These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Seed Storage Proteins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96871",slug:"functional-uses-of-peanut-em-arachis-hypogaea-em-l-seed-storage-proteins",body:'
1. Introduction
Peanut, or groundnut, of genusArachis is a member of the legume family (Fabaceae). Cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea), an allopolyploid with AABB genome composition, is the second-most important grain legume crop worldwide after soybean [1]. The genus Arachis is endemic to South America [2] and the probable center of origin of Arachis hypogaea has been recognized in Gran Panatanal (Mato Grosso, Brazil) and also on the eastern slopes of the Bovilian Andes [3].
Peanut has now become one of the major global oil-seed crops covering approximately 26 million ha land area in about 120 countries [4, 5, 6]. According to FAO, world production of groundnut is above 45 million tons, averaging about 1.8 t/ha. Significant level of annual peanut production has been recorded in India amounting to approximately seven million tons [7]. China leads in production of peanuts, with a share of about 41% of overall world production, whereas India has 14% share and the United States has (7%) [8]. Arachis hypogaea has been divided into two subspecies A. hypogaea ssp. hypogaea and A. hypogaea ssp. fastigiata [9]. Morphological variations in branching and flowering patterns, pod and seed traits are used to characterize different botanical varieties [10]. The varieties are further distinguishable into a number of market types or cultivars like Virginia (large seeded), Runner (small seeded), Peruvian runner, Valencia and Spanish type. Some market types or cultivars are more preferred for some particular uses due to differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease resistance [11].
Peanut is accepted as a potential source of food grade protein and an energy dense food. The seed typically contains 36% to 54% oil, 16% to 36% protein, and 10% to 20% carbohydrates as well as high amounts of macro minerals, trace elements, vitamins riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, fiber and vitamin E, resveratrol, phytosterols. It is also known as poor man’s nut and being seen as potential functional food. A 100 g of peanut kernels provide 567 kcal of energy and 8.5 g of dietary fiber [12]. Consumption of peanuts can reduce risk of inflammation and diseases like diabetes, cancer, gallstone and alzheimer’s [12, 13].
Peanuts are consumed all over the world in a wide variety of forms such as raw, boiled or roasted, and are widely used to prepare a variety of packaged foods (peanut butter, candies, confections, and snack products) in the United States. Peanuts and peanut butter contain monounsaturated fatty acids besides plant proteins, minerals like magnesium, potassium, fiber, arginine and various bioactive components. The by-product of the oil extraction is a meal that is also high in proteins, dietary fiber, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, and can be utilized as animal feed or processed further for human consumption. The defatted protein flour after oil extraction in peanuts, has immense uses and has been exploited in meat-like products that can be used to formulate cholesterol-free vegetarian alternatives [14]. Peanut flour is used in composite flours with non-wheat cereals to improve the nutritional value of bread [12]. Peanut bars, peanut milk and fermented peanut are also different forms of consumption. Protein energy malnutrition in third world developing countries is a problem due to dependence on animal proteins which are expensive and thus, affordable plant proteins with its additional benefits are being exploited such as peanut proteins, which can be used to combat protein-energy malnutrition. Partially defatted peanut flour, is a protein-rich, inexpensive and underutilized product that offers the same health and dietary benefits of peanut with less fat and can be utilized for making value added products to eradicate malnutrition among children [15]. Peanut proteins play an important role in many food products because of their properties such as nutritional value, contribution to food texture, solubility etc., among others. Huge tons of by-products obtained from peanut industries can be utilized to generate a reasonably high quantity of protein, that could be further used in a variety of food formulations due to its properties such as water and oil absorption, gel formation, foaming, emulsification etc. Functional properties depend upon extraction procedure and use of adequate modification methods [16].
Thus, the present chapter focuses on the peanut seed storage proteins composition, nutritional value, bioactive components, functional properties, its usage and methods to reduce allergenicity.
2. Peanut proteins
Seed storage proteins are present as one or more groups of proteins in high amounts in seeds to provide a store of amino acids for use during germination and seed growth. The peanut seed contains 32 different proteins comprised of albumins and globulins. The seed storage proteins are mainly composed of arachin (legumin), conarachin (vicilin) - I, II fractions [17]. Many papers have highlighted the composition of seed storage proteins (SSPs) using one dimensional and two dimensional PAGE [18, 19, 20, 21]. The different fractions of seed proteins by SDS PAGE in groundnut cultivars is shown in Figure 1. SSPs in peanut are composed of families of 2S, 7S, and 11S proteins that can be subdivided in homology groups. 11S proteins are more diverse than 2S and 7S proteins in peanut seeds, but 2S and 11S subgroups are very similar in the A and B genomes of Arachis [20].
Figure 1.
SDS PAGE analysis of Total Seed Storage Proteins in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) cultivars along side a marker (adapted from [19]).
However, peanut proteins is also a source of severe IgE-mediated allergies in some individuals. Due to peanut being recognized as one of the potent allergens, the immunological protein names with prefix Ara with different numbers have also been designated from Ara h 1 to Ara h 17.
2.1 Globulins
Globulins (7S and 11S) comprise of the majority of the total protein in many seeds that are consumed by humans. Vicilins (7S globulins) and legumins (11S globulins) share similar folds and belong to the cupin superfamily of proteins.
Ara h 1, a 7S vicilin, exists as trimer formed by three identical monomers and is also a glycoprotein. It compromises approximately 12–16% of peanut proteins [22]. When analyzed in SDS PAGE, the Ara h 1 vicilin shows two isoforms at 69 and 66 kDa [23]. 11S globulin seed protein is a hexamer (360–380 kDa) formed by two trimers [24], with each monomer having four linear epitopes [25]. Ara h 3 is a legumin-like seed storage protein that has high sequence similarity to glycinin, the major 11S globulin seed storage protein family in soybean. Ara h 3 and related proteins belong to the 11S globulin storage protein family that is characterized by three common features. The first one is that they contain an acidic and basic chain separated by a conserved Asn-Gly (N–G) peptide bond. Second, the formation of intra and inter-disulfide bonds is observed due to four conserved cysteine residue. Third, an Asn-Gln (N–Q) peptide bond is present that serves as a potential proteolytic cleavage site. It also functions as a trypsin inhibitor [24, 26, 27]. Ara h 3 and soybean glycinin result in a sequence identity of 47.2%. Mature Ara h 3 is a hexamer (360–380 kDa) formed by a head-to-head association of two trimers [25, 28]. Ara h 3 was originally identified as 14 kDa [28]. Later, it was found to be of 60 kDa [24]. This Ara h 3 is post translationally modified and cleaved into 43 kDa acidic and 28 kDa basic subunits. In SDS PAGE, several fragments can be identified as 14, 25, 42 and 45 kDa.
Ara h 4 is also arachin, an isoform of Ara h 3. Ara h 4 is no more used but it is renamed as Ara h 3.02 [29]. Five different genes were found to encode for isoforms of Ara h 3 [30].
2.2 Albumins
Ara h 2, a 2S albumin is a glycoprotein and accounts for approximately 6 to 9% of total peanut protein [31] with a molecular weight of approximately 17 kDa [32]. Ara h 2 also known as conglutin and functions as a trypsin inhibitor. Structurally, Ara h 2 has five α-helices arranged in right-handed super helix connected by several extended loops with four conserved disulfide bridges and 10 highly exposed epitope binding sites [33].
Ara h 5 (15 kDa) belongs to the profilin family and regulates the polymerization of actin [34]. It is presented at low levels in peanut extracts. Ara h 6 is a 15 kDa protein and belongs to the conglutin family [35]. It is 59% homologous to Ara h 2 and has similar allergenicity [36, 37]. Ara h 6 is a heat and digestion stable protein and showed resistance to proteolytic treatment [38, 39]. Ara h 7 is also a 15 kDa protein and belongs to the conglutin family [35]. The sequence identity between Ara h 2 and Ara h 6 is 35%.
2.3 Other proteins
Ara h 8 (17 kDa) is a Pathogenesis related protein. It is homologous to Betv1 proteins. Ara h 9 and Ara h 17 (9.8 kDa, 2 isoforms) are nonspecific lipid-transfer (nsLTPs) proteins of type 1 category. Ara h 16 is an nsLTP of type 2 category (approx. 7 kDa) [40].
Ara h 10 (16 kDa, 2 isoforms) and Ara h 11 (14 kDa) belong to oleosin. Ara h 14, Ara h 15 are peanut oleosins with amphiphilic structural proteins. Ara h 12 and Ara h 13 are defensin, with molecular weight ranging from 5 to 12 kDa [35]. Oleosins are also abundant in peanut seeds.
3. Importance as a functional food
Peanut is increasingly recognized as a functional food. The protein quality is based on amino acid pattern and percent digestibility. According to Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS), the plant protein peanut is nutritionally equivalent to animal proteins such as meat and eggs. The PDCAAS for peanuts has been estimated to be about 0.70 out of 1, whereas, for whole wheat PDCASS is 0.46. After the oil is extracted, the protein content in peanut cake can reach upto 50% [41]. All the protein components are highly digestible.
3.1 Amino acids content
Peanuts contain all the twenty amino acids, including 9 essential amino acids, necessary for normal body growth and metabolism [12]. They also show high levels of arginine and histidine. The remaining amino acids were present in substantial quantities except methionine, tryptophan and cystine that were considered low [42]. Comparisons across common tree nuts and peanuts show that all are naturally high in both acidic and basic amino acids, in addition to also being naturally high in hydrophobic amino acids, including leucine, glycine and valine, among others [43]. Peanut has a high percentage of arginine (12.5%), which gives added benefit with its overall high protein content, making peanut an important dietary source of this amino acid whose consumption has been directly linked to various cardiovascular health promoting activities [14]. The arginine is highest in peanuts among foods [44]. The amino acid profile of the peanut meals shows that it can be an ingredient for protein fortification [45]. Being a leguminous plant protein, it also has additional components that have positive health benefits like fiber and unique bioactive components besides amino acids (Tables 1 and 2). They also contain many important functional components including coenzyme Q10 [46], and polysterols, which make it a functional food [47, 48].
Amino acid data for blanched seed (without peanut skin or testa) is ultimately most relevant to peanut nutrition as the skin only accounts for approximately 3% of the total seed weight after shelling and skins are relatively low in total protein compared with the blanched seed, i.e., approximately 15% versus 25%. For blanched seed, asparagine/aspartic acid and glutamine/glutamic acid residues predominate, accounting for approximately 35% of the amino acids, which is in good agreement with data from other sources [43, 49].
3.2 Fats, vitamins and minerals
In the fats, peanut contains 50% monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), 33% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and 4% saturated fatty acids [50]. PUFA needs to be given through diet and cannot be synthesized. This way presence of high MUFAs and PUFAs reduce heart stress. So, the oils of peanuts are very important and healthy.
Carbohydrates that contain fiber or starch, these two types of carbohydrates have a slower, less pronounced effect on blood sugar. The American Diabetes Association ranks peanuts and other nuts as diabetes superfoods. Peanut have a low glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) [51]. On a 100 –point scale, the GI of peanuts is 14, and the GL of peanuts is one. Mature groundnut kernels were reported to contain 9.5–19% carbohydrates in which starch and sucrose are the major constituents.
The peanut is also a good source of minerals like Magnesium, Calcium, Phosphorus, potassium, iron, zinc, iron, copper, selenium and vitamins as well as dietary fibers (Table 1). Minerals like calcium and phosphorus are important for normal growth and development of bones and muscles. While minerals required in trace amounts like zinc, selenium whose daily requirement can be met by 100 g of peanuts [12, 52].
Peanuts are a vital source for introducing most of the water soluble vitamins into the human body along with vitamin E which is fat soluble [1, 12]. A 100 g peanuts consumption is capable of providing up to 75% recommended dietary allowances (RDA) of Niacin, 60% RDA of folate, 53% RDA of thiamin, 10% RDA of Riboflavin, 35% RDA of pantothenic acid, 27% RDA of pyridoxine, 55.5% RDA of vitamin E [12, 52]. In 42 g of peanuts, more than 10% provide recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for niacin, pantothenic acid, and total folate is present.
Another important vitamin which is supplemented in the body by the intake of peanuts is vitamin B3 [53] (known as Niacin or Niacinamide or Nicotinamide), to an extent of 13.525 mg. The vitamin B5 pantothenic acid is also provided by peanuts [52]. This vitamin plays an important role in the normal functioning of the respiratory chain and participates in hydrogen transfer, and electron transfer reactions through its coenzymes, Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). Roasted peanuts will provide B6 to the human body to the extent of 0.256 mg. Vitamin B9, more commonly known as folate or folic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin that is part of the B vitamin family and required for normal functioning. Folate (vitamin B9) present in peanuts to an extent of 145 μg may also help protect against cancers of the lung, colon, and cervix [12].
Peanut flour which is most commonly used for fortification contains protein ranging in between 47% - 55% i.e. a good amount of protein. Peanut flour has been used to replace animal proteins in a variety of products. Peanut flour blends well with cereal flour to yield products with excellent flavor texture and color [12].
4. Presence of secondary metabolites
Peanut is a reservoir of secondary metabolites like flavonoids, polyphenols, phytosterols, stilbenes ( Table 2). The evaluation of peanuts role in a heart-healthy diet has increased in the last decade [54]. Extraction procedures would play a big role in getting these bioactive components since extracting solvent, isolation procedures, purity of active compounds, as well as the test system and substrate to be protected by the antioxidant affects its function [55].
The flavonoid content in peanuts was determined, which is second only to walnuts [56]. Studies [57, 58] reported that peanut seeds had an isoflavonoid content of daidzein and genistein in the greatest amounts with a content of 49.7 mg/100 g and 82.6 mg/100 g, respectively. A-type proanthocyanidins was determined in peanuts [59]. Luteolin was the principal antioxidative component from the methanolic extracts of peanut hulls [60]. Mature, red peanut skins contain about 17% by weight of procyanidins, nearly 50% of which are low molecular weight oligomers [61]. Catechins, A-type and B-type procyanidins dimers, trimers, and tetramers were also detected in chemically purified peanut skin aqueous and ethanol extracts [45]. Furthermore, higher concentrations of compounds mentioned were observed in raw peanut skins than roasted peanut skins.
The polyphenolic content of raw and dry roasted peanut samples containing varying levels of oleic acid (normal, mid, and high) were determined [62, 63]. Normal oleic acid peanuts had higher concentrations of individual polyphenolics than mid- and high-oleic peanuts. Free p-coumaric acid, three esterified derivatives of p-coumaric, and two esterified derivatives of hydrobenzoic acid were identified as the predominant polyphenolics. Whole raw peanuts had a mean of 25 mg/kg of p-coumaric acid (from a range of 8 to 66 mg/kg among cultivars) and the value increased to an average of 69 mg/kg when peanuts were roasted at 175 °C for 10 min.
Peanuts as a source of phytosterol has been getting a lot of attention with new research findings identifying phytosterols like beta-sitosterol, sitosterol in peanuts and peanut products as cancer growth inhibitors, as well as protectors against heart diseases [64]. The phytosterol contents of peanuts and peanut products were analyzed. Results show that among the four cultivars studied, the Valencia peanuts in raw, dry roasted, and oil roasted, contained the highest phytosterol concentration [65]. Studies with sitosterol or mixtures of plant sterols have shown that they reduce serum cholesterol levels in humans by approximately 10%. This discovery has resulted in subsequent research to evaluate the effects of sitosterol derivatives on cholesterol absorption and serum cholesterol levels [48].
Stilbenes contain two phenyl compounds connected by a 2- carbon methylene bridge. They occur in nature in a rather restricted distribution. Stilbenes like isoflavonoids, are also classified as phytoestrogens. Most stilbenes in plants act as antifungal phytoalexins, compounds that are usually synthesized only in response to infection or injury. The most studied one is resveratrol. Resveratrol is one of the major stilbene phytoalexin compounds produced by grape berries and peanuts in response to stress like fungal infection, the presence of heavy metal ions, or ultra-violet (UV) irradiation [66]. Resveratrol was found to be present in substantial amounts in the leaves, roots, and shells of peanuts, but very little was found in developing seeds and seed coats of field-grown peanuts [67]. The phytoalexin content of peanuts, however, increases during germination and is enhanced by microbial infection, postharvest induction procedures such as soaking and drying; wounding (slicing and incubation); UV light exposure, among others. Raw peanuts soaked in water for about 20 hours and dried for 66 hours increased the resveratrol content between 45 and 65 times after the soaking treatment [66]. Boiled peanuts contain more resveratrol than peanut butter and roasted peanuts. Resveratrol has been associated with reduced CVD and reduced cancer risk. Resveratrol has been shown from in vitro, ex vivo, and animal studies to have many attributes that may provide protection from atherosclerosis, antiproliferative, and proapoptotic properties against breast, colon, prostatic, and leukemia cells [68].
5. Industrial properties and applications
Functional properties affect the behavior of proteins during processing, storage and in preparation of food and food components (Table 3). Among different proteins, glycinin is nutritionally superior to the 7S con-glycinins [69], and possesses superior intrinsic functional properties for processed foods [70]. Processing technology has the capability of altering the protein structure, function, and physicochemical properties of peanuts [71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76].
Functional Property
Food type
Solubility
Beverages
Water absorption and binding
Meats, Sausages, breads, cakes
Viscosity
Soups, gravies
Gelation
Meats, curds, cheese
Cohesion –adhesion
Meats, Sausages, baked goods, cheeses, pasta products
Uses of protein functional properties in food types (adapted from [70]).
5.1 Protein solubility, emulsification
Protein solubility is the first and foremost property that is determined in testing a new protein isolate. The functional properties of proteins are often affected by protein solubility and those most affected are foaming, emulsification and gelation. The solubility of a protein is the thermodynamic manifestation of the equilibrium between protein–protein and protein solvent interactions [77]. These properties are affected by the intrinsic factors of protein such as molecular structure and size, and many other factors including the method of protein separation, production, pH, ionic strength and the presence of other components in the food system. The importance of these properties varies with the type of food products in which the protein concentrate is used.
Interactions of water and oil with proteins are very important in food systems because of their influence on the flavor and texture of foods. Proteins with high oil and water binding are desirable for use in meats, sausages, breads, and cakes [78]. Emulsification of proteins is closely related to the conformation of proteins and interaction of adsorbed molecules at the oil/water interface. Proteins with high emulsifying and foaming capacity are good for salad dressing, sausages, bologna, soups, confectionery, frozen desserts, and cakes [78]. Researchers [79, 80, 81] have determined the functional properties of several plant proteins concentrates using alkali solutions with isoelectric precipitation produced from peas and beans. The functional properties of peanut proteins have been subjects of limited studies that focused mainly on peanut flour [82, 83, 84]. According to some, protein isolates (PPI) have higher purity of proteins and better functional properties than other peanut protein products, such as flour or concentrate [82].
5.2 Influence of extraction procedure, pH, temperature
Functional properties of protein are influenced by many factors. For the end product uses, pH, temperature and ionic strength of the food system are important factors to consider. For initial extraction of proteins, methods and conditions of protein extraction, as well as downstream processing of extracted proteins such as purification, drying are the factors that are important [82]. Methods used to develop plant protein isolate/concentrate include isoelectric precipitation, alcohol precipitation, alkali solution and hot water extraction [83].
Peanut protein concentrates were isolated from defatted peanut flour by various methods such as isoelectric precipitation, alcohol precipitation, combined isoelectric and alcohol precipitation, and combined alkali solution with isoelectric precipitation [80]. Their functional properties (protein solubility, water holding/oil binding capacity, emulsifying capacity and stability, foaming capacity and rheology) were evaluated. Protein prepared by alcohol precipitation was found to have better functional properties particularly water holding/oil binding capacity, which were significantly different from other protein products such as of isoelectric and alkali precipitates [80]. The study concluded that it could be effectively used for making protein concentrates and suitable for use in various food formulations such as weaning foods, dry mixes, baked foods, whipped toppings and salad dressings owing to its high water and oil binding capacities.
Heating destroys anti-metabolites such as trypsin inhibitor in beans and nuts [85] and amylase inhibitors in legumes, thus improving the bioavailability or digestibility of the protein [86]. Roasting of peanuts significantly decreased protein solubility in peanut flour in the pH range 3.5–10.0 compared to that in raw peanut flour. Heating of peanut in water at 100–120 °C for 15 min decreased the protein solubility [16]. This might be due to the increase of surface hydrophobicity of protein via unfolding of molecules upon heat. The pH range also had a significant effect on the solubility of peanut protein [16]. The minimum protein solubility was observed at pH 3.5–4.5 and maximum solubility at pH 10 or higher 16]. The study suggested that solubility was pH dependent with the lowest solubility being observed for both raw and roasted peanuts, at the isoelectric point of pH around 4.0. Protein solubility reduced as pH increased until reached an isoelectric point. At pH above the isoelectric point an increase in protein solubility was observed.
5.3 Gel forming ability or foaming
The abilities of protein to form gels and to provide a structure for holding water, flavors, sugars, and food ingredients are useful in food applications, and in new-product development that provide an added dimension of protein functionality. Foams are 2 phase systems composed of air bubbles surrounded by a continuous liquid lamellar phase [87]. Defatted peanut flour is not a good foaming agent, with a foaming capacity of only 6 ml/100 ml liquid, whereas, roasted peanuts showed half of the raw peanuts foaming capacity. Therefore, defatted peanut protein isolates may not be suitable in the food system that requires foaming such as cake and ice cream. Overall, roasting decreased functionality of peanut protein isolates, while fermentation significantly increased all functional properties of both raw and roasted peanut flours [16].
Recent studies have shown that high pressure treatment can change not only the functional characteristics of food proteins, but also their physical and chemical properties as well as molecular conformation [88, 89, 90]. In peanut protein isolates, high pressure treatment from 50–200 MPa, a non-thermal processing, significantly improved water binding capacity (WBC) and oil binding capacity (OBC). Additionally, pressure treatment could result in intensity denaturation of conarrachin II fraction [91]. It was evident by SDS PAGE (Figure 2). This way protein isolates can be used as food supplementary material with improved characteristics.
Figure 2.
Effect of high pressure on protein concentrates lanes 2(untreated) and 3–7(treated with 50-100 MPa). (adapted from [91]).
Effect of membrane processing were analyzed on the functional properties, structural changes, subunit profile and sensory attributes of the groundnut protein concentrate [92]. Results indicated an increase in the nitrogen solubility and foaming capacity of the protein concentrate over pH ranges of 2–10, acid precipitated protein isolate. Protein concentrate also showed higher emulsion stability index, less hydrophobicity but reduced nutty flavor as compared to control flour and acid protein isolate. Thus, membrane technology could give a protein concentrate with improved functionality and sensory characteristics similar to roasted wheat and improved digestibility, which will have potential application in the development of food product formulations. Increased thermal stability, protein solubility at 4.5–6 pH, improved foaming and emulsifying properties were noticed by conjugating protein isolates (PPI) with dextran [84].
5.4 Water holding capacity and oil binding capacity
Hydration or rehydration is the first and perhaps most critical step in imparting desirable functional properties to proteins in a food system. Water retention is defined as the ability of the food material to hold water against gravity [93]. Water holding capacity and oil absorption capacity both were significantly higher in raw peanut protein isolates [16]. Intrinsic factor affecting the water binding capacity of food proteins includes amino acid composition, protein conformation, and surface polarity/hydrophobicity [94]. The water retention capacity is the sum of bound, hydrodynamic and physically entrapped water [95]. During roasting, peanut proteins were denatured by high temperature, exposing more hydrophobic sites, which explained the reduced water retention of peanut protein [96]. With respect to water-holding capacity, the denatured proteins bind more water through exposure of hydrophilic groups [97].
Oil binding capacity and water holding capacity are increased by high pressure treatment [91]. Both properties are important for food texture and flavor. They are high in raw peanut proteins but affected by high temperatures.
6. Role in hunger management
The peanut protein isolates with improved functional food properties are critically needed in many developing countries, because animal protein is more expensive and is getting beyond the reach of many people in developing countries. Abundant proteins in peanuts are cheaper sources of proteins that would serve the purpose. Research data show that peanut and peanut butter consumption improved the feeling of fullness and satisfied the consumers better than the carbohydrates snacks like rice cakes in equal quantities [98]. Another study has shown that peanut consumption can curb the appetites due its fullness effect [99]. Evidence has emerged in favor of type of healthy monounsaturated fat in peanuts that may stimulate a hormone which helps a person to feel satisfied after consumption [100]. Apart from this, it has been seen that daily nutrition peanut consumption leads to long term health benefits. Compared to well-known foods like green tea and red wine, peanuts have higher antioxidant capacity [101].
Groundnut-based ‘Plumpy’nut, a ready to use therapeutic food, has helped save the lives of thousands of malnourished children in Niger, by UNICEF [102].
Recent research studies suggest that boiling enhances antioxidant concentration in the peanuts. It has been found that boiled peanuts have 2–4 folds increase in isoflavone antioxidants biochanin A and genistein content, respectively [103].
7. Methods to improve nutrition and manage allergenic properties
Seed storage peanut proteins (such as Ara h 3 and Ara h 4) are less severe in allergenicity compared to their vicilin (Ara h 1) and conglutin (Ara h 2) type seed storage proteins [104, 105, 106, 107].
Many methods are tried in peanut protein extracts to reduce their allergenic effect. Among them, roasting, boiling or another heat treatments are most common and require less labour and effort. Though heat treatments sometimes affect secondary antioxidants due to Maillard reaction products [108]. Some novel processing approaches such as high-pressure processing, pulsed ultraviolet light, high intensity ultrasound, irradiation, and pulsed electric field have been performed toward reducing the immunoreactivity of peanut. Covalent and noncovalent chemical modifications to proteins also have the tendency to alter peanut allergenicity.
The heat or plasma treatment has shown to reduce allergenicity. Roasting lowered allergenicity by 600–700 fold than in native form. The autoclaving decreased immunoreactivity by 50 folds. Among the chemical methods used, it was found that tannic acid (1–2 mg/ml) reduced allergenicity [109]. But it hampers protein digestibility. Use of magnetic beads has also been shown to that it covalently attaches to phenolics.
Conventional Breeding has been reported and varieties missing in isoforms of Ara h 2 or 3 were crossed. Some lines lacking in both Ara h 2 and Ara h 3 were produced [110]. In conventional breeding, large seeded varieties suitable for food have been conventionally bred such as Asha (ICGV 86564) and Namnama (ICGV 90320) in the Philippines [111]. Groundnuts are bred for high oleic to linoleic ratio (O/L ratio) to improve the oil quality. Gorbet and Knauft registered the first high oleic line, SunOleic 95R [112], and it was followed by another variety, Hull with high O/L ratio and resistance to TSWV [113].
Heavy ion beam radiations H1B1 has been used (100 Gy amount) to generate some hypoallergic mutants [114]. Though irradiation affected the production of bioactive compounds. Chung and Champagne [115] have treated protein extract from roasted raw peanuts with POD (peroxidase) and TGA (transglutanase) at 37 °C. They found TGA was not effective but POD was effective for Ara h 1/ Ara h 1 reduction. Different enzyme treatments of alcalase and flavourzyme in Ara h 1, 2 and Ara h 3 have also been done [116]. Pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin digestion has also been implemented to reduce allergenicity [117, 118].
RNA interference or genetic engineering techniques have also been suggested to remove allergenic groups of proteins when diversity of seed proteins was analyzed in Arachis hypogaea and related species [20]. Three independent transgenic lines have been generated for Ara h 1 and Ara h 6 proteins by using RNA interference [119, 120].
8. Conclusions
The high energy, protein and carbohydrate contents suggest that groundnut or peanut could be of great importance in alleviating protein energy malnutrition and hunger. The minerals analyzed in groundnut were similar to those of other nutritious foods consumed globally, the good levels of fatty acids and amino acids which make them a healthy food for human, and animal nutrition. The low levels of anti-nutrients could enhance absorption of nutrient in groundnut. Also, the functional properties can be modified by simply boiling or roasting and different methods of processing such as heat, pressure, membrane filtering, use of conjugates etc. Though the efforts are ongoing to reduce allergenicity which is generally found more in 2S albumin components and very less in globulins, much research is needed to generate hypoallergic cultivars. On the other hand, peanuts are a rich source of medicinally important phytochemicals of diverse nature. Due to this reason peanut cultivation in developing countries can benefit local communities. Various studies have also increasingly linked peanut consumption with improved human health and with decreased risks of life threatening diseases.
9. Future prospects
Peanut seed storage proteins can be used for different food and feed purposes, and also to make peanut protein biopeptides, hydrolysates, protein films etc. These have variety of industrial applications. In future, research should be aimed at modifying or improving the functional properties and nutritional chemistry to generate food end products. It has been well established with number of studies, that peanut can meet the increasing demand for protein rich healthy food with several benefits and thus, awareness should be spread in many more countries to exploit peanut or groundnut as vegan source of protein. Moreover, new cultivars need to be developed with hypoallergic proteins and improved nutrition.
\n',keywords:"seed proteins, albumin, globulin, nutritional value, functional properties",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75883.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75883.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75883",totalDownloads:349,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:6,dateSubmitted:"September 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"February 26th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 25th 2021",datePublished:"June 30th 2021",dateFinished:"March 23rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important grain legume crop of tropics and subtropics. It is increasingly being accepted as a functional food and protein extender in developing countries. The seed contains 36% to 54% oil, 16% to 36% protein, and 10% to 20% carbohydrates with high amounts of P, Mg, Ca, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, vitamin E, resveratrol and amino acids. Seed contains 32 different proteins comprised of albumins and globulins. The two-globulin fractions, arachin and non-arachin, comprise approximately 87% of the peanut seed proteins. Peanut worldwide is mainly used for oil production, consumption as raw, roasted, baked products, peanut butter, peanut flour, extender in meat product formulations, confectionary and soups. Peanut proteins have many properties such as good solubility, foaming, water/oil binding, emulsification that make them useful in various food products. Very limited studies have been carried out in peanut functional properties, which has been reviewed in the present article. Adequate modifications can be done in protein functionality that are influenced by pH, temperature, pressure etc. However, some individuals develop severe IgE-mediated allergies to peanut seed proteins. Thus, methods to improve nutrition and reduce allergenicity have also been discussed. Within the last decade, manipulations have been done to alter peanut chemistry and improve nutritional quality of peanuts and peanut products. Hence, improved comprehensive understanding of functional properties and nutritional chemistry of peanut proteins can generate better source of food grain to meet nutritional requirement of growing population. In the present review, composition of peanut seed proteins, functional properties, nutritional components and nutraceutical value have been discussed with respect to beneficial aspects to health, reducing hunger and usage in food end products.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75883",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75883",signatures:"Apekshita Singh, Soom Nath Raina, Manisha Sharma, Manju Chaudhary, Suman Sharma and Vijay Rani Rajpal",book:{id:"9699",type:"book",title:"Grain and Seed Proteins Functionality",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Grain and Seed Proteins Functionality",slug:"grain-and-seed-proteins-functionality",publishedDate:"June 30th 2021",bookSignature:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9699.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-591-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-590-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-592-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"332143",title:"Dr.",name:"Apekshita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Apekshita Singh",slug:"apekshita-singh",email:"asingh20@amity.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"332144",title:"Prof.",name:"Soom Nath",middleName:null,surname:"Raina",fullName:"Soom Nath Raina",slug:"soom-nath-raina",email:"soomr@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"334155",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",fullName:"Manju Choudhary",slug:"manju-choudhary",email:"manjuchaudhary27@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334156",title:"Ms.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Manisha Sharma",slug:"manisha-sharma",email:"manisha.mannu10@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"353963",title:"Dr.",name:"Suman",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Suman Sharma",slug:"suman-sharma",email:"sumansharma@ramjas.du.ac.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"353964",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay Rani",middleName:null,surname:"Rajpal",fullName:"Vijay Rani Rajpal",slug:"vijay-rani-rajpal",email:"vrrajpal@hrc.du.ac.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Peanut proteins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Globulins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Albumins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Other proteins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Importance as a functional food",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Amino acids content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Fats, vitamins and minerals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Presence of secondary metabolites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Industrial properties and applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1 Protein solubility, emulsification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.2 Influence of extraction procedure, pH, temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.3 Gel forming ability or foaming",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.4 Water holding capacity and oil binding capacity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Role in hunger management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. 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Optimization for the post-harvest induction of trans-resveratrol in raw peanuts, Abst# 99B-31, 2005 IFT Annual Meeting, 15-20, New Orleans, Louisiana'},{id:"B67",body:'Chung, I.M., Park, M.R., Chun, J.C. and Yun, S.J. (2003). Resveratrol accumulation and resveratrol synthase gene expression in response to abiotic stresses and hormones in peanut plants. Plant Science, 164:103-109'},{id:"B68",body:'Higgs, J. (2003). The beneficial role of peanuts in the diet-Part 2. Nutrition & Food Science, 33(2):56-64'},{id:"B69",body:'Cherry, J.P.; Dechary, J.M. and Ory, R.L. Gel electrophoretic analysis of peanut proteins and enzymes. 1. Characterization of DEAE-cellulose separated fractions. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 1973, vol. 21, p. 652-655'},{id:"B70",body:'Kinsella, J. E. (1979). Functional properties of soy proteins. Journal of American Oil Chemist Society, 56:242-257'},{id:"B71",body:'Dyer, S., Nesbit, J., Cabanillas, B., Cheng, H., Hurlburt, B. and Maleki, S. (2018). 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LWT-food Science and Technology, 39 (5):503-512'},{id:"B80",body:'Chandi, G.K. and Sogi, D.S. (2007). Functional properties of rice bean protein concentrates. Journal of Food Engineering, 79 (2):592-597'},{id:"B81",body:'Fuhrmeister, H. and Meuser, F. (2003). Impact of processing on functional properties of protein products from wrinkled peas. Journal of Food Engineering, 56:119-129'},{id:"B82",body:'Wu, H.W., Wang, Q ., Ma, T.Z. and Ren, J.J. (2009). Comparative studies on the functional properties of various proteins concentrates preparations of peanut protein. Food Res. Int., 42:343-348'},{id:"B83",body:'Yu, J., Ahmedna, M. and Ipek G. (2007). Peanut protein concentrate: Production and functional properties as affected by processing. Food Chemistry, 103(1):121-129'},{id:"B84",body:'Liu, Y., Zhao, G., Zhao, M., Ren, J. and Yang, B. (2012). Improvement of functional properties of peanut protein isolate by conjugation with dextran through Maillard reaction. 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Physicochemical modifications of high pressure-treated soybean protein isolates. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52:1564-1571'},{id:"B90",body:'Zhang, H., Li, L., Tatsumi, E. and Kotwal, S. (2003). Influence of high pressure on conformational changes of soybean glycinin. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 4 (3): 269-275'},{id:"B91",body:'He, X.H., Liu, H.Z., Liu, L., Zhao, G.L., Wang, Q . and Chen, Q .L. (2014). Effects of high pressure on the physicochemical and functional properties of peanut protein isolates. Food Hydrocolloids, 36:123-129'},{id:"B92",body:'Jain, A. Prakash, M. and Radha, C. (2015). Extraction and evaluation of functional properties of groundnut protein concentrate. J. Food Sci. Technol., 52(10): 6655-6662'},{id:"B93",body:'Hansen, J.R. (1978). Hydration of soy bean protein: Effect of isolation method and various other parameters on hydration. J. Agric. Food Chem., 26:301-304'},{id:"B94",body:'Barbut, S. (1999). Determining water and fat holding. In G. M. Hall (Ed.), Methods of testing protein functionality pp. 186-225. New York: Blackie Academic and Professional'},{id:"B95",body:'BeMiller, J.N. and Whistles, R.L.. Carbohydrates. In: Owen, R., Fennema (ed) food chemistry, 3rd edn. Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue. New York, 10016, USA, 1996,pp. 158-191'},{id:"B96",body:'Jianmei Yu, M. A. and Ipek, G. (2007). Peanut protein concentrates: Production and functional properties as affected by processing. J. Food Chemistry, 103(1), 121-129'},{id:"B97",body:'Kinsella, J.E. (1982). Relationships between structure and functional properties of food proteins. In P. F. Fox & J. J. Condon (Eds.), Food proteins (pp. 51-103). London: Applied Science Publishers'},{id:"B98",body:'Kirkmeyer, S. and Mattes, R. (2000) Effects of food attributes on hunger and food intake. Int. J. Obesity., 24:1167-1175'},{id:"B99",body:'Alper, C. and Mattes, R. (2002). Effects of chronic peanut consumption on energy balance and hedonics. Int. J. Obesity., 26:1129-1137'},{id:"B100",body:'Schwartz, G.J., Fu, J., Astarita, G., Li, X., Gaetani, S., Campolongo, P., Cuomo, V. and Piomelli, D. (2008). The lipid messenger OEA links dietary fat intake to satiety. Cell Metab., 8(4):281-288'},{id:"B101",body:'Halvorsen, B.L., Carlsen, M.H., Philips, K.M., Bohn, S.K., Holte, K., Jacobs, D.R. and Blomhoff, R. (2006). Content of redox-active compounds (i.e. antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 84(1):95-135'},{id:"B102",body:'UNICEF. (2007). Available at: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/niger_39675.html (accessed on October 24, 2012'},{id:"B103",body:'Craft, B.D., Hargrove, J.L., Greenspan, P., Hartle, D.K., Amarowicz, R. and Pegg, R.B. (2010). Recent Advances in food and flavor chemistry. Food flavor and encapsulation, health benefits, analytical methods, and molecular biology of functional foods. Cambridge, UK: R. Soc. 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Allergy, 34:583-590'},{id:"B108",body:'Dittrich, R., El-Massry, F., Kunz, K., Rinaldi, F., Peich, C.C., Beckmann, M.W. and Pischetsrieder, M. (2003). Maillard reaction products inhibit oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins in vitro. J. Agric. Food Chem., 51:3900-3904'},{id:"B109",body:'Chung, S.Y. and Reed, S. (2012). Removing peanut allergens by tannic acid. Food Chemistry, 134(3):1468-1473'},{id:"B110",body:'Perkins, T., Schmitt, D.A., Isleib, T.G., et al. Breeding a hypoallergenic peanut. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 2006, 117(2), p. S328'},{id:"B111",body:'PCARRD. (2009). Asha and Namnama Peanut Confectionery Varieties. Information Bulletin no. 254. Manila: Department of Science and Technology, Philippines Council of Agriculture, Forestry, Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD)'},{id:"B112",body:'Gorbet, D. W., and Knauft, D. A. (1997). Registration of ‘SunOleic 95R’ peanut. Crop Sci. 37, 1392'},{id:"B113",body:'Gorbet, D. W. (2007). Registration of ‘Hull’ peanut. J. Plant Regist. 1, 125-126'},{id:"B114",body:'Cabanos, C.S., Katayama, H., Urabe, H., et al. (2011). Heavy-ion beam irradiation is an effective technique for reducing major allergens in peanut seeds. Molecular Breeding, 30(2): 1037-1044'},{id:"B115",body:'Chung, S.Y. and Champagne, E.T. (2001). Association of end-product adducts with increased IgE binding of roasted peanuts. J. Agric. Food Chem., 49:3911-3916'},{id:"B116",body:'Cabanillas, B., Pedrosa, M.M., Rodríguez, J., Muzquiz, M., Maleki, S.J., Cuadrado, C. and Crespo, J.F. (2011). Influence of enzymatic hydrolysis on the allergenicity of roasted peanut protein extract. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 157(1):41-50'},{id:"B117",body:'Yu, J., Ahmedna, M., Goktepe, I., Cheng, H., & Maleki, S. Enzymatic treatment of peanut kernels to reduce allergen levels. Food Chemistry,2011, 127(3):1014-1022'},{id:"B118",body:'Shah, F., Shi, A., Ashley, J., Kronfel, C.Q ., Maleki, S.J., Adhikari, B. and Zhang J. (2019). Peanut Allergy: Characteristics and Approaches for Mitigation. Comprehensive Revs. in Food Sc. and Food Safety, 2019,18(5):1361-1387'},{id:"B119",body:'Ananga, A., Dodo, H. and Konan, K. (2008). Elimination of the three major allergens in transgenic peanut (Arachis hypogea L). In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Animal, 44:36-37'},{id:"B120",body:'Chu, Y., Faustinelli, P., Ramos, M.L., et al. (2008). Reduction of IgE binding and nonpromotion of Aspergillus flavus fungal growth by simultaneously silencing Ara h 2 and Ara h 6 in peanut. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56(23):11225-11233'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Apekshita Singh",address:"asingh20@amity.edu",affiliation:'
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, India
Department of Botany, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9699",type:"book",title:"Grain and Seed Proteins Functionality",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Grain and Seed Proteins Functionality",slug:"grain-and-seed-proteins-functionality",publishedDate:"June 30th 2021",bookSignature:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9699.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-591-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-590-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-592-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"335856",title:"Prof.",name:"Tebogo Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mothiba",email:"tebogo.mothiba@ul.ac.za",fullName:"Tebogo Maria Mothiba",slug:"tebogo-maria-mothiba",position:null,biography:"Introduction: My research career started at the University of Limpopo in July 2006. I facilitated Nursing Services Management, Nursing Dynamics and Research Methodology from undergraduate to postgraduate levels. Health Care Management was my major focus in completing a Bachelor of Curationis, Master of Nursing and PhD.\nResearch career, supervision and publications: I embraced my dual role as a nurse educator in knowledge management in research and capacity building as an academic at the University of Limpopo. As an academic for the last 15 years, I viewed knowledge management as the core area in (i) discovering knowledge on the quality of existing health systems with a focus on nurses and patients, (ii) building international partnerships for capacity building in knowledge management of self, students and peers (iii) strategies of knowledge management in patients with Non-Communicable (NCDs) and Communicable Diseases (CDs) (e.g. Diabetes & HIV/AIDS) in the communities of Limpopo Province. Spending 15 years in teaching was instrumental in building my research career, build capacity by supervising masters and PhD students, thus instilling the awareness of knowledge management in students to improve practice leading to provision of quality patient care. I have successfully supervised up to completion 25 Masters (males and females) and 7 doctoral candidates (all women and 5 working at University of Limpopo Faculty of Health Sciences. I am currently have 9 postgraduates assigned to me for masters and doctoral studies. This gives me hope that I am achieving my goals of mentoring women in academia. This also led me to co-author some of my 105 articles with masters and doctoral graduates along with research team members. To date I had published 9 book chapters of 7 of them in 2021 though 3 are still in press. \nResearch Projects: I was appointed as Deputy Project Leader from 2014 to 2020 for the VLIROUS Project 2 funded by Flemish Inter-University Council which included peers from Antwerp University in Belgium in which I supervised masters and doctoral students together with peers. This project was aimed at prevention and management of NCDs in the rural communities. I was a Deputy Principal Investigator, for a Swedish Forte and SAMRC for a collaborative project on Strengthening Maternal Health in Limpopo Province. This was aimed at improving maternal health service provision and debriefing of Midwives in Limpopo Province. I am also part of International Skin Integrity Research Group with University of Nottingham University in the UK. I am also a Co-Principal Investigator of Co-designing Community-based ICT’s Interventions to Enhance Maternal and Child Health in South Africa (CoMaCH) Project in partnership with four Universities in the UK, UL, WITS and HSRC.\nAchievement Awards: I have received five Vice Chancellor Research Excellence Awards in the University of Limpopo in 2013, 2016 and 2019. I was presented with the 'Top Academic Achiever Award” by the University of Johannesburg for my doctoral degree in 2014 October, and was allowed to join the Golden Key Honour Society. The Key is built on pillars of knowledge, capacity building and development of international research partnerships.\nResearch Rating: NRF C3 rated researcher\nIn conclusion, my academic career history Lecturer, senior lecturer 2006 July to 2014 July UL, 2014 August to date Professor, Research Professor FHS 2018 December to 2020 June, FHS Acting Executive Dean 2020 July to June 2021. Executive Dean FHS July 2021 to date.",institutionString:"University of Limpopo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335856/images/system/335856.png",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Limpopo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"74949",title:"The Importance of Health Literacy Related to Medications Instructions to Promote Adherence in People Living with Cardiovascular Diseases at Rural Settings",slug:"the-importance-of-health-literacy-related-to-medications-instructions-to-promote-adherence-in-people",abstract:"Health literacy related to prescribed medications instructions is the ability to read, understand and carry out medication instructions as directed. Being generally literate does not automatically make one to be health literate. In most cases, a person’s health literacy is overlooked based on their good general literacy. A convergent parallel mixed method design was used to explore and describe the practices of diabetes mellitus patients regarding prescribed medications instructions. The results showed failure to interpret medications instructions which leads to non-adherence unaware. On the other hand, non-adherence led to complications. Enhancing health literacy includes explanation of the medication instructions in details including the exact times for medication consumption. This could be achieved through peer teaching, health talks with patients and workshops.",signatures:"Charity Ngoatle and Tebogo Maria Mothiba",authors:[{id:"335856",title:"Prof.",name:"Tebogo Maria",surname:"Mothiba",fullName:"Tebogo Maria Mothiba",slug:"tebogo-maria-mothiba",email:"tebogo.mothiba@ul.ac.za"},{id:"338075",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Charity",surname:"Ngoatle",fullName:"Charity Ngoatle",slug:"charity-ngoatle",email:"charityngoatle@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"10558",title:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology",slug:"lifestyle-and-epidemiology-the-double-burden-of-poverty-and-cardiovascular-diseases-in-african-populations",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"75367",title:"Family-Centered Diabetes Care for Better Glycemic Outcomes of Outpatients in Rural Areas",slug:"family-centered-diabetes-care-for-better-glycemic-outcomes-of-outpatients-in-rural-areas",abstract:"Most of diabetes care of outpatients takes place at their families. Family members who may have inadequate or lack diabetes knowledge are expected to offer home care, predisposing patients to poor outcomes and associated health problems. To review and discuss literature related to family-centered diabetes care. Comprehensive Literature Review was used to collect data by reviewing literature related to family centered diabetes care. Literature review involved evaluating discoveries of other researchers. The results of literature review showed that family-centered care is essential for better diabetes outcomes and preventing new cases. So far, family-centered care was successful in children’s diabetes care and may be beneficial for older outpatients. Family-centered diabetes care improves knowledge of both patients and families, minimize prevalence and improve diabetes outcomes of outpatients.",signatures:"Mabitsela Hezekiel Mphasha and Tebogo Maria Mothiba",authors:[{id:"335856",title:"Prof.",name:"Tebogo Maria",surname:"Mothiba",fullName:"Tebogo Maria Mothiba",slug:"tebogo-maria-mothiba",email:"tebogo.mothiba@ul.ac.za"},{id:"345705",title:"Dr.",name:"Mabitsela",surname:"Mphasha",fullName:"Mabitsela Mphasha",slug:"mabitsela-mphasha",email:"pitso85@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"10558",title:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology",slug:"lifestyle-and-epidemiology-the-double-burden-of-poverty-and-cardiovascular-diseases-in-african-populations",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"75541",title:"Self-Management Strategies to Curb the Development of NCDs in Rural Communities",slug:"self-management-strategies-to-curb-the-development-of-ncds-in-rural-communities",abstract:"Prevalence of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in both Low- and Middle-Income countries is viewed as problematic and could lead to side effects when poorly managed. Therefore, serious intervention whereby People Living With the NCDs (PLWNCDs) could take a lead in controlling the side effects and managing the diseases themselves so that they maintain the QoL. To review and discuss literature related to self-management strategies to curb the development of NCDs in rural communities. Comprehensive Literature Review was used to collect data by reviewing literature related to self-management strategies to curb the development of NCDs in rural communities. The results of literature review showed that Self-management of NCDs is viewed as the only way to improve health outcomes and maintain QoL, by employing relevant strategies which will assist in achieving healthier life despite the situations at rural communities. Western World health systems have NCDs management centres at the community level to empower patients with knowledge for improving their QoL, whilst such centres do not exist in the Low-and Middle- Income countries poor communities. The PLWNCDs and residing at rural communities in Low- and Middle- Income countries can benefit from NCDs self-management strategies, despite the poor conditions.",signatures:"Tebogo Maria Mothiba",authors:[{id:"335856",title:"Prof.",name:"Tebogo Maria",surname:"Mothiba",fullName:"Tebogo Maria Mothiba",slug:"tebogo-maria-mothiba",email:"tebogo.mothiba@ul.ac.za"}],book:{id:"10558",title:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology",slug:"lifestyle-and-epidemiology-the-double-burden-of-poverty-and-cardiovascular-diseases-in-african-populations",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"79015",title:"Strategies to Enhance Compliance to Health and Safety Protocols within the South African Mining Environment",slug:"strategies-to-enhance-compliance-to-health-and-safety-protocols-within-the-south-african-mining-envi",abstract:"Occupational health focuses on promotive and preventive and curative health. The occupational health practitioners have the responsibility to guide management and employees on the occupational legislative obligations aiming to safeguard legal compliance at the workplace. Additionally, it is the responsibility of the health professionals within the mining industry to provide primary, secondary and tertiary prevention strategies to improve the health and safety of workers. However, the prevalence of work-related diseases such as noise induced hearing loss, silicosis and the occurrence of accidents in the mining industry is an alarming factor. Systematic review method was adopted to identify and screen relevant citations. 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If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7245,totalCrossrefCites:73,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. 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In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12367,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6859,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3005,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4481,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7965,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82358",title:"Water Defluoridation Methods Applied in Rural Areas over the World",slug:"water-defluoridation-methods-applied-in-rural-areas-over-the-world",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105102",abstract:"Overexposure to fluoride (F) through drinking water is the most widespread water problem in the world, but it has now exacerbated due to rapid population growth rates, adverse climatic changes, and increasing levels of water scarcity. Thus, despite the large amounts of data, which has accrued on mitigation methods of high F is still the primary impediment to drinking water programs among many developing nations. The current review chapter on F mitigation techniques applied world-over is aimed at providing a succinct overview of water defluoridation techniques and strategies being used to combat the impact of human F overexposure. It represents a starting point to understand the prospects of reducing the global F impact. It is anticipated that this work will lay a strong foundation for this and also inform strategies for safeguarding public health and the environment from F pollution.",book:{id:"11209",title:"Fluoride",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11209.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Wamalwa Wambu, Franco Frau, Revocatus Machunda, Lilliane Pasape, Stephen S. Barasa and Giorgio Ghiglieri"},{id:"82221",title:"Solvent Catalysis in the Sensitizer-Mediator Redox Kinetics",slug:"solvent-catalysis-in-the-sensitizer-mediator-redox-kinetics",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105393",abstract:"The sensitizer-mediator redox reaction is a vital component of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The efficiency and stability of dye-sensitized solar cells are aided by the kinetics of this redox process. Several reaction parameters influence the kinetics of a reaction, and if those parameters are controlled, the rate of the process and its results can be controlled. One of the most important aspects of the sensitizer-mediator interaction is the reaction medium. Aqueous DSSCs are unquestionably a good replacement when it comes to taking a green approach to avoiding toxic, flammable, and volatile organic solvents and their mixtures, which are commonly used in DSSCs and are known to harm the environment while also reducing the lifetime and stability of the DSSCs. The catalytic role of a small volume fraction of organic solvent in the aqueous electron transfer kinetics of a few putative sensitizer-mediator reactions is discussed in this chapter. In binary solvent media including dilute tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)-water and dilute 1,4-dioxane-water, the reduction of dicyanobis(2,2′-dipyridyl)iron(III) and dicyanobis(1,10-phenanthroline)iron(III) was investigated. The reactions were carried out in a 10% TBA or dioxane to water media with a volume-volume fraction of both solvents using iodide as a reducing agent. The effect of several parameters on the rate constant was also calculated and analyzed.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"82282",title:"Pyridine Nucleus as a Directing Group for Metal-Based C–H Bond Activation",slug:"pyridine-nucleus-as-a-directing-group-for-metal-based-c-h-bond-activation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105544",abstract:"Carbon-hydrogen (C–H) bond activation involves a methodology for the construction of carbon-X (C–X) bonds where X can be carbon (C), oxygen (O), or the nitrogen (N), allowing the formation of C–C, C–O, or C–N bonds. Among them, the construction of the C–C bond within the aromatic moiety has remained a bottleneck because the abundance of C–H bonds in aromatic molecules possesses almost similar bond dissociation energies comparable to the C–C bond allowing leading to the poor reactivity and selectivity. Secondly, C–H bonds possess low polarity and thus confer them inertness. Considering this, directing group strategy came into existence, where the coordination ability of the heteroatoms such as O and N atoms within the ring was utilized for the direction of the reaction. The use of the heteroatom for the regioselective C–H bond activation is quite advantageous that could be explored immensely for their functionalization. In this chapter, we have congregated the information and put forth the evidence of C–H activation leading to the C–C bond formation in pyridine and pyridine-containing entities.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Purohit Priyank, Joshi Gaurav and Aggarwal Meenu"},{id:"82236",title:"Alternatives to Soluble Phosphorus Fertilizers in Indian Context",slug:"alternatives-to-soluble-phosphorus-fertilizers-in-indian-context",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105561",abstract:"Phosphorus is one of the primary nutrients required in crop production. Rock phosphate is the raw material required for the manufacturing of soluble phosphorus fertilizers, which is nonrenewable in nature and expected to last for 50–400 years. The restriction of resources to few geographical locations makes its supply more vulnerable. In India, 90% of the rock phosphate for fertilizer manufacturing is imported. However, the low quality of rock phosphate deposits available in India can be utilized with certain modifications in the form of addition of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, addition of gypsum, and in the form of phospho-enriched compost. Agriculture, livestock, urban and industrial waste can also prove to be a source of phosphorus through crystallization of struvite. There are encouraging results of struvite compared with soluble phosphorus fertilizers. This will reduce the import dependency in India as well as encourage the Atmanirbhar initiative in phosphorus fertilizer.",book:{id:"11906",title:"Phosphate Minerals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11906.jpg"},signatures:"Alok Singh Jayara, Rajeew Kumar, Priyanka Pandey, Manoj Kumar Bhatt, Sharad Pandey and Roshan Lal Meena"},{id:"82251",title:"Potassium Persulfate as an Eco-Friendly Oxidant for Oxidative Transformations",slug:"potassium-persulfate-as-an-eco-friendly-oxidant-for-oxidative-transformations",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104715",abstract:"The formation of carbon-carbon/carbon-heteroatom bonds by oxidative transformations is a hotly debated topic in chemistry. K2S2O8 has emerged as a cost-effective inorganic oxidant for a wide range of oxidative reactions in this setting. This book chapter covers oxidative reactions facilitated by K2S2O8 in the absence of a metal catalyst in detail. Organic chemists may find this book chapter valuable in formulating the mechanistic pathways involving the sulphate radical anion, as well as in the quick and environmentally friendly synthesis of novel chemical species.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Bilal Ahmad Mir and Suresh Rajamanickam"},{id:"82242",title:"Monitoring Brain Activities Using fNIRS to Avoid Stroke",slug:"monitoring-brain-activities-using-fnirs-to-avoid-stroke",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105461",abstract:"Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an emerging wearable neuroimaging technique based on monitoring the hemodynamics of brain activity. First, the operation principle of fNIRS is described. This includes introducing the absorption spectra of the targeted molecule: the oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin. Then, the optical path formed by emitters and detectors and the concentration of the molecules is determined using Beer-Lambert law. In the second part, the advantages of applying fNIRS are compared with other neuroimaging techniques, such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. The compared parameters include time and spatial resolution, immobility, etc. Next, the evolution of the fNIRS devices is shown. It includes the commercially available systems and the others under construction in academia. In the last section, the applications of fNIRS to avoid stroke are presented. The challenges of achieving good signal quality and high user comfort monitoring on stroke patients are discussed. Due to the wearable, user-friendly, and accessibility characteristics of fNIRS, it has the potential to be a complementary technique for real-time bedside monitoring of stroke patients. A stroke risk prediction system can be implemented to avoid stroke by combining the recorded fNIRS signals, routinely monitored physiological parameters, electronic health records, and machine learning models.",book:{id:"11564",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11564.jpg"},signatures:"Yun-Hsuan Chen and Mohamad Sawan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:76},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/14445",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"14445"},fullPath:"/chapters/14445",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()