects. From Figure 22, it can be seen that after the exposure for a few seconds the process of activation improves the track quality by orders of magnitude. On saturation of density of nucleation centers, exposure of polymer film to the activation solution is ineffective. Thus, the quality of metallic track-tubules is correlated to the roughness of their inner surfaces. During the initial track, tubule growth surface area is larger and nucleation centers were less available. For smooth inner tubule walls with high conductivity, a high nucleation center density is a basic requirement. Moreover, the roughness of inner walls of the etched track, depending on the etching conditions such as etchant concentration; the smoothness of the outer tubule surfaces can be determined) and is of utmost importance. This is demonstrated by comparing the quality of metal-filled tubules in PET and PI prepared under identical conditions. We noted the filled track tubules in PI were better due to the greater smoothness of both inner and outer tubule walls.
Variation in resistivity of tracks in PE and PI films with embedded Cu material along the surface normal to the film (i.e. along the axis of ion track). Conditions for chemical activation and ELD deposition: 5 min ELD solution exposure. Reproduced with permission [
In addition to chemical activation, another channel is ion irradiation. The underlying mechanism is to activate ring structures in polymer by electronic energy transfer so that oxygen can be attached. This will facilitate metal addition. The nucleation center formation experimentation for 30–300 keV He+ to Xe+ ions was performed that resulted in polymer surface activation @fluences of 1013 cm−2 and was noted to be independent of projectile ion. No saturation in surface activation was observed due to irradiation.
Morphological investigation revealed that metal layers deposited onto ion-activated polymers were appeared to be smoother compared to the chemically activated nucleation process. They concluded ion-induced activation took place locally which enabled to tailoring of the metal deposition along the axis of the track. It means for a cylindrical metal contact embedded in tracks can be produced on both sides of a track for sensor application.
For metals, ELD deposition took place in track tubules after a system-dependent specific incubation time (Ni ∼ 5 s, Ag ∼ 1 min, Cu ∼ 11.2 min). However, at higher temperatures, the track deposition and tubule formation speed were observed to be fast [8]. Figure 23 via-a-vis compares the rate of deposition of ELD at room temperature within the etched ion tracks with unirradiated polymer surfaces. However, within the tubule, metal layers started growing ∼2 times earlier than that on pristine surfaces which were attributed to the higher activation density of etched tracks. The irradiation-induced damage at the inner walls of the track were bonded the sensitizers better than inert pristine surfaces. For both tubules and pristine surfaces deposition showed a steadily decreasing deposition trend with an increase in time. This was attributed to exhaust of available solutions and the complete filling up of narrow tracks. No significant difference was observed for pristine surfaces and tubule walls of any radius, which that demonstrated, the diffusion speed of ELD solution within very narrow tracks has not a decisive parameter. A dramatic change in their electric conductivity was noted for increased metallization of filled tracked films. During the initial stage of deposition, the fall in resistivity was seen by orders of magnitude from dielectric to semiconducting to conducting regime with the gradual development of continuous metal layer. Thus, further reduction in resistivity was determined by the increase in layer thickness. Inside the tracks, the resistivity was observed to be improved faster than on the surface of the thin film. This observation was consistent with the rise in the growth of metal layers within the tracks.
Metallic layers deposition and growth in PI track by ELD. Comparison for deposition in pristine polymer films and growth at the interior of etched tracks, for Cu and Ni deposition. Reproduced with permission [
By and large, we were able to prove by SEM, conductivity studies, and ITS measurements that metallic tubules tracks were continuous and hollow throughout the track height of the polymer film. However, measurements of Rutherford backscattering revealed marginal variation in thickness of tubule wall along the axis of track.
There is number of proposals for ion track applications that required high-temperature stability either during device preparation or actual implementation, for such purpose behavior of the tracks and their embedded structures must be known. As a first examination of this kind is already reported in reference [87]. According to reported findings, etched tracks of PE initially gots welled a bit upon heating due to release of moisture (received from the etchant) and subsequently became thin due to onset flow of glassy polymer, and towards the end got widen again swiftly due to carbonization. As a result, silver-filled track tubules appeared to be lost in their parallel alignment above the glass transition temperature (Tg) so that their transmission rapidly decreased upon annealing. However, for PI, developed ion tracks were observed to be maintained their shapes up to ∼450°C, and thereafter, transformed with the onset of carbonization. They were observed to be increased in their width. Silver-filled PI tracks were observed to be led to a stable structure >600°C.
Above discussion clarifies the role and application of latent (as-implanted ion tracks) and etched tracks. Broadly speaking, latent tracks are emerged fundamentally due to the deposition of high energy (MeV to GeV) inside a tiny volume element called as the core of the ion track which has volume 10−15–10−14 cm3. Moreover, within an impulsive time, about 10−17–10−15 s interaction by swift heavy ions, these exceptional transient conditions, led to a dramatic variation within materials. These changes are chemical and structural in origin that accompanies heat and pressure impulse. Primary damage such as transient breaking of all bonds is recovered during generated annealing phase followed immediately after the ion impact, named, thermal spike in about 10−12–10−11 s. However, a number of irreversible changes remained within the damaged cylindrical zone. Thus, such zone is altered with characteristic changes like accumulation of high density of radicals, excess carbonaceous clusters, new phases (SiC in polysilane), amorphization, and modification in inherent free volume. As a result, several macroscopic properties of the irradiated polymer could get modified like permeability, refraction index, electric conductivity, thermal properties, etc.
For such damaged zone i.e. latent tracks, there are four major strategies showed up: (1) exploiting modified transport properties along the tracks, (2) precipitation of metallic atoms or clusters along the damaged zone, (3) exploiting chemical changes in polymer, and (4) using phase transition characteristics induced by ion irradiation [88]. Hitherto insignificant work has been carried out in these fields. In general, ion-irradiated polymer films carrying latent tracks can be used as a seal in order to protect sensitive zones against penetration of ambient dust and moisture; maintaining equilibrium pressure and exchange of gases with ambiance. There are very few reports presenting proof of concept like doping of latent tracks for electronic application [85], SiC needles [88, 89] for AFM cantilevers, ion-induced conducting nanowires in diamond [90], or fullerite [88] for field emission displays are demonstrated.
Dissolving latent track material by suitable agents, termed as an etching process, led to the formation of the etched track. For this, there is a combo pack of projectile selection, targeted polymer, etchant, and etching conditions. Further, etched tracks can be manipulated in the desired shape like cylindrical, conical, hyperbolic, transmittent, non-transmittent. In principle, etched ion track can be filled by a number of material, and embedded assembly of material can be assembled as bulky wires, termed as, fibers or fibrils or tubules. In this, metal could be dispersed discontinuously in the form of nanoparticles along with the track geometry. The initial step could be realized by embedding matter within etched tracks to transport material clusters towards the required position which could be accomplished by dissolving material of interest in a suitable aqueous or non-aqueous solution followed by penetration of the solution into the etched tracks by capillarity action. By allowing liquid to evaporate within the tracks, followed by dissolution of matter could result in a supersaturated state of metal particles which led to precipitate onto form tubule. There was number of reported tubules like KCl, C60, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), dyes, etc. The thickness of the tubule depends, empirically, depends upon the amount of matter dissolved in a solvent and transported into the ion track.
The class of such deposition is called as chemical or electrodeless (ELD) deposition technique [91]. In this, high degree of supersaturation of certain metals like Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, etc., or metal chalcogenide like CdS, PbS, CuxS, ZnS, CdSe, ZnSe, CdTe, CuInSe2, etc., could be achieved by dissolving them in a suitable agent such as NH3, ethylenediamine (EN), nitrilotriacetate (NTA), thiourea (TU), and others. They precipitate heterogeneously to generate tubules of these materials in etched ion tracks which possess nucleation centers activated chemically or physically or chemically as discussed earlier.
Further, colloidal possess specific optical and electronic properties like high charge storage capacity, fluorescence, polarization, etc., blending colloidal with etched track could lead to new interesting applications like colloidal of TiO2, and LiNbO3 (20 nm: ball milled) to form nanotubules in etched tracks for optical sensors. Moreover, solver colloidal of conducting silver paste was used to deposit etched tracks that yielded conducting micro/nanowires for etched ion-track with diameter five times larger than silver particles. In etched ion tracks, it is possible to deposit material by carrying out chemical reactions like the formation of photosensitive AgBr, by allowing chemical reaction between AgNO3 and NaBr within etched ion tracks in which tracks were acted as microreactors. However, the hydrophilic nature of tracks puts requirements on penetrants to have wetting characteristics. For hydrophobic solvents such as liquid metals, one can use a pressure injection route to enter solvent forcedly into the nanopores. Eventually, this could be useful in modifying the wettability characteristics of etched track walls by suitable deposits. We observed that liquid Pb/Sn solder material could readily be penetrated into etched ion tracks, therefore, can be used for contacting ion-track-based devices for Cu-filled tracks.
Further, galvanic deposition is another deposition technique that was reportedly used to coat conducting matter within etched tracks. In general, etched microporous polymeric films could be connected to the cathode such that the deposited metal or conducting polymer grows throughout etched tracks generating non-porous rods. However, a major disadvantage in all track manipulation techniques using solvents was noted to be the formation of ionic radical e.g. Ag tubules in PI possess a weak halo of Na+ (etchant) and Ag+ (ELD) ions contributing weak ionic bulk conductivity. Etched ion tracks can also be deposited by gas-phase pyrolysis type reactions, permeating gas to transform solid residues such as carbon or silicon, via pyrolytic reactions. However, such reactions required high reaction temperatures, and etched tracks in PI, mica, and SiO2were found to be well-suited candidates. Evaporation also led to a limited deposition near the entrance of the ion track and having a demerit of limited depth that can be reached in narrow tracks by evaporation [92]. Semiconducting material filling in ultra-small dimensional tracks, exhibited diode characteristics with quantum effects such as resonant electron tunneling in which current/voltage characteristics exhibited characteristic local maxima and minima over the applied voltage range. Capacitive coupling of such semiconducting ion track wires led to the formation of field-effect transistor-like structures. Especially, surface-modified metal ion track nanotubules were reported to be used to control electrolytic permissivity [93]. Moreover, such nanotubules grafted with gels were performed like switches for penetrating liquids [94]. Au nanotubules were used as miniaturized electrolytic sensors for detecting oxygen concentration. They were also used for in vivo long-time drug storage [95]. TiO2 nanotubules were found to be advantageous in Li batteries [96] and fullerene tubules were reported to be effective temperature, pressure, and humidity sensors [97]. Layer-by-layer galvanic deposition of distinct materials led to axially structured elements such as Cu and Se [98, 99], or Ni and CdSe/CdTe [100] showed nano-diode characteristics, whereas, sequential galvanic deposition of different ferromagnetic materials led to giant magnetic resonance, GMR [101]. Layer-by-layer chemical deposition of semiconductor/metal/semiconductor led to the formation of cylindrical diodes, and metal/insulator/metal structures resulted in concentric condensers [102].
Architecting copper metal wires into etched ion tracks with sequential evaporation of metal contact stripes onto the surface of microporous polymer film led to the formation of micro-inductors (Figure 24a) and micro-transformers. Correspondingly, masks used for evaporation and intermediate production stages of a prototype magnet are displayed in Figure 24a. Corresponding test transformers show good operation up to ∼0.5 GHz (Figure 24b), with inductances per winding of 10−4 H @ 10 Hz and 2.5 × 10−7 H @104 and 5 × 108 Hz with Q-factor approaching up to ∼10. The miniaturized ion-track-based transformer is shown in Figure 24c. In a similar fashion combining lithography and etched tracks, miniaturized magnetic field sensors based on magneto-resistive ion tracks were produced by another research group [101]. First, ion-track-based sensors were developed especially for oxygen, as some biochemically important materials to be detected reacts with the enzyme glucose oxidase towards H2O2 which was transformed to water by anodic oxidation. Also, temperature, pressure, and humidity sensors were developed with C60 as a sensor material [97, 103].
Etched ion-track-based magnets and transformers, Left panel (a) prototype magnet with dimensions 6 × 7 × 0:02 mm
In conclusion; the modification in various electrical and physicochemical properties of polyimide is shown to be induced by novel methods; without changing the major chemistry of the polymer. Most of the reported investigations are related to the irradiation effects of 50 μm thick, space quality film of polyimide by high energy electrons, gamma rays from Co-60, swift heavy ions, and low energy ions of atomic oxygen generated from the plasma source. Extracts of experimental details and the results have been presented in brief and are comprised in five separate sections (Sections 2–7) of the chapter.
The effects of electron irradiation on the dielectric properties were compared with those obtained from diffusing certain elements such as fluorine, boron, and phosphorous by radiation assisted diffusion process. The dielectric constant and the refractive index are shown to be lowered by irradiating the samples with 1 MeV electrons. It was seen to be further lowered when PI was doped with boron and fluorine even into a thin (3 μm) surface layer on both sides of the film. However, similar diffusion of phosphorous has been reported to increase the dielectric constant from 3.15 to 4.5. In these studies, the RBS technique was used for depth profiling wherein XPS for finding the chemical changes occurring in the surface layers. The variations in the dielectric constant and dielectric loss obtained with Co-60 gamma rays were similar to those obtained with 1 MeV electrons at a fluence of 1015 e/cm2. These results are important in view of using 50 μm thick PI in space applications since the space vehicle is exposed to different kinds of radiations where lower values of dielectric constant are preferred. It is noteworthy that the diffusion of phosphorus or boron and fluorine was carried out at room temperature and the phenomenon of the tailoring of the dielectric characteristics of PI was found to be surface sensitive.
There are reports wherein the mechanical properties of PI were found sensitive to the radiations. Noticeable enhancement in the tensile strength was observed when PI was irradiated with 1MeV electrons and this effect is attributed to the radiation-induced cross-linking. In addition, the electron beam-induced surface roughening was found to enhance the hydrophilicity of PI surface. In conclusion, it is proved that high-energy electron irradiation can be used to tailor the bulk and surface properties of PI.
Being a space-compatible polymer, PI has a special role to play in supersonic aircraft and in space vehicles. However, there is always a concern about its possible degradation on exposure to the atomic oxygen species during its passage in LEO. The paper discusses the various effects of AO, generated in a home-built Electron Cyclotron Resonance plasma system, on the surface erosion properties. It is noticed that degree of the surface degradation in FEP is lower, by a factor of five than in PI. The synergetic effects of 1 MeV electron irradiation and exposure to AO irradiation of PI have been discussed in detail. Electron irradiation has been found to be more detrimental to the surface erosion behavior by AO. The surface defects arising from chain-scission and cross-linking in PI by electrons are set responsible for the increase in the erosion yield.
Our earlier studies related to the production and behavior of metal nanostructures by chemically filling the etched ion tracks (produced by swift high energy ions) in PI have been elaborated. The results have proved the strength of the method for future devices. These reports indicate that the Etched Ion Tracks, in combination with lithography, opens up the possibilities for creating novel microstructures in PI which is inaccessible by other techniques.
The authors are thankful to the Director, ISRO-DRDO, SPPU Cell for providing an opportunity to carry out work. They are thankful to the Director, UGC-DAE-CSR for providing access to their facilities, as and when required. PSA and VNB are thankful to ISRO, German Academic Exchange Program (DAAD), and involved scientists for giving an opportunity to carry out work at Hahn-Meitner-Institute, Berlin, Germany. The authors are thankful to Dr. Ashwini P. Alegaonkar for compiling and typesetting the chapter.
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",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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The mitigation of this kind of CO2 emissions relies on a portfolio of alternatives where CO2 absorption appears as the nearest approach to be applied at industrial scale. Researchers have been focused on developing new formulations of solvents to make more competitive CO2 absorption as a carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology. In this sense, this chapter summarizes both the conventional solvents and the most recent investigations on this field. Chemical absorption is more suitable for a lot of industrial process due to the flue gas conditions: ambient pressure, low CO2 concentration and large volume. Therefore numerous novel solvents came up in recent years and they are further discussed in this chapter. The most recent solvents, their mechanisms and kinetics and the advantages and disadvantages are also included. Finally, physical solvents are adequate in high CO2 partial pressure applications and they are reported in the last section. Although physical absorption field is constrained to high-pressure flue gas, physical solvents provided higher performance in CO2 separation process and their characteristics are also summarized.",book:{id:"6186",slug:"carbon-dioxide-chemistry-capture-and-oil-recovery",title:"Carbon Dioxide Chemistry, Capture and Oil Recovery",fullTitle:"Carbon Dioxide Chemistry, Capture and Oil Recovery"},signatures:"Fernando Vega, Mercedes Cano, Sara Camino, Luz M. Gallego\nFernández, Esmeralda Portillo and Benito Navarrete",authors:[{id:"10704",title:"Prof.",name:"Benito",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"benito-navarrete",fullName:"Benito Navarrete"},{id:"209759",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"fernando-vega",fullName:"Fernando Vega"},{id:"218843",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes",middleName:null,surname:"Cano",slug:"mercedes-cano",fullName:"Mercedes Cano"},{id:"218844",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Camino",slug:"sara-camino",fullName:"Sara Camino"},{id:"218845",title:"Mrs.",name:"Luz. M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gallego Fernández",slug:"luz.-m.-gallego-fernandez",fullName:"Luz. M. Gallego Fernández"},{id:"218846",title:"Mrs.",name:"Esmeralda",middleName:null,surname:"Portillo",slug:"esmeralda-portillo",fullName:"Esmeralda Portillo"}]},{id:"13241",title:"Heat Flow, Work Energy, Chemical Reactions, and Thermodynamics: a Dynamical Systems Perspective",slug:"heat-flow-work-energy-chemical-reactions-and-thermodynamics-a-dynamical-systems-perspective",totalDownloads:3282,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"25",slug:"thermodynamics",title:"Thermodynamics",fullTitle:"Thermodynamics"},signatures:"Wassim M. Haddad, Sergey G. Nersesov and VijaySekhar Chellaboina",authors:[{id:"15784",title:"Dr.",name:"Wassim",middleName:"M.",surname:"Haddad",slug:"wassim-haddad",fullName:"Wassim Haddad"},{id:"15788",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",middleName:"G.",surname:"Nersesov",slug:"sergey-nersesov",fullName:"Sergey Nersesov"},{id:"15789",title:"Prof.",name:"Vijay Sekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Chellaboina",slug:"vijay-sekhar-chellaboina",fullName:"Vijay Sekhar Chellaboina"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"113",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"78950",title:"Performance Investigation of the Solar Membrane Distillation Process Using TRNSYS Software",slug:"performance-investigation-of-the-solar-membrane-distillation-process-using-trnsys-software",totalDownloads:37,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100335",abstract:"Membrane distillation (MD) is a separation process used for water desalination, which operates at low pressures and feeds temperatures. Air gap membrane distillation (AGMD) is the new MD configuration for desalination where both the hot feed side and the cold permeate side are in indirect contact with the two membrane surfaces. The chapter presents a new approach for the numerical study to investigate various solar thermal systems of the MD process. The various MD solar systems are studied numerically using and including both flat plate collectors (the useful thermal energy reaches 3750 kJ/hr with a total area of 4 m2) and photovoltaic panels, each one has an area of 1.6 m2 by using an energy storage battery (12 V, 200 Ah). Therefore, the power load of solar AGMD systems is calculated and compared for the production of 100 L/day of distillate water. It was found that the developed system consumes less energy (1.2 kW) than other systems by percentage reaches 52.64% and with an average distillate water flow reaches 10 kg/h at the feed inlet temperature of AGMD module 52°C. Then, the developed system has been studied using TRNSYS and PVGIS programs on different days during the year in Ain Temouchent weather, Algeria.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Abdelfatah Marni Sandid, Taieb Nehari, Driss Nehari and Yasser Elhenawy"},{id:"81310",title:"Modeling of Solar-Powered Desalination",slug:"modeling-of-solar-powered-desalination",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103934",abstract:"The scarcity, global, and local demand of pure water for SDGs become prominent issue. The global emissions of CO2 and GHGs have put pressure to develop the solar-powered desalination plants. This article discussed the selection of site for the solar thermal desalination in Pakistan keeping the eye on sustainability and modeling and cost analysis of single solar stills technology at Lyari River in Karachi, Pakistan. Pakistan is among the water-deficit countries having 35% of population having lack of pure drinkable water. The plenty of solar irradiance and saline water in Pakistan make it very favorable for solar-powered desalination. The solar stills technology is one of the best technologies to meet the local demand of pure water. The modeling is composed of governing equations based on the law of conservation of mass and law of conservation of energy. The solar irradiance at Lyari River is taken from MERRA–2. The result depicted that the hourly production of distill water is 1 kg/m3 and 8 kg/m3 with and without the FRL lens. The cost of distill water produced from the solar stills having FRL lens is 33% less as compared with solar stills without FRL lens.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Zafar Abbas, Nasir Hayat, Anwar Khan and Muhammad Irfan"},{id:"80466",title:"Reactive Distillation Applied to Biodiesel Production by Esterification: Simulation Studies",slug:"reactive-distillation-applied-to-biodiesel-production-by-esterification-simulation-studies",totalDownloads:114,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102667",abstract:"Reactive distillation is an operation that combines chemical reaction and separation in a single equipment, presenting various technical and economic benefits. In this chapter, an introduction to the reactive distillation process applied to the biodiesel industry was developed and complemented by case studies regarding the production of biodiesel through esterification a low-cost acid feedstock (corn distillers oil) and valorization of by-products (glycerol) through ketalization. The kinetic parameters of both reactions were estimated with an algorithm that performs the minimization of the quadratic differences between experimental and calculated data through a Nelder-Mead simplex method. A 4th order Runge Kutta method was employed to integrate the conversion or concentration equations used to describe the kinetics of the reactions in a batch reactor. Both processes were simulated in the commercial software Aspen Plus with the estimated kinetic parameters. The results obtained are promising and indicate that the productivity of both processes can be improved with the application of reactive distillation technologies. The simulated esterification process with an optimized column resulted in a fatty acids conversion increase of 84% in comparison to the values lower than 50% obtained in the experimental tests. Solketal production through ketalization also achieved a high glycerol conversion superior to 98%.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme Machado, Marcelo Castier, Monique dos Santos, Fábio Nishiyama, Donato Aranda, Lúcio Cardozo-Filho, Vladimir Cabral and Vilmar Steffen"},{id:"79275",title:"Thermal Desalination Systems: From Traditionality to Modernity and Development",slug:"thermal-desalination-systems-from-traditionality-to-modernity-and-development",totalDownloads:97,totalDimensionsCites:3,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101128",abstract:"As well known, the basic birthrights of human are the clean air, clean water, healthy food, and green energy. So, clean water is the second important requested need of all living organisms on Earth. To know the importance of water to our human bodies, a deficiency of just 2% in our body’s water supply indicates dehydration. Nowadays, all countries suffer from the problem of freshwater shortage. Despite the importance of clean water for our lives, only 0.01% is available as surface water such as the rivers, lakes, and swamps. These frightening facts have made it a national and humanitarian duty for scientists to research how to overcome the water problem and how to provide alternative sources of safe drinking water using renewable energies. Desalination is the most famous and operative technique used to overcome this problem. In this chapter, the different desalination techniques are reviewed and reported. Also, the solar distillation processes are mentioned with an extended review on the solar distillers. Besides, the application of artificial intelligence in improving the performance of desalination systems is reported. The main conclusions are stated at the end of this chapter.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Fadl A. Essa"},{id:"79937",title:"Desalination by Membrane Distillation",slug:"desalination-by-membrane-distillation",totalDownloads:186,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101457",abstract:"At present, around 25% of water desalination processes are based on distillation. Similar to classical distillation, membrane distillation is a phased-change process in which a hydrophobic membrane separates two phases. Membrane distillation is considered an emerging player in the desalination, food processing and water treatment market. Due to its high salt rejection, less fouling propensity, operating at moderate temperature and pressure, membrane distillation is considered as a future sustainable desalination technology. The distillation process is quite well known in desalination. However, membrane distillation emerged a few decades ago, and a thorough understanding is needed to adapt this technique in the near future. This review chapter introduces the classical distillation and membrane distillation as an emerging technology in the desalination arena. Heat and mass transfer and thermodynamics in membrane distillation, characteristics of the performance metrics of membrane distillation are also described. Finally, the performance evaluation of MD is presented. The possibility of using low-grade heat in membrane distillation allows it to integrate directly to solar energy and industrial waste heat.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Mustakeem Mustakeem, Sofiane Soukane, Muhammad Saqib Nawaz and Noreddine Ghaffour"},{id:"79199",title:"Principles and Modes of Distillation in Desalination Process",slug:"principles-and-modes-of-distillation-in-desalination-process",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100855",abstract:"Distillation has been a very important separation technique used over many centuries. This technique is diverse and applicable in different fields and for different substances. Distillation is important in the desalination section. Various principles are used in desalting seawater and brackish water to fulfill the demands of freshwater. This work explains the modes and principles of distillation in desalination, their types, present improvement, challenges, and limitations as well as possible future improvements. The first and primary mode of distillation is the passive type. As times went by and the demand for freshwater kept increasing, other modes were introduced and these modes fall under the active distillation type. However, each mode has its own advantages, disadvantages, and limitations over each other. The principles and modes of distillation are as significant as understanding the energy sources needed for distillation. Hence, they are the basic knowledge needed for future innovation in the desalination industries.",book:{id:"10995",title:"Distillation Processes - From Solar and Membrane Distillation to Reactive Distillation Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10995.jpg"},signatures:"Abubakar Sadiq Isah, Husna Takaijudin and Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:47,paginationItems:[{id:"82938",title:"Trauma from Occlusion: Practical Management Guidelines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105960",signatures:"Prashanth Shetty, Shweta Hegde, Shubham Chelkar, Rahul Chaturvedi, Shruti Pochhi, Aakanksha Shrivastava, Dudala Lakshmi, Shreya Mukherjee, Pankaj Bajaj and Shahzada Asif Raza",slug:"trauma-from-occlusion-practical-management-guidelines",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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