\r\n\tReservoir characterization is defined as the model that characterises the reservoirs based on their ability to store and produce hydrocarbons. They are used to indicate the reservoir fluids' behaviour under different circumstances and to find the optimal production techniques that can maximise production. Reservoir modeling is the process of creating a three-dimensional representation of a given reservoir based on its petrophysical, geological, and geophysical properties. These properties are defined during reservoir characterization where geoscientists and engineers gather all physical and chemical data to extrapolate those values throughout the reservoir. They can then create a three-dimensional model to be used for reservoir simulation. From a practical point of view, the integrated reservoir modeling represents now the most valuable technical approach for estimating the oil/gas reserves and computing the future production profiles, reducing the uncertainties always associated with the static and dynamic reservoir descriptions. Reservoir engineering is the formulation of development and production plans that will result in maximum recovery for a given set of economic, environmental, and technical constraints which is not a one-time activity but needs continual updating throughout the production life of a reservoir. Reservoir management is often defined as the allocation of resources to optimize hydrocarbon recovery from a reservoir while minimizing capital investments and operating expenses.
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1. Introduction
Animal use paralleles, for millennia, with the development of human society; these sentient beings serve not only as working tools, weapons, and food source, but also as pets and companions. This closely interdependent and complex coexistence in a sometimes very narrow ecological niche led to an occasionally interchangeable, closely related pathology. Diseases that evolve at the level of human-animal-environment interface could negatively interfere not only with health at all levels, but also impact on economy and implicitly on welfare and social status of the population [1]. Human and animal matrices reciprocally transfer emerging or reemerging pathogens by direct contact, through food/feed and water, or sharing the habitat, and this occurrence gives rise to the so-called zoonoses [2]. A significant number of zoonotic disease are caused by bacteria, for control, treatment, and prevention of which antibiotics represented, and still represent a powerful tool. Nonetheless, antibiotic treatments, which spread exponentially, especially in preventing diseases ignoring the real infectious pressure, created a very tough, artificial selection, the survival rate of resistant bacteria becoming higher and higher [1]. One of the crucial, but sometimes disregarded sectors in generating and spreading antimicrobial resistance and increasing the public health risks is represented by animal farms, encompassing intensive raising technologies [3]. A proper understanding of the main features of this sector in segments such as the increased spreading of resistant bacteria due to the presence of a broad susceptible population, supports the disease-control strategies, management of global health risks, and improvement of health security [1]. Institutions such as World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) co-work with international bodies, political actors, researchers, universities, and other institutions to preclude and control these hazards and the multiple impacts exerted by encouraging multiple collaborations, developing short-, mid-, and long-term strategies and efficient tools encouraging their implementation and use and also involving the relevant decision makers and stakeholders [4].
Since the discovery of penicillin by Fleming in 1928 [5], “antimicrobial” use has spread through the fields of human and animal health, to environment including various habitats and thus wildlife (Figure 1). Not only bacteria from the various natural animal niches became resistant, but also the antibiotic resistance was indicated in bacterioplankton [6] and proved to be dependent on geochemical conditions in the soil [7, 8]. Antibiotic resistance seems to be positively strongly correlated with the heavy metal pollution of the environment [7, 9, 10, 11, 12].
Figure 1.
Main sources for human exposure to antibiotic-resistant bacteria (from [37]).
Without a scientifically supported knowledge, vegetal extracts from various sources were used for millennia to treat infections, diminishing the negative impact of numerous bacteria. Modern medicine requires scientific evidence to support and confirm the expected therapeutic efficacy [13]; thus, the number of researches on plant extract properties augmented over the years and currently belongs to a worldwide recognized strategy aimed at identifying biologically active compounds that represent a viable alternative to synthetic drug substances demonstrated with various inconveniences (multiple side effects, nonselective toxicity, high production costs) or that have lost their initial efficacy [13]. Although different trends were described over the years, natural source importance was not minimized, as they provide key scaffolds for drug development particularly in case of antimicrobial drug development [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Briefly, the use of medicinal plants and their extracts as antimicrobials for therapy, although known for centuries, is far from being a closed subject. Medicine and biochemistry show a continuously increasing interest to this field, resulting in the introduction in practice of novel preparations, gaining new meanings within modern prophylactic and therapeutic alternatives.
Since the discovery of new molecules is apparently slower compared to bacteria resistance level increase, an integrated approach allowed the screening of various plant genera, confirmation and characterization of their antimicrobial properties (in terms of antimicrobial spectrum, minimum inhibitory concentration, minimum bactericidal concentration), identification of active compounds, and of certain mechanisms of action, which led to the expansion of the application range: therapeutic products for human health and animal health, performance enhancers or feed additives for farm animals, products for plant crop protection, food preservatives [13, 18, 20, 21, 22], etc. In the last decades, pharmacognosy studies on medicinal plants cleared numerous aspects of their bioactivity, certain ways, and sites of action of phytomedicinal compounds [23, 24]. With the progress of science and analytical laboratory methods, it has been proven that extracts from plants, containing numerous chemically active compounds such as alkaloids, tannins, polyphenols and others, could actively inhibit bacterial growth and simultaneously improve the immune response in the host by changing or inhibiting protein-protein interactions. This type of combined activity does not allow, apparently, the development of resistance [25].
Literature gathers a multitude of scientific studies that support the use of whole plant extracts in therapeutics, and the vast majority of researchers indicate medicinal plants as a viable alternative for the antimicrobials [13, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29].
A different therapeutic approach considers plants as source for individual active compounds, not as whole extracts or solvent-based active principle mixtures. It is estimated that over 12,000 secondary plant metabolites were isolated, representing less than 10% of the total compounds found in plants. The major active molecule groups were defined as: phenolics and polyphenols, terpenoids and essential oils, alkaloids, lectins and polypeptides, polyamines, isothiocyanates, thiosulfinates, and glucosides. Nevertheless, the extraction and purification costs act as limiting for the use of individual compounds [28].
These data provide solid bases for the development of safe and effective drugs that can be used in human and veterinary medical practice [13, 30, 31].
However, mostly due to limitations associated with natural products classical screening methods, large pharmaceutical companies’ interest in this category remained relatively low for several years. This particular disadvantage was significantly overcome due to the most recent strategies for natural product screening that involve an integrated multidimensional evaluation of botanical, phytochemical, and biochemical aspects, as well as advanced methods such as metabolomics and proteomics that enable the rapid identification of new compounds and production of target molecules, respectively [32, 33].
This chapter represents an overview of the most important zoonotic bacteria in terms of complexity, diversity and antimicrobial resistance, and resumes scientific data on bioactivity of medicinal plants against multidrug-resistant zoonotic bacteria isolated from animal cases.
2. Zoonotic bacteria complexity and diversity
Zoonotic bacteria are among the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in human, and their importance is recognized and stated by several international and national organizations [34, 35]. Furthermore, given the abundance of scientific proof of their impact on human health, international control and prevention strategies are currently implemented worldwide. In addition, numerous retrospective and prospective studies are conducted by specialized interdisciplinary research groups in order to provide more and updated knowledge on the etiopathogenesis of both already established and emerging or reemerging diseases. The economic consequences cannot be minimized, since the international protocols involve disruptions of national, regional and global trade, and substantial losses associated with animal culling and disposal of the carcasses. To acknowledge the zoonotic importance and the economic impact, certain bacterial diseases are also listed by OIE and require official notification [34]. The most common and important bacterial diseases with confirmed zoonosis status are anthrax, brucellosis, bovine tuberculosis, campylobacteriosis, listeriosis, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, psittacosis [36, 37, 38], etc.
Starting with 2010, the WHO, FAO, and OIE identified and issued priority areas that included zoonotic diseases and underlined the need for multidisciplinary collaboration to address health threats at the human-animal-ecosystem interface under the one-health concept. The one-health concept or paradigm allows the comprehensive description of the complex epidemiology in zoonotic diseases. Among the most compelling examples of the One Health paradigm, food-animal-associated zoonoses are distinguished and are monitored worldwide. It is mostly, but not exclusively, the case of foodborne diseases, with top ranked pathogens such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter [37, 39], etc.
Salmonella serovars and Escherichia coli pathotypes were isolated from many specimens of mammalian, avian, reptilian, and amphibian origin, fish, and insect, as well as from plants, soil, and water origin; hence, the main route of transmission involves consumption of contaminated foods of both animal and vegetal origin: poultry, beef, pork, eggs, milk, fruit, vegetables [37, 39, 40], etc.
Other pathogens’ transmission is related to occupational hazards, and one of the most resourceful bacterium in this regard is represented by livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA), in particular the clonal complex (CC) 398 [25, 41, 42, 43]. Its first description was based on the isolation from pigs, pig handlers, and their close contacts, followed by reports involving livestock and livestock-derived food products in several countries, particularly in regions with high-density pig farming from Europe, Canada, Asia, and the USA [25, 42, 44, 45]. Grounded on recent data, colonization of LA-MRSA among persons occupationally exposed to pigs, cattle, or poultry appears to be very frequent and risk of developing MRSA infections is relatively elevated [41, 42]. The first exposed persons are not only at the risk to develop infections, but also they presumably represent the source for LA-MRSA transmission to household members [43, 46] and other parts of the human population [41], explaining the isolation of LA-MRSA from hospitals and other healthcare facilities’ environment.
A substantial scientific database was collected over decades providing relevant information on zoonotic diseases that originate from farmed or food animals [37, 38, 47], but more and more figures suggested pets and wild animals were significant sources and reservoirs of zoonotic bacteria [48, 49, 50, 51, 52]. Regarding pets, the great majority of the studies are focused on cats and dogs [53], but lately the range of animal species kept within households diversified to encompass rodents, rabbits, ferrets, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and ornamental fish [49]. Comparing the amount of literature data, pet-associated bacterial zoonoses are considered as a relatively neglected area compared with foodborne zoonoses [49]; thus, future studies are needed to understand the complexity of epidemiological links in these cases.
The main study approach is similar to farmed animals and targets the two main categories of sources: (1) sick animals and (2) asymptomatic carriers, considering that pets may be infected or colonized with a wide variety of bacteria pathogenic to animals and people. With respect to transmission routes, a close contact between pets and owners represents a peculiarity that suggests primarily the direct contact; petting and playing with pets along with licking or minor physical injuries (usually affecting the skin on the hands) may be associated with local or systemic pathologies especially in risk categories that include young, old, pregnant, and immunosuppression individuals. Secondly, the food, water, and the environment may be contaminated by pets’ fecal and skin microbiota [54, 55].
The above-mentioned aspects are reunited due to the increasingly popular trend of feeding raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) [56, 57, 58], with several studies underlining the serious risks to both animal and human health, given the laboratory confirmed presence of zoonotic bacteria and parasite pathogens in commercial RMBDs. Fresh, refrigerated, and frozen RMBDs may represent the source of Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7, extended-spectrum beta-lactamases-producing E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella species such as S. typhimurium, S. Heidelberg, and S. Kentucky [54, 56, 57, 59, 60]. Feces appear to represent an important source of Gram-negative bacteria with zoonotic potential, and several studies indicated a positive correlation between the raw meat feeding and Salmonella-active fecal shedding. Although it may not be representative for the general population of dogs, a special canine category was investigated in this regard—the case of dogs that participate in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), also named “therapy dogs”: since these animals commonly interact with immunocompromised people, the risks cannot be minimized [54, 56, 57, 61].
3. Multidrug resistance in animals
Antimicrobial Resistance Global Report on surveillance [62], issued in 2014 by WHO warned, based on surveillance data recorded, on the major problem represented by antibiotic resistance in a “postantibiotic era. “This definition underlined that most antibiotics, while considered a panacea, were broadly misused in both humans and food-producing animals, thus leading for widespread MDR. In parallel with the discovery of new antibacterial classes of compounds, the induction of resistance was followed closely by the drugs selecting the most resistant of the pathogens, which further spread [62].
One of the less regarded, yet significant sectors in spreading MDR, is represented by the animal segment, and little is known about the epidemiology of MDR in food animals and lesser in wildlife. Similarly to human medicine, veterinary antibiotics in use fail to control not only infections related to conventional agents but are also ubiquitous and commensal bacteria turned into aggressive pathogens. Not only antimicrobial use to control medical situations, such as herd- or flock-based infections (pneumonia, neonatal infections and infections occurring in immune-suppressed animals, surgeries, etc.) [62], but also the use of antimicrobials as growth enhancers in food-producing farmed species (poultry, swine, and cattle) increased the risk represented by animals in spreading MDR. Morbidity and mortality caused by bacteria resistant to commonly used and available for veterinary antibiotics are not the single causes for economic losses in farmed animals. Supplementary cost must be added for food control for antibiotic residues and resistant bacteria in food and disposal of contaminated items. There are many researches on the use of quantitatively active antimicrobial ingredients in farmed animals, showing the amount far exceeds that used in humans.
Enterobacteriaceae represent a large bacteria family, including numerous genera inhabiting human and animal gut of which some synthesize endotoxins. The best known representatives, E. coli and a broad variety of Salmonella spp., were subject to abundant studies. Not only these, but also some other representatives of the family show MDR and also resistance to antibiotics such as last-generation beta-lactams (i.e., carbapenem) used to treat severe bacterial infections and considered to be “the last line of antibiotic defense.” A smaller group of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) proved to be carbapenem-nonsusceptible and extended-spectrum cephalosporin resistant, and include Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter cloacae complex, Klebsiella pneumoniae, or Klebsiella oxytoca [63]. These species are also found in animals: the Enterobacter complex as commensal microflora in the intestinal tracts of mammals and fish and also pathogenic for insects [64], E. coli in swine, dairy cows’ mastitis [65, 66], Klebsiella oxytoca not only in bovine mastitis [67], but also in pets [68].
Multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria emerging in dairy cows’ mastitis as a result of extensive/uncontrolled drug use, biased therapy, horizontal gene transfer, and/or spontaneous genetic mutations pose an increased health risk to humans by contaminating milk and milk products. Virulence genes in connection with antimicrobial define pathogenic, but also certain commensal strains of E. coli, emphasizing the risks of fecal contamination of animal-derived, including milk products, as an important source for human outbreaks. Furthermore, the severeness of illness is increased in E. coli by the association of MDR with Shiga-like toxin (stx1 and stx2) genes’ presence. For example, resistance toward several active substances from commercial products recommended for bovine pathologies: penicillin-streptomycin, tetracycline, neomycin, ampicillin, and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid was found to different extents (MAR 0.2–0.80)—was found in 125 isolates sampled from healthy dairy cows. Multidrug-resistant phenotypes (resistance to more than four antimicrobials) were recorded for 12 isolates (9.6%). The molecular analysis pointed out the presence of stx1 gene in case of 20 strains and stx2 for 11 strains, respectively. The presence of Shiga-like toxin genes (stx1 and stx2) and high MAR index highlight the risk associated with human exposure in terms of possible contamination of milk and dairy products provided by the bovine farms. These results support compulsory food hygiene and safety measures throughout the production chain, to minimize or eliminate the contamination risk for the products provided by these farms [Crisan et al., unpublished data, 2018].
A study conducted in Canada by Finley et al. [56] indicated for commercially available canine raw food diets, an overall Salmonella prevalence of 21%, with chicken as an ingredient for 67% of the Salmonella-positive diets. Eighteen distinct serotypes displaying resistance toward 12 of the 16 antimicrobials tested, and a predominant pattern of ampicillin and tetracycline resistance entitled the authors to conclude on the need for implementing regulatory guidelines for the production of these diets aimed to reduce or to eliminate the associated risks for pets and the contact people.
Also, outbreaks of human salmonellosis related to exposure to animal-derived pet treats (pig ear, beef steak patty dog, and pet treats of seafood origin) have been reported in Canada, with the laboratory confirmation of Salmonella contamination in case of mentioned pet treats and identification of the following serotypes: S. Bovismorbificans, S. Give, S. Derby, and S. Typhimurium var. Copenhagen. The overall prevalence of 4% was regarded as lower compared to data reported in 1999, but the isolates showed resistance to up to seven antimicrobials [56]. A significant higher prevalence with 41% (65/158) of samples found positive for Salmonella was reported in case of dog treats derived from pig ears and other animal parts randomly collected in USA [28].
Updates on the antimicrobial resistance trends are needed in order to select the most suitable choices for the antibacterial therapy particularly in case of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections. Regarded as an opportunist organism, MRSA is responsible not only for localized skin and soft-tissue infections, but also for invasive forms such as septicemia and toxic shock syndrome [45]. Severe clinical outcomes and added costs justify further research for alternative treatments.
Due to the high diversity of MDR bacteria isolated from numerous animal sources and food of animal origin, an integrated meta-analysis of data could support the upgraded short-, medium-, and long-term strategies to control antimicrobial resistance and its further development, which in their turn are important for preventing the emergence and cross-country/continent spreading of resistant strains [69].
4. Medicinal plants as antibacterial agents
Numerous researchers studied the healing effects of plants and their extracts along with their beneficial effects in healthy organisms. Nowadays, plant-based therapy benefits of solid scientific support the individual chemical components or their combinations showing antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity, immune-stimulating potential, or anticancer effects. Since prevention is the key to good health, the researchers investigated the possibilities of using vegetal preparations to preserve health: (a) indirectly, by stimulating both innate and the adaptive immune response to antigens of various kinds and also (b) directly, by exerting either a bacteriostatic or preferably a bactericidal effect [70].
Apparently simple, the selection of plants or their extracts to be used for specific therapeutic purposes embodies the involvement of numerous factors, from health to economic impacts (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Different steps of the decision-making process in plant extract use for therapy.
4.1. Plant extracts acting against bacteria indirectly: immunological uses
Current trends in medicine tend to include natural products in therapy, without mixing allopathic and homeopathic treatments, the latest gaining more and more in comparison with chemically obtained compounds. The WHO list of 252 basic and essential drugs includes 11% of medications exclusively of flowering plant origin [71].
Vegetal extracts from various plant origins are used more and more, with a favorable activity in diminishing the negative impact of numerous microbial agents or in improving the innate or acquired resistance of the body to infections [17, 18, 72].
Classical therapeutic protocols supplemented with vegetal extracts could increase the protective capacity of the individuals, by their complex action mechanisms, which stimulate immunity. This pattern is actually applied in veterinary medicine, where certain stress-induced changes, caused by intensive raising/farming of food species, could be corrected in this manner [73, 74, 75, 76]. Moreover, active principles proved to be potent in restoring the immune reactivity in individuals with induced or innate immunosuppression [77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82].
Vaccines against bacterial diseases represent one of the most powerful tools for prevention and control. Within this framework, researches on the immune stimulating activities of vegetal extractions were successful, with obvious immune modulating effects. Due to improved bioavailability as compared to conventional drugs, combined with immune modulating potential, the question on plant extracts as potential adjuvants emerged for vaccines broadly used to prevent infectious diseases, in both humans and animals. An appropriate understanding of adjuvant potential of vegetal extracts and experimental design to investigate these possibilities would lean on a good knowledge of general action mechanisms of vaccine adjuvants.
4.2. Direct antibacterial activity of plant extracts
Antimicrobial effects of plant extracts on clinical isolates from farmed and pet animals and their potential use to improve health and lower the risk for humans were illustrated by experiments aiming to investigate the influence of the plant taxonomy/chemical composition on the in vitro bacteriostatic/bactericidal effects.
Plant extracts were initially proposed as supplementary means in combined antibiotic and natural therapies; therefore, the synergism between plant extracts and antibiotics was also observed in experimental studies. In a complex research carried out to establish the antimicrobial effect of certain plants: Achillea millefolium (yarrow), Caryophyllus aromaticus (clove), Melissa officinalis (lemon-balm), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Psidium guajava (guava), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Salvia officinalis (sage), Syzygium jambolanum (jambolan), and Thymus vulgaris (thyme) on bacteria resistant from 1 to 18 antibiotics: amikacin, ampicillin, cephalothin, cefpirome, carbenicillin, cefoxitin, chloramphenicol, ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, erythromycin, gentamicin, kanamycin, lincomycin, methicillin, nalidixic acid, netilmicin, norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin, penicillin, piperacillin, rifampicin, sulfonamide, sulfamethoxazole, tobramycin, tetracycline, vancomycin (Proteus spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus) and susceptible collection strains (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Salmonella choleraesuis ATCC 10708; Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442), the authors indicated that clove (Caryophyllus aromaticus) and jambolan (Syzygium jambolanum) were the strongest inhibitors (64.2 and 57.1%) of the used bacterial strains. Furthermore, their activity was the most remarkable (83.3%) against the germs resistant to antibiotics, where their synergistic activity with the antibiotics was also observed. Interestingly, plants such as sage and yarrow, well known for their antiseptic properties, showed no effect on the tested MDR bacteria. Some of the plants showed in specific cases a homeopathic-like effect, i.e., clove, jambolan, pomegranate, and thyme extracts, when used in lower concentrations but combined with ineffective antibiotics against Pseudomonas aeruginosa [26, 27, 29, 83, 84].
Other well-known plants, which share immunological activity, from Compositae family, were further investigated for their antibacterial effects, following the principle of “the more the merrier.” Echinacea, a popular plant in human medicine for its immune-stimulating and antiviral effects, also acts as an inhibitor for both tissue and bacterial hyaluronidase. This activity was considered to hinder the development and spreading of infection from localized to generalized [23, 24].
Another plant family, the Lamiaceae, has numerous examples of species with antibacterial activity. The investigation of their antibacterial activity against MDR, extended spectrum beta-lactamase-positive (ESBL), Gram-negative clinical isolates (A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae, E. coli, P. aeruginosa) of ethanolic extracts of Mentha sp., Ocimum basilicum, Plectranthus barbatus, and Rosmarinus officinalis, indicated that the minimal inhibiting concentration ranged from 0.5 to 2 mg/mL, while all extracts were effective against at least two of the tested bacteria [85].
Another plant from Lamiaceae with a less investigated antibacterial influence was considered as a potential therapeutic resource in bovine mastitis. Mastitis, one of the most economically impacting diseases of dairy cows due to subclinical status and difficult diagnosis, is heavily treated with antibiotics, leading to MDR in the involved bacterial strains. The lesser antibiotic efficacy, therefore, demands for therapeutic alternatives. In a study on the antimicrobial effectiveness of Melissa officinalis on the subclinical mastitis, microbiome carried out on several Romanian dairy farms ([93]), a variety of bacteria (S. sciuri, Shigella spp. S. lentus, Acinetobacter baumannii, Chryseomonas luteola, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia vulneris, etc.) were isolated with an MAR index up to 0.8 against amoxicillin+clavulanate, amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, cefoperazone, ciprofloxacin, and oxytetracycline. The Melissa tincture was less effective than the same plant essential oil (11.3 ± 3.6 versus 12.3 ± 4.3 mm), but comparable to amoxicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, and was higher than cefoperazone (total resistance). The efficacy depended more on the strain than on the solvent type also suggesting a therapeutic alternative to antibiotic treatment, as mentioned in the literature [86].
Most of the studies were carried out using reference strains, especially in case of the initial screening, but more recently, such assays also include clinical strains, both antimicrobial susceptible and resistant. Table 1 summarizes relevant data on the ability of herbal extracts to inhibit MDR zoonotic strains of animal origin.
Name
Extract type
In vitro efficacy against
Strain origin
Evaluation method(s)
Mechanism(s) of action
References
Syzygium aromaticum and Cinnamomum > Mentha spicata L. and Coriandrum sativum L. > Allium sativum L. and Nigella sativa L.
Herbal extracts demonstrated to inhibit MDR zoonotic strains of animal origin.
5. Conclusions
In spite of extensive research carried out on healing effects of plants, antibacterial effects included, the subject is far from being closed, the high variety of plant species providing a strong support for investigation. Although numerous researchers deal with the effects of individual compound against bacteria, those extracts containing multiple active substances and exerting simultaneously antibacterial and immune-enhancing effects are favored. Veterinary and zoonotic pathology, due to the presence of MDR bacteria, could equally benefit of the discovery of plant extracts with high antibacterial potential, useable separately or in combination with otherwise inefficient classical antibacterial therapies.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the financial support provided by the Romanian National Research Council of the Ministry of Education by the project PNII 61/2012 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences for performing the research on antibiotic resistances in various environments and also plant extract effects on microbes.
Conflict of interest
None of the authors have any existing or possible conflict of interests, including financial, personal, or any other relationships, which could influence their scientific work.
\n',keywords:"zoonotic bacteria, animals, multidrug resistance, medicinal plants, MIC/MBC",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64302.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64302.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64302",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64302",totalDownloads:1148,totalViews:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 18th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 27th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 27th 2018",datePublished:"May 2nd 2019",dateFinished:"November 6th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Multidrug resistance (MDR) represents a complex phenomenon, caused not only by nondiscriminative antibiotic therapy in both human and animal medicine but also by the transfer of resistance genes between different bacteria. Animals besides different environments embody a niche for the development of resistant microbiomes, representing a serious threat to people not only as contacts but also as consumers/tourists. The epidemiological cycle of MDR bacteria is closed by changes in either their hosts or in their habitats. To prevent further spreading of MDR, natural solutions are investigated as efficacy, including in this category various compounds isolated from medicinal plants (quinones, flavones, flavonoids, and flavonols, tannins, coumarins, terpenoids and essential oils, alkaloids, lectins and polypeptides, etc.). The results of such studies are valuable for the medicine, but could the medicinal plants cover the gap for humans, animals, and the environment? This chapter aims at trying to answer this question.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64302",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64302",signatures:"Marina Spinu, Mihaela Niculae, Silvana Popescu, Emoke Pall and\nCarmen Dana Sandru",book:{id:"6978",type:"book",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A Global Threat",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Yashwant Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6978.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-784-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-783-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-636-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"79718",title:"Dr.",name:"Yashwant",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"yashwant-kumar",fullName:"Yashwant Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",email:"marina.spinu@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"210998",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen Dana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandru",fullName:"Carmen Dana Sandru",slug:"carmen-dana-sandru",email:"sandranac@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"239030",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvana",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",fullName:"Silvana Popescu",slug:"silvana-popescu",email:"silvana.popescu@usamvcluj.ro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"251722",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Niculae",fullName:"Mihaela Niculae",slug:"mihaela-niculae",email:"niculaemihaela1@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"251723",title:"Dr.",name:"Emoke",middleName:null,surname:"Pall",fullName:"Emoke Pall",slug:"emoke-pall",email:"pallemoke@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Zoonotic bacteria complexity and diversity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Multidrug resistance in animals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Medicinal plants as antibacterial agents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Plant extracts acting against bacteria indirectly: immunological uses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Direct antibacterial activity of plant extracts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mayer M, Vogl CR, Amorena M, Hamburger M, Walkenhorst M. Treatment of organic livestock with medicinal plants: A systematic review of European ethnoveterinary research. Forschende Komplementärmedizin. 2014;21(6):375-386. DOI: 10.1159/000370216'},{id:"B2",body:'Bengis RG, Leighton FA, Fischer JR, Artois M, Mörner T, Tate CM. 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Lucrari Stiintifice - Universitatea de Stiinte Agricole a Banatului Timisoara. Medicina Veterinara. 2009;42(1):170-175'},{id:"B85",body:'Baker-Austin C, Wright MS, Stepanauskas R, McArthur JV. Co-selection of antibiotic and metal resistance. Trends in Microbiology. 2006;14(4):176-182. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2006.02.006'},{id:"B86",body:'Damborg P, Broens EM, Chomel BB, Guenther S, Pasmans F, Wagenaar JA, et al. Bacterial zoonoses transmitted by household pets: State-of-the-art and future perspectives for targeted research and policy actions. Journal of Comparative Pathology. 2016;155(Suppl 1):S27-S40. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2015. 03.004'},{id:"B87",body:'Shin B, Park W. Zoonotic diseases and phytochemical medicines for microbial infections in veterinary science: Current state and future perspective. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2018;5:166. DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00166'},{id:"B88",body:'Podder MP, Rogers L, Daley PK, Keefe GP, Whitney HG, Tahlan K. Klebsiella species associated with bovine mastitis in Newfoundland. PLoS One. 2014;9(9):e106518. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106518'},{id:"B89",body:'Novais A, Cantón R, Coque TM, Moya A, Baquero F, Galán JC. Mutational events in cefotaximase extended-spectrum beta-lactamases of the CTX-M-1 cluster involved in ceftazidime resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2008;52:2377-2382'},{id:"B90",body:'Peñalver P, Huerta B, Borge C, Astorga R, Romero R, Perea A. Antimicrobial activity of five essential oils against origin strains of the Enterobacteriaceae family. APMIS. 2005;113(1):1-6'},{id:"B91",body:'Amber R, Adnan M, Tariq A, Khan SN, Mussarat S, Hashem A, et al. Antibacterial activity of selected medicinal plants of northwest Pakistan traditionally used against mastitis in livestock. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2018;25(1):154-161. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.02.008'},{id:"B92",body:'Khan UA, Rahman H, Qasim M, Hussain A, Azizllah A, Murad W, et al. Alkanna tinctoria leaves extracts: A prospective remedy against multidrug resistant human pathogenic bacteria. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2015;15:127. DOI: 10.1186/s12906-015-0646-z'},{id:"B93",body:'Giupana R, Niculae M, Pall E, Negruțiu V, Silvana P, Vasiu A, Pușcașu R, Șandru CD, Spînu M. Solvent nature influences the effects of Melissa officinalis extract on the milk microbiome in cows with subclinical mastitis, accepted for publication in Annals of Phytomedicine, December issue'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Marina Spinu",address:"marina.spinu@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Carmen Dana Sandru",address:null,affiliation:'
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The existing variety of proposed approaches is classified in accordance with the “big five rules” for these assays, including proper sample, receptor, interaction, response, and output. The solutions for rapid extraction of target analytes and preventing negative influence of extractants are considered. Role to antibodies affinity and specificity is characterized. Potential of alternate bioreceptor molecules is discussed. Immunoreactants’ compositions, concentrations, and locations on the test strip are characterized as factors determining assay parameters. The existing variety of labels is compared in terms of their optical and alternate registration. Tools to modulate a sequence of analytical reactions and to form aggregates of the detected labels are considered. The discussed approaches are illustrated through developments of test strips for detection of mycotoxins, veterinary drugs, and other analytes.",book:{id:"6470",slug:"rapid-test-advances-in-design-format-and-diagnostic-applications",title:"Rapid Test",fullTitle:"Rapid Test - Advances in Design, Format and Diagnostic Applications"},signatures:"Anatoly V. Zherdev and Boris B. Dzantiev",authors:[{id:"175229",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",middleName:null,surname:"Zherdev",slug:"anatoly-zherdev",fullName:"Anatoly Zherdev"},{id:"224281",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"B",surname:"Dzantiev",slug:"boris-dzantiev",fullName:"Boris Dzantiev"}]},{id:"60908",title:"Microarrays as Platform for Multiplex Assays in Biomarker and Drug Discovery",slug:"microarrays-as-platform-for-multiplex-assays-in-biomarker-and-drug-discovery",totalDownloads:1153,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Despite the tremendous advances in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms and the complexity of the diseases is one of the present challenges for the scientific community; then, novel strategies are required to be designed and developed for effective strategies for early diagnosis and treatment. As many cellular alterations are observed at protein level, high-throughput assays are dramatically needed for biomarker discovery. Herein, we describe advantages and limitations of protein microarrays, as proteomics strategy useful for multiplex and high-throughput protein characterization in clinical samples. 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Worldwide prevalence of SLE is difficult to report mainly due to difficulty in diagnosis as a result of its heterogeneous nature and nonspecific protean manifestations. Currently, circulating anti-DNA antibodies are the most specific diagnostic biomarkers for SLE where many detection assays are being employed in clinical practice. However, the diagnostic value of these techniques is challenged by the detection of only subpopulations of these antibodies with varying sensitivity and specificity. This is mainly attributed to differences in the antigen source and presentation and in the employed reaction conditions. This chapter will thoroughly discuss the technology, advantages, and limitations of each assay in addition to a special focus on the recently developed diagnostic technologies and novel biomarkers. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"jucheng-yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",slug:"serestina-viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",slug:"yalin-bastanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st 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