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Kapelus ([2], p. 279) insists that corporate literature on CSR is dominated by references to how corporations perceive themselves to be part of the community and what they have done for the community. Frynas ([3], p. 275) argues that part of the problem lies in the over-emphasis of scholars who tend to concentrate on the corporate benefits of CSR activities with less attention on providing data on the process and development impact. Yet this is not a problem in itself: the current analyses of literature on CSR say very little on how corporations integrate with the community or engage and how they achieve CSR outcomes. Idemudia [4] supports this assertion by arguing that an understanding of the relationship between CSR and development possibly lies more in the analysis of CSR processes over outcomes.
One of the reasons scholars have lamented the absence of significant evidence of the impact of CSR on poverty and development, for example, is that the current analysis glosses over the CSR processes which are important in showing how corporations strategise their CSR initiatives for the benefit of society. The issue about CSR processes is not a new phenomenon but is a concept that came up some decades back when Jones [5] revisited and redefined the meaning of CSR. In his analysis of the concept, Jones ([5], p. 65) posits that “corporate social responsibility ought not to be seen as a set of outcomes, but as a process”. Jones further elaborated that “corporate behaviour should not, in most cases, be judged by the decisions actually reached, but by the process by which they are reached” ([5], p. 65). Since the CSR discourse was developed and shaped over a long period of time, later scholars saw the need to integrate CSR process issues in CSR theorisation [4, 6, 7]. Idemudia [4] took a profound step in showing the significance of analysing CSR processes for the continued growth and development of the CSR agenda. His argument stems from the fact that the outcome-oriented focus of the current discourse neglects the core issues and processes that can enrich our understanding of the CSR-development relationship ([4], p. 99). Newell ([6], p. 556) earlier noted that “mainstream CSR is unable to address the key issues of process by which a company’s social and environmental obligations come to be determined, enforced and made locally relevant”. The issue about CSR processes looks at how corporations carry out their CSR initiatives and how they engage their stakeholders.
The central aim of this article is to understand CSR processes in a community development context, with emphasis on the reciprocal relationship among key stakeholders using the relationship between Zimplats and Mhondoro-Ngezi community in Zimbabwe as a case study.
This article takes an in-depth focus on corporate-stakeholder engagement processes, the decision-making procedures, the nature of corporate-stakeholder partnerships and the power dynamics between the corporate and stakeholders and how these impact on community development in Mhondoro-Ngezi community. Zimplats Holdings Limited (Zimplats) is 49% owned by Implats (South Africa) and 51% owned by the government of Zimbabwe. The mining company has carried out platinum mining operations in Mhondoro-Ngezi community since the year 2000. As a multinational company a lot was expected from it by the community as there was great belief that development opportunities would accrue to the community as a whole. However, due to lack of major developmental projects in Mhondoro-Ngezi, the researchers of this article sought to understand the various CSR processes and how they affected community development.
Several authors such as Fox [8], Idemudia [9], Christian Aid [10] and UNRISD [7] have highlighted the need for an alternative critical research agenda which indicates that CSR initiatives should not just benefit foreign companies financially but also benefit workers and indigenous communities socially and environmentally in the South. Although the CSR agenda has developed since the 1950s, many scholars believe that it is fraught with many inconsistencies as it leaves behind some critical issues. Idemudia ([9], p. 2) argues that “there is a general consensus that the mainstream CSR agenda has been driven by Northern actors and therefore reflected the priorities and concerns of western societies without sufficient room for other concerns from the South”. Fox [8] identified core issues that he saw as limitations of the current CSR agenda.
Not only Fox [8] has called for a new critical CSR agenda but there is a chain of scholars who have witnessed the limitations of the current CSR agenda. The new agenda’s focal point is a deeper investigation of how CSR initiatives can contribute to the development of communities in the global South and improve the livelihood conditions of the locals. Blowfield and Frynas ([11], p. 505) attack the current CSR discourse as weak and bad for development. To these authors, the “weak CSR is bad development” school of thought is linked with civil society organisations and critics of business practices. Its argument is that corporations should take responsibility for the broader impacts in society. The efforts to achieve such an objective are hampered by the current CSR practice that is solely focused on profit making. Blowfield and Frynas [11] further show that the failures of the current CSR practices are a result of poor planning and implementation of social programmes by firms (CSR processes). For them, the way out of this situation is through improved partnerships between stakeholders and better constructed and implemented CSR policies. The failure of CSR activities as a result of poor formulation and implementation calls to attention the need to consider CSR processes in our endeavour to understand its impact on development. Scholars such as Idemudia [4] called for the need to shift focus towards understanding CSR processes in trying to ascertain how development and CSR are connected.
As already indicated from the previous sections, the current CSR agenda overlooks the importance of processes in the overall CSR discourse. There is too much emphasis on outcomes and impacts of CSR without a critical analysis of the processes which bring about the outcomes of CSR. The following section shows how important a concerted focus and analysis of CSR processes is significant in the enrichment of the CSR discourse.
A focus on CSR processes entails focus on a number of issues that determine the outcomes of CSR initiatives. One of the strategies used by corporations to interact with its stakeholders is the process of stakeholder engagement. According to Greenwood [12], notions of corporate responsibility and the responsible organisation are built upon the notion of stakeholder engagement. According to stakeholder theory, stakeholder engagement portrays an organisational practice undertaken to involve stakeholders in a positive and encompassing manner in organisational activities ([12], p. 316). Phillips ([13], p. 54) sees it as a mutually beneficial scheme of cooperation. Stakeholder engagement has been viewed as a moral partnership of equals between firms and its stakeholders. However, when analysing the stakeholder engagement process one has to be careful that in reality, it is possible that the organisation and its stakeholders may not be of equal status because of the asymmetrical power relations between these two parties [12]. The United Nations Research Institute for Social Development ([7], p. 21) mentions that although spaces for multi-stakeholder dialogues have opened up in many developing countries, there is a sense of mistrust because of the negotiating and bargaining power of various stakeholders.
One of the ways to test the asymmetrical power relations in the CSR practice is to analyse the stakeholder identification and decision-making processes which are some of the strategies involved in coming up with CSR outcomes. According to Idemudia ([4], p. 103) “emphasis on processes entails a focus on stakeholder contestations and interactions, decision making structure and stakeholders that are included and excluded in the projects”. If we are to consider these facts as part of CSR processes it can be argued that the current discourse portrays unequal stakeholder engagement processes. According to UNRISD ([7], p. 15), there is need for greater inclusion of stakeholders from developing countries in shaping CSR and accountability agendas. The inclusion of poor indigenous communities, workers, and trade unions in CSR decision-making processes will ensure empowerment and strengthen work place democracy. UNRISD ([7], p. 21) further points out that a concern with the current discourse is its emphasis on a top-down approach, Northern and expert-driven character.
Freeman [14] claims that decision making needs to incorporate multiple stakeholders, and interests. Most CSR initiatives in the South have always assumed top-down approaches where developmental goals and priorities are formulated and implemented by the corporations. Unless corporations include beneficiaries in the decision-making process, the stakeholder engagement process will remain a morally neutral process that is totally dominated by one party with enormous powers [12].
The stakeholder approach views the company at the centre of a range of stakeholders [14]. However it should be understood that, by shifting our eyes and looking beyond stakeholders, we must consider them as part of an intricate and dynamic web of interrelated role-players involved in (un)sustainable development at the local level [15]. Hamann et al. [15] emphasised the need to understand the local governance process as this has implications on corporate citizenship or CSR. Whereas stakeholder engagement focuses more on how the corporation engages its stakeholders in its activities, the local governance system takes a slightly different approach. The reciprocity concept creates a platform for understanding the duties, roles and rights of stakeholders and the firm and therefore there is need to understand how local governance processes affect and influence CSR outcomes. According to Hamann et al. ([15], p. 63) “governance has been defined as the process of providing direction to society, whereby the emphasis is on the relationships between the state and other role-players, including business”. This means that local governance encompasses the role and functions of local government, and the various interactions between local government, local citizens and other groups in society [15]. Local governments represent the national government in executing public duties and therefore should be considered as very important stakeholders. The interactions between various stakeholders such as local government, community members, community traditional leaders, and any other interested groups determine crucial aspects of (un)sustainable development, which include service delivery, infrastructure development and spatial planning. Therefore, having an idea of the local governance system reveals important processes that are outside the immediate scope of the company but play a crucial role in an effective corporate citizenship strategy and outcome.
According to Warhurst [16] and Hamann [17] tri-sector partnerships are important processes that strengthen corporate citizenship outcomes. CSR initiatives are not exclusively carried out by corporations but through partnerships with stakeholders such as the community, government, NGOs and private companies for the benefit of all parties [18]. The idea of partnership between the corporations and stakeholders is aimed at addressing the socio-ecological problems. Hamann [15] believes that tri-sector partnerships benefit from the strengths of corporations alongside those of civil society and government and this inversely yields better results for communities and for business than when corporations go it their own way. Owing to the outcry from stakeholder groups, many corporations have assumed the idea of partnering with stakeholders to holistically tackle the social and environmental challenges [18]. Brinkerhoff [19] argues that public-private partnerships (PPPs), which are collaborations between corporations, state, and non-state actors to achieve mutually defined goals, present the best offer of how CSR can contribute towards development priorities. Because stakeholders participate in defining goals and implementing projects, such partnerships can initiate CSR’s drive of addressing the development priorities while also meeting private corporate objectives.
A number of community development initiatives in developing countries have collapsed not because they were poorly funded but rather as a result of uncoordinated processes of formulation, implementation and monitoring [20]. Warhurst ([16], p. 59) thinks that the panacea to such issues is the idea of a tri-sector partnership agreement that addresses critical issues by establishing agreed partnership goals, monitoring and reporting systems and collaborative activities. Warhurst goes further to suggest that partnership agreements maybe pre- or post-date the project development phase and be used as a method to make sure communication and participation of stakeholders in relevant decision making, or the funding of social investment programmes.
Through partnerships the usually suppressed voices of the marginalised groups within the stakeholder approach can be heard and make a mark for the concerns of these groups. That is why Soplop et al. [21] view “partnerships as a mechanism for addressing a participation deficit because they involve marginalized groups hence ensuring that their voices are heard”. International institutions such as the World Bank have supported the idea of partnerships as they ensure a collective agenda that seeks to stamp out poverty and ensure development [22]. Inputs from the private sector, government and local communities are vital in the success of CSR programmes and this ensures that the “blame game” that has always characterised these relationships is avoided.
Mhondoro-Ngezi, where the study was conducted, is a rural town (in Kadoma District, in Mashonaland-West Province). It is located 156 kilometres south-west of Harare, which is the capital city of Zimbabwe. Mhondoro-Ngezi is made up of 16 wards. Its population of 104,061 people [23] spreads across rich soils. Despite being rich in mineral resources, the community relies on agriculture as the main livelihood option because of the absence of a sound economic sector to create local employment. Mhondoro-Ngezi receives very minimal annual rainfall of 600-800 mm a year that is sufficient for local small scale farmers to grow crops for subsistence purposes. For commercial purposes local farmers rely on cotton farming and cattle rearing. In a good season, cotton now fetching US$0, 35 per kg gives them significant returns (Sunday Mail, 16 June 2013). However, the living standards in this area are very low and many people live under the Word Bank’s poverty datum line of $1 per day. For the past three decades since Independence in 1980 the community has received no meaningful development except for the construction of a few primary and secondary schools, local clinics, dip tanks for livestock and indigenous small shopping centres which serve as the growth point. Many school children walk long distances of at least 6 km to school since there are very few of these in the community. Zimplats is the only major mining company in the area that has provided employment for thousands of workers in Mhondoro-Ngezi and surrounding areas. There are however a few small businesses owned by local people in the retail sector.
Although Zimbabwe hosts many foreign mining companies. Zimplats became the choice for the study because it is the largest company ensuring corporate-mediated social provisioning articulated by Akpan [24]. Despite the company being a major agent of community development there have been escalating contradictions and public outburst by stakeholders who have been calling for Zimplats to contribute meaningfully towards social transformation that goes beyond charities and donations. Therefore this kind of relationship coupled with various outcries from stakeholders that include local communities, local politicians, and civil society organisations prompted the researcher to investigate the nature of CSR projects initiated by Zimplats in Mhondoro-Ngezi community.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were utilised to collect empirical data. The researchers specifically employed semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and a mini-survey. A total of 6 semi-structured interviews were conducted with representatives from the mining company, a Member of Parliament for Mhondoro-Ngezi, government officials from the Ministry of Youth and Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment. Community leaders were also part of the semi-structured interviews group. For the FGDs, the researcher conducted 6 of them and they consisted of community members from Mhondoro-Ngezi community who are affected by the mining company’s activities. In this study the researchers also employed a mini-survey to ascertain the views and perceptions of Mhondoro-Ngezi community members on CSR projects by Zimplats, stakeholder reciprocal duties and the CSR processes. The sample size consisted of 215 participants who were randomly selected from the total population of Mhondoro-Ngezi. By using a survey method, the researcher employed questionnaires to ensure honesty and accuracy of participants’ responses.
The central research question for which these empirical data were needed was: What are the processes involved in the implementation of CSR initiatives by Zimplats in the Mhondoro-Ngezi Community?
The results of the study are presented below under five themes.
Based on the stakeholder theory, this section explores the dynamics and performance of stakeholders’ involvement and participation in CSR activities meant for community development and empowerment. Ihugba and Osuji ([25], p. 28) differentiates between the concept of stakeholder engagement and stakeholder management. According to Ihugba and Osuji ([25], p. 28) “stakeholder management is entirely a business strategy constructed to benefit the corporation without contribution from stakeholders irrespective of its impact on them”. Stakeholder engagement emphasises examining the ways in which companies relate with their stakeholders in promoting social obligations and development [12, 26]. Ihugba and Osuji [25] further points out that the starting point for stakeholder engagement is when firms go out of their way to consult negotiate and discuss with stakeholders their expectations and map out a plan of how to meet those expectations. The issues about stakeholder engagement and management can also be contextualised in the Mhondoro-Ngezi community to understand the CSR processes in Mhondoro-Ngezi.
From the study it was noted that Zimplats has a well elaborated stakeholder engagement policy that describes its engagement processes and is made public on the company website. Although the company purports that it is governed by a policy on stakeholder engagement, it is crucial to look at how the policy is implemented or how functional it is in addressing the concerns of its stakeholders. The following summarises some of the content of Zimplats’ stakeholder engagement policy.
The primary responsibility of Zimplats is to meet the shareholders’ demands and at the same time, the company takes into cognisance the interests of its stakeholders which can include the following:
Employees and their representative bodies.
Zimplats Board. The board is required to make strategic decisions and must be well informed on factors which may affect its decisions and impact on represented interests.
Local, provincial and national governments make decisions and policies that impact directly on operations, develop regional growth and development strategies, and are concerned with the impact operations have on the local communities (including Mhondoro-Ngezi and Selous).
Media influences the image of the company.
Investors are concerned about the sustainability of the operations and need to be well informed about policies and strategies.
Local communities are directly affected by the operations in terms of work opportunities, environmental impact and development opportunities.
Civic society, NGOs and pressure groups etc. influence policies and decisions and for these reasons it is important to be aware of their concerns.
(Source: Zimplats Stakeholder Engagement Policy [23]).
Although there are various internal and external stakeholders, Figure 1 shows the Zimplats multi-stakeholder model based on the findings from this study.
Zimplats multi-stakeholder model. Source:
Figure 1 shows a simplified multi-stakeholder engagement model used by Zimplats. A closer look at the diagram shows that whilst there are links between the company and its stakeholders the community seems far away from the mining company. As will be discussed later in this paper, this is a reflection of the nature of the company and community relations. The stakeholder salience approach is real and evident in the Mhondoro-Ngezi community. Despite the community being a strong legitimate stakeholder, the company treats it differently from the way that other stakeholders are treated. The issue of power differentials exposes the idea that the less powerful stakeholders usually occupy the peripheral areas of the stakeholders’ engagement model. Powerful and influential stakeholders with the capacity to halt or affect the operations and stability of the firm are kept close to the company as there seems to be interdependence between the firm and these stakeholders.
Both qualitative and quantitative data from the study show that despite the company stating its use of a stakeholder engagement policy, the engagement is characterised by unequal power relations and the company retains the power to unilaterally identify the stakeholders to engage with at a particular time. An important point to note when analysing stakeholder engagement processes is the issue of how the corporation goes out to meet its stakeholders or how it interacts on issues relating to CSR. From the study, it was noted that since the commencement of mining operations in Mhondoro-Ngezi community, the company has always maintained its engagement processes with key stakeholders such as the government, Rural District Council (RDC), traditional leaders and the ever-present Member of Parliament (MP). Interview extracts show that these key stakeholders have deliberated on various issues on CSR by engaging the mining company. One stakeholder indicated the following:
The RDC official confirmed the engagement process between the mining company and its stakeholders, saying:
The above accounts indicate that the mining company extends a friendly hand to its key stakeholders to debate matters related to community development. Both stakeholders indicated that traditional chiefs also form part of the group of stakeholders who engage the mining company. A striking absence from the stakeholder list is community representatives. While traditional chiefs are considered as part of the community, they stand in their capacity as leaders of the local governance structure. Community members in Mhondoro-Ngezi lamented their neglect and lack of representation when it comes to crucial matters on CSR. Local leaders such as politicians, who represent the entire community in the legislative house, cannot carry the whole burden of community needs and priorities. FGD discussions were dominated by community members who complained about the nature of engagement between the mining company and the community.
Results from the FGDs indicate the community’s concern with Zimplats’ community engagement processes. Some of the concerns of community members are indicated below by two respondents who stated the following:
A closer look at the above interview extracts shows a crisis faced by community members with regard to the company–community engagement process. While other stakeholders enjoy participation in matters related to community initiatives, community members are only recipients of the finished products. The utility and impact of such initiatives is questioned because without elaborate community discourses on development needs there is no way they can address their intended goals. From the FGDs, the researchers also wanted to understand the perceptions of the wider community so as to come to a conclusion on the community–company engagement process. A key characteristic from this study is that while the researchers relied extensively on in-depth qualitative data, the quantitative aspect came in to confirm and complement the initial qualitative findings. The following tables show that despite community members being considered as legitimate under Zimplats’ voluntary CSR policy, they were often bypassed on crucial matters that concern them, with other stakeholders having to negotiate on their behalf.
Calvano ([27], p. 776) argues that despite business taking an interest in stakeholder engagement, communities still remain marginalised relative to other stakeholders. The above table present the views of the wide community with regards to Zimplats CSR engagement processes. Table 1 shows that community members rejected the idea that CSR activities were carried out after wide consultations with the community members. The statistics presented from Table 1 show that about 54% of the respondents disagreed with this idea while 29.3% of respondents agreed. The neglect of community members from the consultation process on CSR matters puts the whole community in jeopardy. Successful CSR initiatives must take into considerations the voices and views of the intended beneficiaries in the decision-making process. This presents the limitations of the stakeholder theory in that, despite it being an approach in which firms consider their social obligations towards the society, it also limits the participation of other stakeholders. Vial ([28], p. 37) acknowledges that the stakeholder theory advocates for the firm to accommodate all stakeholders into the firm’s decisions regarding CSR matters. The failure of CSR initiatives in Mhondoro-Ngezi comes down to the issue of the CSR process. A focus on processes involving stakeholders reminds us of the need to put into consideration the values, motives and choices of those real people who are supposed to benefit from CSR initiatives.
CSR projects by the mining company have been carried out after wide consultations with various stakeholders? | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | Per cent | Valid Per cent | Cumulative Per cent | ||
Valid | Disagree | 116 | 54.0 | 54.0 | 54.0 |
Neutral | 36 | 16.7 | 16.7 | 70.7 | |
Agree | 62 | 28.8 | 28.8 | 99.5 | |
Strongly agree | 1 | .5 | .5 | 100.0 | |
Total | 215 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
CSR activities and stakeholder consultations.
Source:
Although Newell ([6], p. 552) argues that we have to acknowledge that “not all members of a community can participate in public hearings, meetings and legal processes but best placed leaders can represent a community”, there still needs to be a point where community members’ views are incorporated into the CSR agenda of the corporation. Without input from community members, community development initiatives are bound to be a failure because they do not address the needs of communities.
The dominance of corporate power in the stakeholder engagement process is not only limited to the firm choosing and identifying the legitimate stakeholder with urgent claims, it is also manifested in the decision-making process. Discussions of CSR without an analysis of the decision-making process are flawed and have many inconsistencies. The idea of understanding CSR processes also calls into focus the need to analyse the decision-making process. It has been noted that community members barely feature in the crucial meetings of CSR and their voice is only heard through the community leaders. However, despite having the opportunity to sit and dine with the mining executives on matters of CSR, community leaders and other stakeholders indicated that decisions on priority matters and budgets for CSR in the community are made by the company. Despite being powerful stakeholders in their accord, community leaders, politicians and the RDC indicated that the mining company controls the decision-making process on CSR matters. The following interview excerpts clearly show stakeholders coming to a conclusion that Zimplats has the sole decision-making power in terms of its voluntary CSR approaches:
The RDC is the closest stakeholder that works with the mining company on most CSR and development issues. As the community’s development planner and administration body, the RDC is in constant partnership with the mining company in the execution of community projects. The RDC acknowledged that Zimplats dominates the decision-making processes as it controls the disbursement of funds meant for community initiatives and also the selection of contractors and supply chains to undertake any work on behalf of the mining company. Zimplats confirmed its role in the decision-making process by stating the following issues:
The above interview excerpt shows that it is the prerogative of the company’s board to approve funds and the priorities for CSR. While the community expected Zimplats to make CSR funds available and then make its own decisions about the use of the funds, the interview extracts shows otherwise. Although MNCs are mandated to make decisions, the limiting factor is that their decisions are primarily based on issues that could have an impact on their corporate activities rather than impact on stakeholders. Newell and Frynas ([29], p. 676) argue that the focus on CSR processes help to explore the deeper political and structural roots of CSR failures. They advocate for the engagement of the intended beneficiaries of CSR through participatory processes of design, formulation, decision-making and implementation. The process of decision-making has been the sticking point in company-community relations.
From the study it was generally accepted that the question of decision-making on CSR issues in Mhondoro-Ngezi community is dominated by the company and is beyond the reach of community members. Results from the mini-survey confirm the findings from the qualitative interviews about the mining company being the sole decision-maker. From Table 2 it can be seen that 70.2% of respondents collectively agree that community members are not part of the decision-making process. Only 14% of the respondents believe that community members are decision makers on CSR related projects in Mhondoro-Ngezi. The remainder, 15.8%, remained neutral on the issue.
Community members are part of the decision making board on matters relating to community development? | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | Percent | Valid Percent | Cumulative Percent | ||
Valid | Strongly disagree | 17 | 7.9 | 7.9 | 7.9 |
Disagree | 134 | 62.3 | 62.3 | 70.2 | |
Neutral | 34 | 15.8 | 15.8 | 86.0 | |
Agree | 29 | 13.5 | 13.5 | 99.5 | |
Strongly agree | 1 | .5 | .5 | 100.0 | |
Total | 215 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Decision making on community development matters.
Source:
CSR initiatives are not carried out exclusively by corporations but partnerships with stakeholders such as the community, government, and NGOs and other private companies are vital for the success of these initiatives [18]. Warhurst ([16], p. 59) posits that “the idea of multi sector or tri-sector partnerships is to tackle the areas of concern by establishing commonly agreed goals, monitoring and reporting systems and collaborative activities”. The success of community development initiatives is guaranteed when stakeholders come together and contribute to a common goal. From the study, it was noted that for a long time Zimplats had forged ahead with CSR initiatives without substantial assistance or contribution from stakeholders such as national or local government. For all its CSR activities, the mining company has always partnered with the RDC in Mhondoro-Ngezi community. Despite controlling the stake in CSR activities, Zimplats has always maintained cordial relations with the local government body that is concerned with local planning and development. The major talking point though is that such partnerships are dominated by the company with decisions coming from the company’s management. The corporate management department lamented the lack of collaboration or assistance from other stakeholders as a sticking point in community development. With Mhondoro-Ngezi covering a large geographical area and with an estimated population of 110,000 people, this seemed a tough assignment for the company to go it alone. In one of the interview extracts the company indicated the need for other stakeholders to contribute towards community initiatives by making resources such as financial capital available. When asked what could be done to improve the effectiveness of CSR projects/initiatives in the community, one company representative said that the solution lay in:
From the company’s perspective, reciprocal behaviour from other stakeholders is the best possible way for CSR activities to be more effective and cover a wide section of society. Although stakeholders such as the government have received taxes and royalties from the mining company nothing has been contributed towards the development of the local community. The widely held assumption from the government, politicians and community members is that foreign companies accrue large sums of profits from exploiting local natural resources with the bulk of it repatriated back to their mother countries. Therefore foreign companies are expected to go it alone when it comes to community development.
The ideas of power hegemony and control of processes are key issues in the discussion of the CSR agenda, because the relationship between stakeholders and business is often characterised by power struggles. CSR and development are arenas of political contestation with stakeholders seeking to leverage their control over resources and decision-making. The relationship between the government and business is often characterised by power struggles. Whilst some scholars believe that over the years MNCs have amassed enormous power to control even the governments in their countries of operation, this assertion is somehow a fallacy if contextualised in Zimbabwe. While stakeholders such as community members were often neglected in CSR processes and with other stakeholders failing to make inroads into the decision-making process, the law on community empowerment ushered in a new era of company and community engagement processes. Company-driven CSR initiatives failed to address the community’s needs in Mhondoro-Ngezi and the government as the guarantor of society moved in to address these issues.
The admission by the state that voluntary CSR activities had failed to meet the developmental expectations of the local communities saw the enactment of the Indigenisation and Empowerment Act which was signed into law in 2007. From the government’s position, the main idea for the implementation of this law was to ensure empowerment of local Zimbabweans in a manner that would immediately reduce poverty for the majority of the people, and enhance societal welfare [30]. It ushered in a new way of CSR in which foreign companies were now regulated to undertake their CSR projects, whereas the previous set-up supported voluntarism. 1980–2007 was the period of voluntary CSR while 2007–2013 was the period of regulated CSR. Before the regulation of social responsibility activities in Zimbabwe, CSR was monopolised by the corporations with government playing a passive role in advocating for meaningful development.
The idea of threats and coercive use of power has been a powerful tool used by government in its attempt to claim what it calls “resources sovereignty”. Foreign companies are not the first group to experience such unequal transfer of resources, but in the year 2000 the government forcefully repossessed land from white commercial farmers who occupied most of the arable land while the black majority resided in poor areas. As a way to readdress the colonial imbalances, the government removed about 90% of commercial farmers from the land without any compensation for their lost land and all the investments and development that had been done on those farms. Despite lacking legal backing, the government continued with its controversial land reform and later amended the laws governing land ownership and repossession. This is one of the reasons why the international community instigated sanctions against the ZANU PF led government.
With such an aggressive style of transfer of resources still fresh in the memory of foreign companies their only option is to comply with the stated law despite the fact that some of the actions demanded by the government are not backed by the law. The idea of threats to revoke the operating licences of foreign companies or to prosecute them became a hallmark of the hostile relationship between government and business. Several public spats in the local media were recorded, with the government maintaining its position of taking over non-complying business entities. In one of his strings of attacks on foreign companies, the former Minister in the YDIEM said the following with regard to Zimplats’s indigenisation issues:
Such a direct attack is an indication of some of the actions that government takes when it forces companies to comply with its laws. That is why the Northern-centred CSR agenda advocates for refraining government from regulating CSR initiatives, with their position being that corporations must voluntarily choose when and what to contribute to CSR. The implication of use of force by government on community development and empowerment issues towards companies is that relationships are strained and in most cases local communities suffer in the end. Newell ([6], p. 555) posits that in instances of extreme and repeated negligence by corporations, governments have resorted to the tool of power with threats to revoke operating licences. This has been the powerful tool that government has used to force mining companies to comply with the new law.
This article examined the CSR processes undertaken by Zimplats the mining company and stakeholders in the implementation of CSR projects. The point of departure for this article was a recognition that, for a long time there has been so much emphasis on the outcomes of CSR initiatives by the firms without an appreciation of the processes involved in coming up with these outcomes. From this study it was noted that because of its power and control the company dominated the stakeholder identification processes, the prioritisation of projects and the decision-making processes. Despite the community being considered a legitimate stakeholder, it was noted that the company neglected community members’ participation in key CSR processes and decision-making. Community members indicated that only a few leaders were given the privilege to interact with the company on CSR matters. The only time the community members interacted with the mine was when it carried out baseline surveys as part of its project formulation initiatives. Even though some community leaders had the opportunity to discuss CSR issues with the company, Zimplats retained the sole power to make decisions. The article also noted that the Indigenisation and Empowerment Act was to reverse the social ills of the voluntary CSR approach by foreign companies. This study highlighted the power dynamics that exist between the stakeholders and the firm and also the dominance of the state as regulating agent. An important aspect to note in this article was the use of force by the state to ensure that the company complies with the new law. The government indicated that it uses various means to ensure that corporations comply with the need to promote indigenisation and empowerment of local communities. This has been part of the new regulated CSR approach, as opposed to the voluntary approach by the company. While the voluntary CSR approach lacked a clear cut social contract, the Indigenisation and Empowerment Act showed a shift from implicitly held expectations to explicitly held expectations which are backed up by a social contract between the company and the community. The utility of studying CSR processes is based on the need to understand how these processes shape the outcomes of CSR. The analysis of the processes shows how the corporations and its stakeholders reached these outcomes. A concluding remark on the processes shows that by capturing the voices of the beneficiaries we are able to understand why CSR initiatives are failing or succeeding. It also shows whether the issues concerning stakeholder fairness are upheld or respected.
The authors declare that he has no financial or personal relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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\n\nThis chapter considers the use of different capacitated clustering problems and models that fits better in real-life applications such as household waste collection, IT teams layout in software factories, wholesales distribution, and staff’s home collection or delivery to/from workplace. Each application is explored in its regular form as it is being developed by contractors and/or users. We consider for each application the aspects of solving the problem by the appropriate mathematical programming model and decision support methodology (using aggregated Geographical Information System and mobile technology) to hold correctly and most precisely the problems and difficulties related to instances in evaluation. The experience on these fields is here revealed in detailed form as the results obtained by using the techniques here explained.
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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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