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This helps to preserve all the physiological components of the stomatognathic system namely the occlusion, the attachment apparatus, TMJ and the neuromusculature in harmony as they are closely interrelated. When the functional or parafunctional occlusal forces exceeds the capacity for adaptation and repair of one tooth or group of teeth and its attachment, limited or progressive injury occurs. This is called occlusal trauma. In the presence of interference, the jaw will reflexively shift and slide forward on one or both the side to find a spot where most teeth come together. An unstable occlusion is a common cause for numerous post restoration complications. Overtime, this may cause a whole host of problems from TMJ pain, headache to sensitivity, recession, broken and lost teeth and Orofacial Pain.
Establishing a stable and harmonious occlusion goes a long way in preventing the deterioration of the dentition and its associated structures [1]. Trauma from occlusion is a clinical finding often ignored by the dentist as it is not a part of the chief complaint. The key lies in decoding the cause, but most often treatment is only directed towards the effects. Only a thorough evaluation and occlusal analysis will lead to a definite diagnosis. A good diagnosis helps in better anticipation of the direction the damages will take.
Digital occlusal analysis is a powerful tool which provides the dentists with an objective reproducible data. These occlusal technologies along with a biometric approach will allow for an accurate diagnosis treatment and reevaluation of the inter relationship between teeth, muscles & joints [2].
Occlusal trauma was defined as “An injury to the attachment apparatus as a result of excessive occlusal force” “Glossary of Periodontics terms” (American Academy of Periodontology 1986), [3].
Any contact that inhibits the remaining occluding surfaces from achieving stable and harmonious contacts.
Reshaping of the occlusal surfaces of teeth by grinding to create harmonious contact relationships between the upper and lower teeth, or orthodontic movement of the teeth to create more harmonious contact relationship.
A palpable or visible movement of a tooth when subjected to occlusal forces (also known as functional mobility).
A condition of tooth contact that diverts the mandible from a normal path of closure.
Acute trauma from occlusion:
This type of trauma is caused because of abrupt occlusal impact, like due to biting on a tough object or high restorations or prosthetic appliances. The clinical signs and symptoms of the condition include tooth pain and sensitivity to percussion, fremitus, tooth mobility and once the cause is removed, symptoms subside and complete healing takes place [4, 5, 6, 7].
Chronic trauma from occlusion:
When abnormal occlusal forces are exerted on the tooth-supporting structures for a longer duration of time, chronic trauma from occlusion occur. It is more significant than the acute condition because it results in progressive changes in occlusion clinically seen as tooth migration, tooth wear and extrusion of teeth [4, 5, 6, 7].
Primary trauma from occlusion:
It refers to the injury resulting from excessive occlusal forces applied to a tooth or teeth with adequate support
Secondary trauma from occlusion:
It refers to the injury resulting from normal occlusal forces applied to a tooth or teeth with inadequate support.
Box defined it as a condition, in which the systems of forces acting upon the tooth during the occlusion are in a state of equilibrium, and they do not and cannot change the normal relationship existing between the tooth and its supporting structures [8].
The damage produced in the periodontium is due to the overstress produced by the occlusion (Table 1).
Magnitude of force Director of the principle PDL fibers Duration of the force application Frequency of the force application | ||
Orientation of the long axis of the teeth Morphological characterization of the tooth Morphology of the alveolar process (quality & quantity of the bone) | Local factors like plaque Long span fixed partial denture supported on few teeth Inappropriate bone resection Parafunctional habits Other factors, including overhanging filling, poorly contoured restoration Food impaction etc. |
Etiology of trauma from occlusion.
Excessive occlusal force
↓
Traumatic v shaped gingival crescent
Stillman’s cleft (indentations in the gingival margin generally on one side of tooth)
McCall’s festoons (Buccal Bone dehiscence)
Absence of stippling – Edema secondary to trauma
↓
Alteration in occlusal forces
↓
Occlusal wearing pattern of tooth not attributed to any abnormality in patient diet
↓
Tooth mobility, migration, shifting & tilting of tooth
↓
Discomfort on eating
↓
Sensitivity of teeth
↓
Hypertonicity of muscle
↓
Mandibular deviation
Excessive force of occlusion causes the tissue to respond in three stages Injury, repair and adaptive remodeling of periodontium.
Soft tissue injury is the immediate result of excessive occlusal forces. The magnitude of forces varies from slightly excessive, greater then excessive or severely high. The centre of rotation of a single rooted tooth lies at the junction of middle and apical third of the tooth and is located near the furcation area of the multirooted teeth.
When excessive occlusal forces are subjected to teeth they rotate around the fulcrum of rotation. This rotation in the tooth socket creates areas of presser and tension on the opposite side of the fulcrum. When the force is unidirectional, these are created on the opposite surface, whereas in the case of jiggling forces these areas may co – exist on the same surface.
Effect of excessive occlusal forces on the periodontium.
Takes place when the damage tissue is replaced by new connective tissue and cells. This is a well-regulated mechanism and the healing process is directly or indirectly facilitated by the extracellular matrix and certain inflammatory mediators. The activity is increased during TFO & the body tries to reinforce the trabeculae within the new bone by a process known as buttressing bone formation. When it occurs in the buccal and lingual surface of the alveolar bone it is known as peripheral buttressing and central buttressing when this process occurs within the bone this helps to bear increased occlusal load. There is a shelf-life thickening of the bone on the labial or lingual surface of the alveolar bone is referred to as lipping.
Establishes a structural relationship in such a way that the forces of occlusion are no longer harmful to the periodontium, and the repair process can keep pace with the destructive occlusal forces.
Tooth mobility is an important clinical sign when TFO is increase it occurs in two phases the initial phase there is an increase in the width of the PDL and reduction of the number of the periodontal fibers leading to alveolar bone resorption.
The second phase results in the permanent widening of the PDL space which occurs after the repair of the traumatic lesion as an adaptation to the increased forces.
If excessive occlusal forces are neutralized, healing takes place. The presence of plaque may however impair healing so resolution of inflammation should be first initiated. Injury caused by TFO is reversible but there may or may not be complete restoration of the supporting structures of the tooth.
Clinical history of the patient and clinical examination are the cornerstones of correct diagnosis of TFO.
No periodontitis
Tooth wear (mild faceting or marked attrition)
Fractures of the enamel or restorations
Occlusal interferences (either from the retruded contact position to intercuspal position (ICP) or in lateral excursions/protrusive movements)
Ridging of buccal mucosa
Indentations in lateral border of the tongue
Reddening of the tip of the tongue.
Miller’s Index (1938) is most often used to classify tooth mobility. Normal physiological movement vary between 10 μm and 150 μm and is not detectable on examination.
Class 0 – Within physiologic range when force is applied.
Class I – Mobility more the physiologic range.
Class II – Tooth moves upto 1 mm or more laterally (mesiodistal/buccolingual). Inability to vertically depress the tooth (apicocoronally).
Class III – Tooth can be moved 1 mm or more laterally (labiolingually or mesiodistally). Tooth can be depressed in a vertical direction.
TFO can clinically detected using this test. The movement or vibratory pattern is measured when the teeth are placed in contacting positions and during lateral and protrusive movements.
In this test the vibratory movement of the tooth/teeth is identified and graded by placing dampened index finger along the labial surfaces of maxillary teeth.
The patient is asked to tap the teeth together in MIP and then grind systematically in lateral and protrusive movements.
Classification system used:
Class I fremitus: Mild movements/vibration detected.
Class II fremitus: No visible movements/easily palpable vibration.
Class III fremitus: Movements are visible to the naked eye.
Widening of the PDL space, often with thickening of the lamina dura along the lateral aspect of the root in the apical region and in bifurcation areas
Irregular widening of the periodontal ligament space.
Vertical rather than horizontal destruction of the interdental septum, with the formation of infrabony defects
Bone sclerosis in the periapical area or in the interdental bone crest.
Radiolucency and condensation of the alveolar bone
In advanced stages of TFO inflammatory root resorption is seen.
Increase in periapical bone density around a vital tooth on a radiograph indicative of a type of Sclerosing Osteitis and a positive clinical sign of TFO helps guide us to a correct diagnosis and treatment plan.
Hypercementosis.
Secondary dentin laid down in the pulp chamber.
Osseointegration of implants is a direct structural and functional connection between ordered living bone and the surface of a load carrying implant.
Functional load enhances the integration when the load is adequately distributed. Occlusal overload however adversely affects implant stability. Strain is the key factor in controlling bone remodeling. Strain is created when any object is subjected to external stress. Stress in the oral environment is the occlusal overload. Mechano-receptors present in the bone play a major role in initiating bone remodeling. When implant restorations are subject to TFO, stress of a higher level are imposed at the interface. This initiates resorption of bone and may lead to failure of implants.
Crestal bone loss observed around implants occurs mainly because of the difference in modulus of elasticity of the implant and bone. As the modulus of elasticity of titanium is 5–10 times greater than that of the cortical bone. In osseointegrated implants stresses are concentrated at the crestal bone level. Thus, any sustained overload on the implant restoration may lead to implant instability.
Periodontal health depends on the normal occlusal forces. Any increase in the functional demand the periodontium accommodates by thickening of the lamina dura and reinforcement of bony trabeculae.
When the functional demand of the tooth cannot be met, tissue injury results. If the stimulus is chronic and noxious widening of the PDL space is seen at the expense of bone resorption. This has a cushioning effect which enables the tooth to bear the excess forces.
Many concepts still needs to be clarified about trauma from occlusion. However, the following conclusions can be drawn from the present data.
Presently there is no evidence that suggests that gingivitis or periodontitis is caused by trauma from occlusion or can accelerate the progression of gingivitis to periodontitis.
PDL is a dynamic tissue and has the ability to adapt to increased forces of occlusion by widening of the periodontal ligament & crestal bone resorption. But when the excessive forces are removed, the periodontium & the tooth comeback to their normal state of function.
Trauma from occlusion may be considered a co factor which can increase the rate of progression of an existing periodontal disease.
As a rule the first line of treatment should be to resolve inflammation by elimination of local factors by scaling & root planning.
An important component to ensure smooth function & comfort of the patient is occlusal therapy.
Make the patient aware, accept and own the problem and make them partners on the road to co-discovery and co-treatment in order to achieve functional, esthetic and biological goals.
Identify bacterial risk, periodontal charting, habits evaluation, fremitus test, pathological wear, mobility and migration.
Evaluation of functional disharmony in the Masticatory apparatus (R.O.M, Load test, JVA, EMG, occlusal scan, TMJ Doppler Auscultation, Muscle palpation. Evaluate the 5 requirements of occlusal stability by Dawson’s Academy. Evaluate TMJ- for Piper’s classification.
Assess the complete records- clinical, radiographic, photographic, diagnostic models,
Mount cast with facebow transfer at the first point of contact, protrusive and centric records are taken to program the articulator.
Treatment Planning can be done with the help of
Two-dimensional wax up or
3-dimensional digital wax up
Different treatment options can be planned for the same diagnosis. The option taken will be determined by several patient related factors and occlusal analysis. The treatment of TFO involves removal of the excessive occlusal forces and bringing the tooth/teeth in a comfortable position. Many treatment modalities have been advised to treat TFO. These include,
Occlusal adjustments and occlusal equilibration
Management of parafunctional habits.
Biometric management of trauma from occlusion.
Orthodontic tooth movement.
Occlusal reconstruction.
Extraction of selected teeth.
“It is a controlled destruction of tooth surface aimed at reducing the biological price the dentition will eventually pay if not done. Establishing a stable and harmonious occlusion goes a long way in preventing the deterioration of the dentition and its associated structures. This can be achieved by occlusal equilibration, which is a minimally invasive therapy involving reshaping of the teeth when improper biting forces are located.
Mock Equilibration in the Articulator.
The centric and eccentric interference are marked and eliminated in a sequence. Establishing of a harmonious and optimum anterior guidance to the new envelop of function. Developing the guidance with a wax up after customizing the anterior guidance table. This establishes a tentative blue print of the procedures and amount of reduction to be carried out on the identified teeth.
Occlusal adjustment is done directly in the mouth with a Kois Deprogrammer (Figure 1) with an anterior ramp at pre-establishing vertical dimension and centric relation.
Kois deprogrammer. SOURCE-
Find the first point of contact with a 200 μm horse shoe paper.
Remove the clinical contact, continue with the equilibration (40 μm paper).
Obtain equal intensity contact from canine backward (8 μm paper).
Chewing pathway adjustment is done with 200 μm paper.
Narrow the stamp cusps before reshaping the fossa.
Do not shorten the stamp cusp.
Always adjust centric interferences first.
Eliminate all posterior incline contacts & preserve only the cusp tip.
Centric relation interferences (interference to the arc of closure)
Retrusive interference
Centric slide – MUDL
Selective Reduction of tooth structure that interferes with the lateral excursions, deflective interferences (Line of closure) lateral interferences Patient is guided to left and right eccentric positions.
BULL- Balancing interference
LUBL- Working interference
Elimination of all posterior tooth structure that interferes with the protrusive excursions (Protrusive interferences) –
DUML- The patient is guided to centric and asked to slide forward and back
PATHWAY ADJUSTMENT
Harmonization of anterior guidance to the envelop of function at an erect posture and asked to chew on 200-micron paper.
Stable holding contacts on Central incisor (anterior teeth at the cervical ⅕th of the tooth)- Anterior retained stops (MIP)
All contact anterior to this is removed.
Equalize the contact to get as many teeth into contact as possible without striking the inclines. Optimum guidance is when anterior teeth does not interfere with the Chewing pathway.
Finally, the patient is asked to chop-Chop in centric and grind in all direction with an 8-micron paper in the mouth.
End result should be one good heavy contact on all the teeth from canine backwards on the functional cusp and opposing fossa. With light contact on 2nd molar and no contact on the incisors, verify dots in the back and lines in the front.
End with a clench test- Patient is asked to close the mouth and squeeze firmly and checked for comfort. In teeth/muscle/TMJ if there is a bilateral smooth simultaneous, uniform harmonious jaw function with no instability in the joint.
Completed with a Shim Stock contact test.
Finished and polished to a smooth finish with a polishing paste.
A maintenance protocol also needs to be followed every 2 weeks, for a month requiring constant checkup (Figure 2).
Equilibrated occlusion.
Parafunctional habit is a repetitive behavior that targets oral structures occlusal wear, fractured cusps, clenching/bruxism, obstructive sleep apnea are common signs of parafunctional activity. They can occur consciously when awake or at night and have been linked to stress & anxiety.
Management begins with creating a cognitive and behavioral awareness. Use of hard acrylic splints which are correctly adjusted for occlusion, helps protect the teeth and relax the muscles.
Localized occlusal interference splint and orthotic devices help in management of dental arch malrelationship.
A biometric approach includes the jaw vibrational analysis (JVA) (Figure 3) of the TMJ, EMG (Figure 4) of the muscles and digital occlusal scan (Figure 5) of the teeth.
Jaw vibrational analysis [JVA]. SOURCE-
Electromyograph [EMG]. SOURCE-
T-scan (digital occlusal analysis). SOURCE-
Harmony in the muscle, joint, teeth & restorations are closely interrelated, the biometric approach gives the critical information needed to create this harmony,
Advanced computerized systems are now able to give objective, reproducible data allowing for accurate diagnosis, treatment and re-evaluation of occlusal condition. Occlusion analysis is elevated to a true science as compared to subjective analytical methods followed when using articulating papers.
When used pro-actively clinicians can detect potential problem early thus preventing the progression of debilitating conditions.
Step 1. – Joint vibration analysis is an instrument which produces virtual image of the recordings by measuring the wavelength of different types of vibration and patterns of friction. It is shown to be 98% specific in diagnosis of joint pathology. It can be paired with other devices to synchronize the vibration analysis with jaw tracking and EMG recording.
Step 2- The Craniofacial muscle activity in both rest and function is recorded using the EMG to determine the specific activity of the muscles of mastication, timed exactly with the occlusal contact forces.
EMG studies help improve muscle coordination, and reduce incoordination and hyperactivity. Electric activity in the muscle quiets down almost immediately after a clench is released, whereas with occlusal disharmony muscle activity is prolonged even after the teeth are separated. Electromyography helps measure specific muscle activity, allowing treatment to be biologically based instead of just spatially driven.
Step 3- Digital Occlusal Scans- gives a functional picture of the mouth which helps establish the dynamic occlusion that balances both force and time. The role of occlusion is often overlooked, minimized or ignored in dental practice due to difficulty in understanding the concepts. Occlusal scans can be used along with tenets of both popular school of thoughts regarding occlusion by coordinating the timing and activity of individual muscle as well as canine protected occlusion.
When used simultaneously with a link software between EMG and occlusal scan it will help improve the patient’s overall occlusion. This is because the scan software shows the exact timing and specific tooth contact and loads in conjunction with muscle activity. The use of disocclusal time reduction (DTR) therapy can reduce the time taken for disocclusion from MIP to Canine rise, and also help reduce interference that disrupt the harmony of tooth muscle joint complex.
Digital scans also help analyze and address the causes of occlusal discrepancy instead of just treating the effects. Thus, removing potential triggers from any muscle based clinical pathologies creating harmony synergy and symmetry in the stomatognathic system [2].
Tooth malposition are prime cause for Trauma from Occlusion. Orthodontic therapy (Figure 6) has a big role to play in prevention and treatment of malposition. The teeth should be moved to a position which will improve its stability and long-term prognosis by eliminating abnormal occlusal forces. Early detection of occlusal trauma and correction can help mitigate the harmful occlusal forces and help prevent damage to the teeth and the periodontium. Investigations that help aid this include visual inspection of occlusion with articulating paper, mobility assessment, full mouth radiographs and use of computer aided occlusal evaluation system. The assessment should be made both in static and functional excursions.
Orthotic appliances. SOURCE-
Orthodontic treatment may itself create occlusal interferences, these are temporary and do not last long. The reasons are usually related to inappropriate tooth position, occlusal morphology and overload in excursive movements. These interferences if present should be allowed to settle down over a duration of time by natural accommodation and assessed over a period of time. A through occlusal analysis should always be performed before and after completion of orthodontic treatment.
Redesigning of the complete occlusal scheme is done when no other means of occlusal equilibration can be achieved. This is done by fabrication, crowns, fixed partial and implant supported prosthesis and requires a thorough understanding of occlusion and then extensively on an appropriate articulated cast and is then replicated in the patient’s mouth.
The chewing and biting surfaces of teeth are in balance and proper alignment. Thus, the pressure on individual teeth is lessen there by making them less susceptible to trauma. Thereby improving the normal functioning of the mouth.
A thorough examination and a differential diagnosis procedure is essential to restore the health of the articulating system restore individual tooth to its best anatomic position. This requires an integrated approach including (using) all disciplines of dentistry, to support, manage, limit and lessen the wear and destruction of the element of the masticatory apparatus and restore a healthy physical support.
Extraction of tooth that interferes with occlusion is a rarely used option. In certain situations, extraction of the selective teeth with poor prognosis with extensive periodontal involvement is done to improve the prognosis of the remaining teeth. This helps achieve a proper true position and alignment of the remaining teeth and immediate structures and the total articulating system.
Trauma from occlusion is a term often used but least understood. It refers to tooth/tissue injury due to distorted occlusion and/or occlusal forces. The damaging forces may affect the tooth, its supporting structures and immediate structures that may extend to involve the articulating system. A lack of awareness often leads to the cascading consequences in the masticatory system.
This is mostly to do with difficulty in decoding the cause as a result management is only directed at the effects. Treatment approach needs to include through evaluation of occlusion, understanding of occlusal instability and early diagnosis of changes in the supporting structures.
Any occlusal force which goes beyond the adaptive capacity of the underlying tissues leads to damage to the periodontal structures. The current understanding of the role of TFO is it can amplify not cause localized loss of attachment.
Trauma from occlusion is reversible but attachment loss may not be. The development of pockets and recession are not a direct consequence of TFO. The development of pockets and recession are not a direct consequence of TFO but due to other etiological factors & plaque and calculus. When diagnosing the periodontal condition, his/her unique susceptibility, history and site specificity, specific to the direction of the force to a particular tooth [6, 9].
Management is directed towards intercepting any pathological process or to eliminate conditions conducive to disease or injury by looking for risk factors early help manage with minimal treatment. This is done by containing inflammation and instituting proper plaque control measures including supra/sub gingival debridement. If mobility persists teeth should be stabilized with fixed splints only after the traumatic occlusal forces are eliminated. If TFO is left untreated the chances of periodontal disease increases greatly [10].
Occlusal instability is a trigger to a host of adverse consequences leading to occlusal disharmony. Failure to replace missing teeth, malocclusion and improperly aligned teeth to each other produces irregular and less repeatable chewing strokes. The chewing is shorter and slower and may also have an irregular pathway. Mandibular deviation may result in order to avoid deflective contacts. This manifests as pain in the jaw muscles, and a host of adverse consequences in the masticatory apparatus. Occlusal equilibration is the widely used option of treatment, in which the chewing and biting surfaces of the teeth is either selectively reduced or restored to achieve the ideal occlusion [11].
Analysis of the direction of the stress in the centric closure versus that of eccentric closure discloses on the important causes of pathologic wear of teeth and the resultant effect on the supporting structures. Objective treatment plan should restore a harmonious cuspal relationship within physiologic limit and harmonize the jaw in centric at peace with the neuromusculature. This allows the jaw to function where it is comfortable and not restricted [12].
The goal is to confine all excursive contacts on to the anterior teeth, removing any posterior interferences if any that trigger and activates the muscle hyperactivity that prevents the turning off of the elevator muscle activity. The role of occlusion is often overlooked minimized or ignored in general dental practice. As many dentists find it difficult to understand concepts and when, where and how to incorporate occlusal technologies in to the practice [1].
Biometric approach gives clinician a powerful objective tool for incorporating occlusal analysis leading to improved clinical results and fewer failures in prosthetic restorations and orthodontic tooth repositioning. It connects the biological markers with the patient’s occlusion and gives critical information that is required to create harmony between teeth, muscles and jaw [2].
Prevention, Interception and correction are terms synonymous with orthodontic, should also be integrated into management of TFO. Malposition of teeth are prime reasons for development of damaging forces, orthodontics is the ideal means of correcting these teeth irregularities. Early diagnosis and repositioning of teeth to an ideal occlusion in static and dynamic function allows for proper anatomical alignment of opposing teeth and the arches. Adapting a comprehensive individualized treatment approach after assessing the effects on each element of the masticatory apparatus will lead to a better outcome.
If parafunctional habits are involved, habit counseling, cognitive and behavioral awareness therapy needs to be instituted. The habits can lead gradually weaved off, if needed the help of permissive or stabilizing splints can be used. This may be followed by a restorative management.
The key to understand trauma from occlusion is to understand how the brain finds the teeth, it finds the teeth by the best of fit. The jaw should be allowed to close into maximum intercuspal position without any interference and not force itself in, So better the fit into MIP the healthier the occlusion. The chewing pathway is as important as the anterior guidance which does not interferes with the pathway. Occlusion is unique to each individual so is the pathway. A systemic approach in the sequence of treatment selected and planned will help in improving the long-term prognosis and rehabilitation of patients by establishing the occlusion which is in harmony with the envelope of function. An inter disciplinary treatment approach with digital occlusal analysis will go a long way in developing neuro-occluso-muscular harmony.
We would like to acknowledge and appreciate the support and facilities provided by Triveni Institute of Dental Sciences Hospital and Research Centre Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India and thank them sincerely for the same.
TFO | Trauma from occlusion |
TMJ | Temporomandibular joint |
MIP | Maximum intercuspal position |
EMG | Electromyography |
JVA | Joint Vibrational Analysis |
PDL | Periodontal Ligament |
ICP | Intercuspal position |
ROM | range of movement |
μm | micron (measurement unit) |
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H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7442,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:25128,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. 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Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. 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Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82713",title:"Fouling and Mechanism",slug:"fouling-and-mechanism",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105878",abstract:"Fouling is the deposition of material on the heat transfer surface which reduces the film heat transfer coefficient. The impact of fouling on the heat exchanger is manifested as the reduction of thermal and hydraulic performance, in which the latter has a minor effect. This factor needs to be considered when calculating the effectiveness of the heat exchanger. During the design of heat exchangers, the fouling factor increases the required heat transfer area, which adds extra manufacturing costs. With less efficient heat exchangers, the economic cost of fouling is related to excess fuel consumption, loss of production, and maintenance or cleaning. The extra fuel consumption also damages the environment by increasing greenhouse gas production. Although much of the research work has been done on modeling and predicting fouling, it is still a poorly understood phenomenon representing the complexity of its mechanism. The common fouling mitigation action after the onset of fouling is to optimize the operating condition, e.g., increase the bulk flow velocity or decrease surface temperature. However, many quantitative and semi-empirical models have been developed to predict the fouling rate for preventive actions and optimizing cleaning schedules.",book:{id:"11161",title:"Heat Transfer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11161.jpg"},signatures:"Obaid ur Rehman, Nor Erniza Mohammad Rozali and Marappa Gounder Ramasamy"},{id:"83057",title:"Communication Technologies and Their Contribution to Sustainable Smart Cities",slug:"communication-technologies-and-their-contribution-to-sustainable-smart-cities",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106223",abstract:"Sustainable smart cities (SSC) are becoming a reality as many develop their unique model of smart cities based on vast communication infrastructure. New technologies led to innovative ecosystems where transportation, logistics, maintenance, etc., are automated and accessed remotely. Information and communication coordinate their overall activities. Sensors embedded in these devices sense the environment to provide the required input. Together with artificial intelligence, machine learning, and deep learning, it enables them to facilitate effective decision-making. This chapter discusses the role of integrating technologies in smart cities, focusing on the information and communication aspects, challenges, limitations, and mitigation strategies related to the infrastructure, implementations, and best practices for attaining SSC. We propose a four-layered model covering the main aspects of incorporating communication technology within sustainable smart cities. It covers the basic physical level, providing guidelines for designing a smart city that supports the requirements of a proper communications infrastructure. The level above is the network level where we describe current communication networks and technologies. The rest two upper layers represent the software with integrated and embedded communication components. In summary, we conclude that communication technology is the key enabler of most of the activities performed in smart cities.",book:{id:"11507",title:"New Generation of Sustainable Smart Cities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11507.jpg"},signatures:"Menachem Domb"},{id:"83055",title:"Boron Clusters in Biomedical Applications: A Theoretical Viewpoint",slug:"boron-clusters-in-biomedical-applications-a-theoretical-viewpoint",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106215",abstract:"In this chapter, we presented an analysis of the recent advances in the applications of boron clusters in biomedical fields such as the development of biosensors and drug delivery systems on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. Biosensors play an essential role in many sectors, e.g., law enforcement agencies for sensing illicit drugs, medical communities for detecting overdosed medications from human and animal bodies, etc. The drug delivery systems have theoretically been proposed for many years and subsequently implemented by experiments to deliver the drug to the targeted sites by reducing the harmful side effects significantly. Boron clusters form a rich and colorful family of atomic clusters due to their unconventional structures and bonding phenomena. Boron clusters and their complexes have various biological activities such as the drug delivery, imaging for diagnosis, treatment of cancer, and probe of protein-biomolecular interactions. For all of these reactivities, the interaction mechanisms and the corresponding energetics between biomaterials and boron clusters are of essential importance as a basic step in the understanding, and thereby design of relevant materials. During the past few years, attempts have been made to probe the nature of these interactions using quantum chemical calculations mainly with density functional theory (DFT) methods. This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical viewpoint on this issue.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Ehsan Shakerzadeh, Elham Tahmasebi, Long Van Duong and Minh Tho Nguyen"},{id:"82984",title:"Feedback Linearization Control of Interleaved Boost Converter Fed by PV Array",slug:"feedback-linearization-control-of-interleaved-boost-converter-fed-by-pv-array",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106355",abstract:"One of the powerful methods of nonlinear control is the feedback linearization technique. This technique consists of input state and input-output linearization methods. In this chapter, the feedback linearization technique, including input state and input-output linearization methods, is described. Then, input-output linearization method is used for output voltage control of interleaved boost converter. Firstly, mathematical model of the interleaved boost converter is derived after that the method is applied. Besides, the interleaved boost converter is fed by a PV array under irradiation level and ambient temperature change. As a result of the simulation study, output voltage control of interleaved boost converter under reference voltage change is realized as desired.",book:{id:"11499",title:"Nonlinear Systems - Recent Developments and Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11499.jpg"},signatures:"Erdal Şehirli"},{id:"1082338",title:"Capacitated Clustering Models to Real Life Applications",slug:null,totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000213",abstract:'
This chapter considers the use of different capacitated clustering problems and models that fits better in real-life applications such as household waste collection, IT teams layout in software factories, wholesales distribution, and staff’s home collection or delivery to/from workplace. Each application is explored in its regular form as it is being developed by contractors and/or users. We consider for each application the aspects of solving the problem by the appropriate mathematical programming model and decision support methodology (using aggregated Geographical Information System and mobile technology) to hold correctly and most precisely the problems and difficulties related to instances in evaluation. The experience on these fields is here revealed in detailed form as the results obtained by using the techniques here explained.
',book:{id:"11082",title:"Operations Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11082.jpg"},signatures:"Marcos J. Negreiros, Nelson Maculan, Augusto W.C. Palhano, Albert E.F. Muritiba and Pablo L.F. Batista"},{id:"83011",title:"E-Waste Management in Different Countries: Strategies, Impacts, and Determinants",slug:"e-waste-management-in-different-countries-strategies-impacts-and-determinants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106644",abstract:"Over the last two decades, the electronic equipment has increased dramatically around the world, which causes increasing in e-waste as well. This increasing has affected the environment badly. E-waste disposal has become one of the most critical issues and concerns have raised of it because most of these products do not biodegrade easily and they are toxic. Different strategies have been followed in many countries in order to solve the e-waste problem. Understanding these strategies can help to plan better for e-waste management correctly. Awareness of people about the e-waste impacts is crucial, because it can ensure people participation in managing the e waste process. This research has carried out in order to introduce to the e-waste impacts on environment and human health, and the importance of people awareness about these impacts. In addition, it shows many strategies that have been used in different countries to manage the e-waste, choosing the successful one to focus in order to benefit from it. Furthermore, a surveying has been carried out to exam people awareness in Iraq about the e-waste impacts. Finally, recommendations to manage e-waste successfully have been added.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Shireen Ibrahim Mohammed"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:811},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"