Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
1.1 History of R-loops
R-loops are three-stranded nucleic acid structures consisting of a DNA–RNA hybrid and a displaced single-stranded (ss) DNA. They were first described in 1976 by Thomas et al., who observed a hybridized form of ribosomal RNA and ribosomal DNA of Saccharomyces cerevisiae 26S [1]. Structurally, RNA–DNA hybrids adopt an A-form structure [2, 3]. The structure of an R-loop formed with RNA polymerase or CRISPR-Cas9 shows that R-loops have a helical RNA–DNA hybrid structure and a dissociated ssDNA [4, 5, 6, 7].
1.2 Biological functions of R-loops
RNA–DNA hybrids can be formed from GC-rich clusters during transcription or primer synthesis of DNA replication [2, 8]. Because nucleic acid strands are stabilized when they form a double-stranded conformation, the nascent RNA is hybridized to the template DNA strand when the double-stranded (ds)DNA is denatured during replication or transcription [2]. Therefore, R-loops can form at any time when there is a chance that RNA can be annealed with its template DNA. The thread-back model proposes that R-loop formation stems from the annealing of RNA with DNA when the DNA left behind the transcriptome is negatively supercoiled and unwound [9]. Previous studies support this model [10, 11, 12, 13]. Incomplete transcription elongation and termination also induce RNA–DNA hybrid formation, and the denaturation of duplex DNA by negative supercoiling increases R-loop formation.
R-loops have multiple roles in diverse biological reactions (Figure 1). First, R-loops induce genetic rearrangements in B-cells during immunoglobulin class switching [14]. R-loop formation is promoted by transcription through switched immunoglobulin loci, and the R-loop provides a ssDNA substrate for activation-induced deaminase (AID), which converts cytosine to uracil in both DNA strands. Uracil is subsequently removed by uracil glycosylase, and apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease makes nicks at the abasic sites and induces DNA double-strand breaks. During DNA double-strand break repair, the immunoglobulin locus is rearranged to change the level of antibodies generated. R-loops can also regulate both the activation and termination of transcription. Most human promoters are associated with CpG islands [15]. Ginno et al. demonstrated that R-loops are located at promoter sites that have CpG islands and proposed that R-loops protect the template DNA strand from gene-silencing methylation [16]. R-loop stabilization at the promoter region also regulates transcription. Flowering Locus C (FLC) is a transcription repressor of Arabidopsis thaliana that is regulated by COOLAIR through antisense transcription. Sun et al. found that the homeodomain protein AtNDX stabilizes R-loops by binding their displaced ssDNA at the COOLAIR promoter, thus inhibiting COOLAIR transcription and regulating FLC expression [17]. Antisense transcription-mediated R-loop formation at the Vimentin (VIM) promoter induces local chromatin decondensation and enhances gene expression [18]. R-loops also play a role in chromatin organization. For example, they are tightly linked to H3 S10 phosphorylation, which is a mark of chromatin condensation [19]. R-loops regulate both transcription initiation and termination [20]. Skourti-Stathaki et al. proposed a pause-dependent transcription termination mechanism mediated by R-loops and H3K9me2. R-loops are formed in transcription termination regions containing GC-rich sequences and facilitate antisense RNA transcription, inducing dsRNA for RNA interference factors, and they recruit G9a/GLP for the methylation of H3K9 along with HP1γ, which terminates transcription [21]. In addition to research by Skourti-Stathaki and colleagues, other studies suggest that R-loops can regulate transcription termination by RNA polymerase pausing [22, 23]. R-loops also occur at telomeres. Telomeric-repeat-containing RNAs (TERRAs) are noncoding RNAs transcribed from eukaryotic telomeres [24]. During telomerase-mediated telomere elongation in rat1–1 mutant Saccharomyces cerevisiae, TERRAs form RNA–DNA hybrids and inhibit telomerase function [25]. In addition, the THO complex maintains yeast telomeres by suppressing R-loops generated by TERRAs [26].
Figure 1.
The causes and consequences of R-loop formation.
1.3 R-loops, genomic instability, and human diseases
Despite the multiple roles of R-loops in normal cellular processes described above, they are also considered a form of DNA damage that can threaten genomic maintenance and integrity. In particular, the displaced ssDNA in an R-loop can increase genomic instability because it is a good endonuclease substrate [13, 27]. R-loops also induce replication stress. When the displaced ssDNA is broken, the replication fork stops at the R-loop. The RNA–DNA hybrid itself can block the progression of replication forks, and DNA polymerases may become trapped at R-loops [13, 28, 29]. Such replication stresses will activate DNA repair pathways, which might cause chromosome rearrangement [29].
Genomic instability that stems from R-loops may also contribute to some human diseases. Although there is no apparent evidence that R-loops are directly associated with disease, efforts to show causality between R-loops and disease have increased [30]. Some genetic disorders are caused by gene-specific repeats. R-loop formation is highly probable in tandem repeat sequences with high GC content and could change the repeat length. In particular, trinucleotide repeat expansion is a major cause of neurological and neuromuscular diseases, such as Huntington’s disease and fragile X syndrome [31, 32]. It has been proposed that R-loops are associated with other neurological disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Aicardi-Goutières syndrome, and Prader-Willi syndrome [33, 34, 35]. R-loops also appear to be associated with cancer. BRCA genes, which are involved in DNA double-strand break repair via homologous recombination, are intimately associated with breast and ovarian cancer, and BRCA2 prevents R-loop accumulation [36, 37]. VIM is a member of the intermediate filament family and associated with different types of cancer. In colon cancer, the VIM promoter is hypermethylated and VIM expression is silenced. In normal cells, the gene is activated by R-loop formation in the promoter region, raising the possibility that transcription regulation by R-loops related to cancer development [18].
1.4 R-loop prevention and elimination
As described above, R-loops can cause genomic instability unless they are resolved, so they must be properly regulated. Several proteins are involved in R-loop prevention or elimination, such as RNase H, DNA TOP1, and Sen1 [38]. For example, RNase H directly removes R-loops by specifically degrading the RNA in RNA–DNA hybrid structures [39]. RNA helicases also resolve R-loops by unwinding RNA–DNA hybrid structures [40]. Because negative supercoiling promotes R-loop formation, topoisomerases play a key role in preventing R-loops [41]. In the case of replication fork stalling due to R-loops, FANCD2 recruits RNA processing enzymes such as hnRNP U and DDX47 to resolve R-loops at the stalled fork [42].
2. In vivo R-loop assays
Visualizing R-loop formation is important for understanding R-loop metabolism. Because R-loops basically consist of nucleic acids, distinguishing R-loop from ds- and ss-DNA or RNA using existing DNA staining or visualization methods is challenging. S9.6 is an antibody specific to an RNA–DNA hybrid, which was developed in 1986 and rapidly advanced R-loop-related research [43]. This antibody is commonly used to detect R-loops both in vivo and in vitro [44, 45, 46, 47].
Currently, the most popular R-loop characterization technique is DNA–RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (DRIP-seq), in which RNA–DNA hybrid strands are immunoprecipitated with S9.6 and then sequenced (Figure 2, [47, 48]). DRIP-seq was first adopted for profiling CpG island promoters, where R-loops are predominantly formed [16]. This method revealed that genes containing terminal GC-rich sequences form R-loops at their 3′-end, suggesting that R-loops contribute to efficient transcription termination [20]. The DRIP-seq technique has been further improved; S1 nuclease treatment prior to DRIP-seq can stabilize the DNA–RNA hybrid because S1 removes the displaced ssDNA, thus improving the resolution [49]. In conventional DRIP-seq, it is assumed that the content of R-loops or RNA–DNA hybrids does not vary depending on cell type and growth condition. For appropriate comparison, quantitative differential DNA–RNA immunoprecipitation sequence (qDRIP-seq) uses synthetic RNA–DNA hybrids as internal standards and facilitates comparison between different conditions with high resolution and sensitivity [50]. Although DRIP-seq is a very robust and well-characterized technique, it can only measure the ensemble average level of R-loops. However, single-molecule R-loop footprinting (SMRF-seq) can reveal the R-loop population via chemical reactivity of ssDNA at the single-molecule level. Malig et al. developed SMRF-sequencing based on non-denaturing bisulfite conversion [51, 52]. Sodium bisulfite treatment converts unpaired cytosines to uracils on ssDNA. In R-loops, only one strand is unpaired and exposed to bisulfite, whereas the complementary strand is protected by RNA. Thus, the PCR product of the displaced single strand in an R-loop has a converted sequence of cytosines to thymines, which is a footprint of the R-loop. PCR products are rapidly sequenced using a single-molecule real-time sequencing technique [53]. This approach enables characterization of the individual footprints of R-loops on long-range genomes at high resolution, even at the single-molecule level.
Figure 2.
The flow chart of DRIP-seq. Step 1: whole-genomic DNA containing R-loops is extracted from cells. Step 2: extracted genomic DNA is fragmented by various types of restriction enzymes. Step 3: R-loops containing RNA–DNA hybrids are precipitated with S9.6 antibodies. Step 4: S9.6 antibodies are eliminated by proteinase K treatment, and R-loops are purified by phenol-chloroform extraction followed by ethanol precipitation. Step 5: precipitated R-loops are sequenced.
Fluorescently labeled S9.6 can be used as an R-loop probe in microscope imaging at the cellular level (Figure 3a). The brief procedure is following. K562 cells were pelleted after trypsinization for detaching cells from the plate. Supernatant was discarded to approximately 300 ul, and cell pellets were resuspended. 5 ml of 37°C pre-warmed 75 mM KCl solution was added in a drop-wise manner while the resuspended cells were slowly agitated. After the cells were incubated at 37°C for 14 min, five or six drops of fresh ice-cold fixative solution (3,1 methanol:acetic acid) were added to the cells, which were centrifuged again. Supernatant was discarded to approximately 300 ul, and cell pellets were resuspended. The cells were treated on ice with 5 ml of ice-cold fixative solution in a drop-wise manner. After washed once with fixative solution, the cells were spread onto a clean slide followed by 1 min incubation in 95°C steam for drying. The slide was immediately treated with blocking buffer (1x PBS, 5% BSA, 0.5% Triton X-100) and incubated at room temperature for 1 hr. The slide was successively treated with S9.6 antibody (1500) in blocking buffer at 4°C overnight. After residual S9.6 antibody was washed three times with washing buffer (1x PBS supplemented with 0.1% Triton X-100), the slide was treated with mouse AlexaFluor 594-conjugated secondary antibody at room temperature for 1 hr. The unbound secondary antibody was washed three times with washing buffer, and then the cells were stained with 4,6 diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and mounted using Vectashield (Vector Laboratories). Finally, the cells were imaged using a fluorescence microscope.
Figure 3.
Flow chart of in vivo immunofluorescence imaging using S9.6 for R-loop visualization. (a) Flow chart ofin vivo immunofluorescence imaging using S9.6 for R-loop visualization. (b) Cellular images of S9.6 labeled with fluorescent secondary antibodies. RNase H1 overexpression significantly reduces the S9.6 signal due to elimination of R-loops.
The use of immunofluorescence with S9.6 can allow visualization of the intracellular locations of RNA–DNA hybrids, even in mitochondria [54, 55, 56]. Furthermore, R-loop detection by S9.6 is ensured by RNase H1 overexpression (Figure 3b). R-loops can also be visualized via R-loop associated proteins with diverse modifications. Prendergast et al. subcloned the RNA binding domain (RBD) of RNase H1 fused to DsRed fluorescent protein to monitor intracellular R-loop dynamics [57]. Hodroj et al. enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP)-fused Ddx19 RNA helicase that specifically binds RNA–DNA hybrids. The fluorescent signal of eGFP-Ddx19 indicates R-loop formation inside cells. In addition, it does not form foci when RBD-mutated Ddx19 and phosphorylation site-mutated Ddx19 are used [58].
3. In vitro approaches
In addition to in vivo methods, several biochemical assays have been developed to study R-loops. Classically, R-loops are formed from transcription in a supercoiled plasmid by phage RNA polymerases (RNAPs) such as T3 or T7 [59]. Because R-loops have a three-strand structure, they have lower mobility than DNA duplexes in gel electrophoresis, so band shift or smearing occurs between supercoiled and relaxed plasmids during this procedure [53, 60]. Because RNase H digests ssRNA, dsRNA, and RNA–DNA hybrids, RNase H treatment eliminates the mobility shift of plasmids observed with gel electrophoresis [61, 62]. In addition, R-loops can be detected by isotope (e.g. 32P) or fluorescently labeled RNA, which is formed with isotope or fluorescently labeled ribonucleoside triphosphates during transcription. The labeled RNA is used to confirm if the plasmid mobility shift actually results from R-loops [53, 60]. In contrast, S9.6 is also used in electrophoresis mobility shift assay (EMSA) and Western blot with oligomers (Figure 4a). EMSA in Figure 4a was performed with fluorescently labeled R-loop and homoduplex DNA with synthesized oligomers (Table 1) following the previous protocol [55]. The oligomers were mixed for R-loop and homoduplex DNA as shown in Table 2, and the mixture was heated at 95°C and then slowly cooled down to room temperature. 10 nM R-loop or duplex DNA was mixed to S9.6 (10, 30 and 50 nM) in reaction buffer (10 mM HEPES [pH 7.5], 1 mM DTT, and 5% glycerol). The reactant was incubated in the dark at room temperature for 20 min. The R-loop formation and the binding of S9.6 to R-loop were analyzed with 5% non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and imaged by Typhoon RGB (GE Healthcare) system. In EMSA using the oligomers, R-loops show band shift from dsDNA resulting from low mobility due to its triple-strand structure. Further band shift is observed following treatment with S9.6, which binds to RNA–DNA hybrids [50, 55]. In Western blotting, RNA–DNA hybrid interactors can be validated using S9.6 and target protein immunoprecipitation [45].
Figure 4.
In vitro EMSA (electrophoresis mobility shift assay) for R-loop identification. (a) EMSA image for identifying R-loops in vitro. Fluorescently labeled oligomers were hybridized to form duplex DNA and R-loop structures. The R-loops shifted upward because of their lower mobility compared with same-length duplex DNA due to its molecular weight and the displaced ssDNA (lane 1 vs. lane 3). Because S9.6 specifically binds to R-loops, S9.6 treatment further super-shifts R-loops but not duplexes (lane 2 vs. lanes 4, 5, and 6). The black triangle represents the increasing concentration of S9.6 antibody (10, 30, and 50 nM). (b) Simplified diagram of R-loop visualization using fluorescently labeled catalytically-inactive RNase H1 or RBD. In addition to the S9.6 antibody, catalytically-inactive RNase H1 and RBD with fluorescence dye can also be used to visualize R-loops.
Oligomer name
Sequences
DNA 1
5’-GCC GTC GCA TGA CGC TGC CGA ATT CTA CCA CGC GAT TCA TAC CTG TCG TGC CAG CTG CTT TGC CCA CCT GCA GGT TCA CCT CGT CCC TGG C-3′
[Cy3] and [Cy5] indicate the labeling of Cy3 and Cy5 fluorescent dyes, respectively.
Substrate name
Mixture recipe (total 20 μl in reaction buffer)
Homoduplex
DNA 1: 6 μM, DNA 2: 5 μM
R-Loop
DNA 1: 6 μM, DNA 3: 5 μM, RNA 1: 5 μM
Table 2.
Hybridization of oligomers for EMSA.
Purified RBD-DsRed specifically binds to RNA-containing structures, enabling its use as a probe of R-loops (Figure 4b). DNA fibers can be spread on a surface to distinguish the positions of R-loop regions with the purified RBD-DsRed. Various tags combining the RBD of RNase H1 have been used in microscopic fluorescent imaging, EMSA, and DRIP-seq to identify R-loops [63]. Crossely et al. designed and purified different types of RNase H1 that contains RBD and full amino acid sequences [50]. However, the RNase H1 used in their research has a D210N mutation that renders it catalytically inactive. Their construct successfully recognizes R-loops and RNA–DNA hybrids without degradation of RNA in EMSA. The GFP-labeled catalytic mutant RNase H1 thoroughly colocalized with R-loop-containing oligos within the cells.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) scans a sample on a mica surface using a cantilever to yield a topographic image of the sample [64]. AFM has revealed diverse types of nucleic acids structures and DNA-protein complex formations [65, 66, 67]. AFM is also applied for visualizing R-loop formation. Carrasco-Salas et al. used AFM to observe three distinct structures derived from R-loops: blobs, spurs, and loops [68]. The specific R-loop structures depend on the sequence of non-template strand that is displaced in the R-loop, which suggests that non-template strand organization is an intrinsic characteristic of R-loops.
4. Single-molecule approaches for R-loop studies
Although R-loop formation, function, and fate have been extensively studied using biochemical assays and cell-based imaging as described above, those approaches still have limitations related to probing molecular details due to the ensemble average effect. Such hurdles can be overcome with single-molecule techniques that enable researchers to 1) observe individual molecules without an ensemble average effect, 2) mechanically manipulate biomolecules, and 3) directly observe biomolecular interactions [69]. Several single-molecule techniques have been utilized for R-loop studies. Lee et al. used protein-induced fluorescence enhancement (PIFE) to observe R-loop formation during T7 RNA polymerase transcription [70]. PIFE is a phenomenon in which a protein sometimes enhances the intensity of fluorescent dyes on other biomolecules [71]. PIFE assays exploit this intensity enhancement to measure the distance and interaction between non-tagged proteins and fluorescent dyes on target molecules, such as DNA. Fluorescent tagging of proteins is inefficient and may disturb protein activity; however, in PIFE assays there is no need to tag proteins [72]. The authors demonstrated that a G-quadruplex on the non-template strand stabilizes the R-loop, which enhances transcription elongation.
In addition to PIFE, single-molecule FRET (smFRET) has been widely used for probing the conformational dynamics of biomolecules (Figure 5a) [73, 74]. FRET requires two dyes (donor and acceptor) with spectral overlap for donor emission and acceptor absorption. In FRET, only the donor dye is excited, while the acceptor dye emits fluorescence through energy transfer when both dyes are in close proximity, as the energy transfer efficiency depends on the distance between them. R-loops are also studied using smFRET, during which the target DNA or RNA and RNA polymerases are fluorescently labeled with FRET donors and acceptors (Figure 5a, [75]). For smFRET experiments, one DNA oligomer with both FRET donor (Cy3) and acceptor (Cy5) and its complementary oligomer with biotin were hybridized. The hybridized DNA was anchored on the surface of a quartz slide coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) via biotin-streptavidin interaction. Transcription was initiated by injecting 8 nM T7 RNA polymerases and 2 mM of rNTPs in imaging buffer (40 mM Tris–HCl [pH 8.0], 50 mM KCl, 5 mM NaOH, 20 mM MgCl2, 1 mM DTT, 2 mM spermidine, 3 mM Trolox, 5 mM PCA, and 4 units/ml PCD). Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy equipped with an electron-multiplying CCD camera was used for fluorescence imaging. Donor (Cy3) and acceptor (Cy5) dyes were excited by 532-nm and 633-nm lasers, respectively. smFRET experiments revealed that R-loop formation precedes and facilitates G-quadruplex formation, which is extremely stable even after R-loop resolution. Using smFRET, we can examine R-loop formation induced by dsDNA denaturation, collision between RNAP and obstacles such as protein roadblocks or DNA lesions, and G-quadruplex formation of displaced ssDNA during R-loop formation [70, 75].
Figure 5.
Single-molecule R-loop visualization techniques. (a) Schematic of single-molecule FRET. Hybridized oligomers are anchored on the biotinylated polyethylene glycol surface via biotin-streptavidin linkage. Donor (green) and acceptor (red) dyes in a duplex DNA display low FRET due to the long distance between the two dyes. However, when an R-loop is formed during the transcription by RNAP (yellow), the dissociated ssDNA emits high FRET. (b) Schematic of single-molecule DNA curtain. For DNA curtain assay, the slide surface with nanometric diffusion barriers was coated with a biotinylated lipid bilayer, which is made of DOPC (1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-phosphocholine), 0.5% biotinylated-DPPE (1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(cap biotinyl)), and 8% mPEG 2000-DOPE (1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-2000]). A Cy5-labeled R-loop was inserted into lambda phage DNA, which has biotin at one end. The lambda phage DNA was anchored on the lipid bilayer via biotin-streptavidin linkage in BSA buffer (40 mM Tris–HCl [pH 8.0], 50 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, and 0.4% BSA). TonEBP with 3x FLAG was labeled with anti-FLAG conjugated quantum dot. Under hydrodynamic flow, DNA curtain was formed in reaction buffer (10 mM HEPES [pH 7.5] and 50 mM NaCl), and R-loops were imaged by Cy5 fluorescence under TIRF microscopy. Then quantum dot-labeled TonEBP was incubated with the lambda DNA, and its binding to the R-loop was imaged. DNA molecules containing an R-loop are unidirectionally stretched on the biotinylated lipid-coated slide (sky blue) and aligned at the chromium nano-barrier (gray) due to the fluidity of lipid bilayer. The interaction between TonEBP (blue) and R-loops (red), in which RNA is labeled with a fluorescent dye, can be visualized in real time. (c) Schematic of magnetic tweezers. The magnetic field exerts and measures both force and torque on the magnetic bead (black). The interaction between Mdf (violet) linked to both duplex DNA and RNAP (yellow) during R-loop formation can be measured based on the length change of DNA under a constant force using magnetic tweezers.
In addition to R-loop formation, sensing R-loops is important for downstream processes, including R-loop resolution. In particular, how R-loop-binding proteins recognize R-loops in long genomic DNA is unclear. R-loop search mechanisms have been investigated with a novel single-molecule fluorescence imaging technique called DNA curtain (Figure 5b, [76, 77]). In this assay, DNA molecules are anchored on a lipid bilayer and aligned at nanometric diffusion barriers. Owing to the fluidity of the surface lipid bilayer, DNA molecules are unidirectionally stretched under hydrodynamic flow. DNA curtains can be used to identify sequence-dependent binding of proteins to DNA. Moreover, they allow us to visualize the movement of a protein along a single DNA molecule in real time. To study the search mechanism, an R-loop is inserted into a specific location of lambda phage DNA and fluorescently imaged with Cy5-labeled RNA in the R-loop. Then, the R-loop-binding protein is tagged with a fluorescent nanoparticle called a quantum dot (Qdot), which has a different emission wavelength from Cy5. Two-color imaging of both Cy5 and Qdot in the DNA curtain allows the R-loop search mechanism of the R-loop-binding protein. Kang et al. reported that tonicity enhancer-binding protein (TonEBP) plays important roles in R-loop sensing and recruitment of downstream proteins [55]. Using the DNA curtain approach, they revealed that TonEBP preferentially binds R-loops through both three-dimensional collision and one-dimensional diffusion. This dual-search mechanism facilitates rapid searches for R-loop throughout the long human genome. Furthermore, the quantitative analysis on one-dimensional diffusion shows that TonEBP diffuses along DNA by sliding rather than hopping. In EMSAs, TonEBP preferentially binds R-loops, D-loops, and bubble DNA structures over duplex DNA. The substances for which TonEBP has a high affinity all contain displaced ssDNA structures. These results indicate that TonEBP preferentially binds displaced ssDNA, thus recognizing R-loops on duplex DNA.
Magnetic tweezers assay can measure both the tension and topological features of a single supercoiled DNA. In this approach, a linear DNA molecule is torsionally constrained by tethering the DNA ends to the slide surface and a magnetic bead that is rotated to induce DNA supercoiling (Figure 5c). Portmen et al. used magnetic tweezers to elucidate the R-loop formation mechanism by the transcription-coupled repair factor Mfd during transcription based on topologically changing the DNA [78]. For the magnetic tweezers assay, 4.6 kbp long DNA containing a promoter site was ligated with biotinylated handle at one end and digoxigenin handle at the other hand. Digoxigenin end was anchored on an anti-digoxigenin-coated glass coverslip, and biotinylated end was attached to a 1 μm diameter superparamagnetic bead. Transcription reaction was done in reaction buffer (40 mM HEPES [pH 8.0], 100 mM KCl, 8 mM MgCl2, 0.5 mg/ml BSA, and 1 mM DTT) supplemented with 300 pM RNA polymerases, 500 nM Mfd, 50 nM GreB, 1 mM rATP, 100 μM rCTP, 100 μM rUTP, and 100 μM rGTP. They found that R-loop formation was mediated by the Mfd-RNAP complex, which compacted and supercoiled the template DNA during transcription. Mfd simultaneously binds both RNAP and DNA and results in tripartite supercoiled domains. The negative supercoiling in the tripartite domains serves as a substrate for R-loop formation.
With advances in single-molecule imaging technology, we can investigate R-loops and related factors that cannot be observed in traditional ensemble assays. The convergence of single-molecule techniques and R-loop research will pave the way to more thorough investigation of R-loops with higher spatiotemporal resolution.
5. Conclusions
R-loops are involved in various cellular activities but can threaten genomic stability. Detecting these structures is important for understanding their metabolism and underlying mechanism. This chapter described the formation, roles, and regulation of R-loops and related diseases and explored in vivo and in vitro methods for R-loop detection and visualization, including single-molecule techniques. The most classical methods for R-loop are based on the S9.6 antibody. However, novel techniques that do not require this antibody have been developed. In particular, single-molecule R-loop imaging techniques have accelerated research. We expect that more advanced techniques for R-loops with high sensitivity and resolution will be developed in the future.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation (grant number: NRF-2020R1A2B5B01001792) and the Institute for Basic Science (IBS-R022-D1).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"R-loop, genetic instability, R-loop sensing, and single-molecule imaging",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81016.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81016.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81016",totalDownloads:38,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 20th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 10th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 29th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 29th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"An R-loop is a triple-stranded nucleic acid structure consisting of a DNA–RNA hybrid and a displaced single-stranded DNA. R-loops are associated with diverse biological reactions, such as immune responses and gene regulation, and dysregulated R-loops can cause genomic instability and replication stress. Therefore, investigating the formation, regulation, and elimination of R-loops is important for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying biological processes and diseases related to R-loops. Existing research has primarily focused on R-loop detection. In this chapter, we introduce a variety of biochemical and biophysical techniques for R-loop sensing and visualization both in vivo and in vitro, including single-molecule imaging. These methods can be used to investigate molecular mechanisms underlying R-loop search and identification.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81016",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81016",signatures:"Na Young Cheon, Subin Kim and Ja Yil Lee",book:{id:"11349",type:"book",title:"Gene Expression",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Gene Expression",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fumiaki Uchiumi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11349.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-622-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-621-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-623-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"47235",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uchiumi",slug:"fumiaki-uchiumi",fullName:"Fumiaki Uchiumi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. 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Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ja Yil Lee",address:"biojayil@unist.ac.kr",affiliation:'
Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science, Republic of Korea
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Dissemination and Promotion
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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/15091",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"15091"},fullPath:"/chapters/15091",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()