Classification of microalgae species recorded in Sfax solar saltern according to the salinity gradient [9].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Indeed, any biotope characterized by a very low or very high value of the main parameters that influence their life cycle can be characterized as an extreme environment [2]. These parameters are essentially temperature, salinity, pH, pressure, radiation, desiccation, and oxygenation. Organisms with the ability to live in extreme environments are called “extremophiles”. And as a result, several groups have been described taking into account the extreme conditions they can tolerate [1]. These are essentially prokaryotic microorganisms, mostly belonging to the Archaea group. Eukaryotes can also be recorded in extreme environments. They are essentially unicellular algal or fungal organisms [3].
Among these environments, hypersaline ecosystems are very widespread and they can be classified into natural and artificial biotopes. While the natural environments are essentially represented by salt lakes, lagoon and, Sabkhas, the artificial hypersaline environments are represented by saltworks. These latter are transitional ecosystems between the marine and the continental domain [4], consisting of shallow ponds used for the production of halite (NaCl) from seawater which is pumped to the first series of ponds. After an evaporation cause a sufficient increase in salinity, the water is transferred to the next series of ponds, and so on, until brine saturated with NaCl is obtained, from which the halite precipitates in the last series of ponds recognized the crystallization ponds. The salinity in each of the ponds is thus maintained more or less constant over time [5]. This process leads to the selection of the variety of microbial heterotrophs and autotrophs and ciliated protozoa [4]. Species were adapted to different salinity variations [6]. The Sfax solar saltern (Tunisia) is an artificial paralic ecosystem characterized by its floristic and faunal richness [7], as well as by its microalgae richness [8, 9]. This biotope has been the site of several studies since 1998: (i) microalgae [10], (ii) ciliates [11] and (iii) zooplankton [12, 13, 14] especially the branchiopod crustacean
Microalgae are very rarely grouped according to their energy metabolism or even according to their ability to synthesize the necessary metabolites, but rather according to their morphological properties [21]. There are therefore different taxonomic classes of microalgae, the main ones being Rhodophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyceae, Dinophyceae and Cyanobacteria. Microalgae occupy a very important place in nature since they are at the base of a long food chain and contain impressive nutritional proerties [22]. Moreover, they have various fields of exploitation, due to the value-added molecules. The biochemical composition of microalgae proves that they contain high value natural fatty acids (omega-3), which can produce a high value dietary supplement [23]. Furthermore, microalgae contain a high amount of proteins reaching up to 70% of the dry matter for
In this chapter we will present the biodiversity of the halophilic microalgae of the Sfax solar saltern and the different techniques used for the isolation and valorization of culture or metabolites extracted from three microalgal species.
The Sfax solar salternor the Thyna salt works (Figure 1) is an artificial system located in the Gulf of Gabes in an arid climate (34° 39′N and 10° 42′E). This system is composed of several interconnected shallow ponds (20 to 70 cm deep) with increasing salinities from the water intake (40 PSU) to the salt Tables (450 PSU) [9]. The saline is separated from the sea by a dam of red silt about 4 m high running along the southern coast of the city of Sfax for about 13 km (Figure 1), from the port area to the village of Gargour, occupying an area of 1500 ha [29]. It is one of the most important salt production areas in Tunisia (300,000 T of salt per year). A total of 45 microalgae taxa were recorded from the Sfax solar saltern and identified belonging to five groups: diatoms, dinoflagellates, Chlorophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Cyanobacteria. For each group, we clearly observed a marked decrease in the number of taxa with the increase of salinity (Table 1, Figure 2). Diatoms were dominant in ponds that have salinity ranges from 40 to 80 PSU (67.95% of the microalgae total abundance), whereas the dinoflagellates represented only 22.19% and Euglenophyceae were poorly represented in this pond (1.2%) (Figure 2). Dinoflagellates dominated the densities and biomasses of microalgae in the ponds of 80–200 PSU, contributing to 56.7% and 34.4% of the microalgae total abundance, respectively. Chlorophytes largely dominated in the crystallization ponds>200 salinity which accounting for 69.1% of the total microalgae. While Cyanobacteria were relatively abundant in ponds of medium salinity (19.9%) they were rare in hypersaline ponds (0.5%) (Figure 2, Table 1).
General map of the Sfax Saltern showing the three levels of increasing salinity.
Salinity (PSU) | Microalgae | Species |
---|---|---|
40–80 | Pennate diatoms | |
Centric diatoms | ||
Dinoflagellates | ||
Euglenophyceae | ||
80–200 | Pennate diatoms | |
Dinoflagellates | ||
Cyanobacteria | ||
Chlorophyceae | ||
200–450 | Cyanobacteria | |
Chlorophyceae |
Classification of microalgae species recorded in Sfax solar saltern according to the salinity gradient [9].
*Species isolated and cultured in laboratory.
Mean relative contribution of microalgae groups to total microalgae biomass in six ponds of increasing salinity in the saline of Sfax Tunisia [
Three different microalgae species were isolated from the three level of salinity of Sfax solar saltern: the diatom
Microscopic observation (G ×100) of (a)
The growth of
The cyanobacterium
with.
OD: Optical density.
υ: volume of the acetone extract (ml).
V: volume of the algae suspension (ml).
The dosage of photosynthetic pigments of each microalgal species was carried out after extraction in 90% acetone. The concentration of Chlorophyll
Equation of Jeffrey and Humphrey [36] for Chlorophyceae:
Equation of Jeffrey and Humphrey [35] for Diatom
Carotenoid concentrations were calculated according to the equation of Chamovitz, Sandmann and Hirschberg [36] for cyanobacterium and according to Salguero et al. [37] for Chlorophyceae.
Cyanobacteria carotenoid (μg l−1) = (OD461nm − 0.046OD664nm) × 4
Chlorophyceae Carotenoid (μg l−1) = 0.0045 (3000OD470nm − 1.63OD750nmChl
The phycocyanin (C-PC) pigment was isolated from
The dry matter of microalgae was determined according to the AOAC standard methods [39]. The protein assay method of Lowry [40] was used by the combination of Folin with Biuret’s reagents. The Lipids content was determined gravimetrically after the Soxhlet extraction of dried samples with hexane for 2 hours using Nahita Model 655 (Navarra, Spain). The sugars were estimated by phenol-sulfuric acid method [41] using glucose as a standard. The total phenol content of the
The analyses of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and zinc contents in
For fatty acids analyses, cultures were harvested at the end of the log phase. All lipids were evaporated to dryness with nitrogen and concentrated with hexane. Fatty acids methyl esters (FAMEs) were prepared from the lipid extract by transesterification using a direct transmethylation method according to Lepage and Roy [44]. The FAMEs were then extracted with hexane and determined quantitatively by capillary gas chromatography. We used a Chromopack, CP 9001 gas chromatograph, HPS 5890 series II chromatograph, equipped with a polar 25-m capillary column CP wax 58 (Varian SA, France) (0.32 mm diameter and a layer thickness of 0.52 mm), and a flame ionization detector (FID). We used a splitless injection system with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The oven was programmed to rise from an initial temperature of 180–250°C at rates of 10°C min−1 (from 180 to 220), 2°C min−1 (from 220 to 240), and 5°C min−1 (from 240 to 250). Individual FAMEs were identified by comparing retention times with those obtained with laboratory standards and the manufacturer’s instructions (Supelco).
The four growth phases—lag, exponential, stationary and decline growth phases—are only observed on growth curves of
For
Growth curves of
Microalgae could be easily grown in a laboratory and used for large-scale cultivation in bioreactors with the ability to control the quality of the cultures by providing purified culture medium that is free of toxic substances. Therefore, microalgae provide a more accessible way to produce qualitative biomolecules of interest [48, 49, 50]. Physicochemical characteristics of
Component | |||
---|---|---|---|
Dry matter (%Fw) | 7 ± 0.45 | 10 ± 0.66 | — |
Proteins (%Dw) | 27.62 ± 0.33 | 42 ± 0.78 | 41.39 ± 6.40 |
Lipids (%Dw) | 11.14 ± 0.19 | 15.7 | 27.04 ± 19.74 |
Total sugars (%Dw) | 12.60 ± 0.76 | 21.56 ± 0.99 | 13.33 ± 8.06 |
Aches(% Dw) | 37.78 ± 0.43 | — | — |
Chlorophyll a (%Dw) | 4.94 ± 0.27 | 7.05 ± 0.81 | 17.02 ± 7.78 |
Phycocyanin (%Dw) | — | 13 ± 0.47 | — |
Cartenoids(%DW) | 1.083 ± 0.05 | 1.79 ± 0.08 | 1.22 ± 0.39 |
Polyphenols(mgGAE g−1) | 38.27 ± 2.21 | 408.5 ± 18,18 | — |
Flavonoides(mgGAE g−1) | 17.69 ± 0.70 | 13.67 ± 0.78 | — |
Physicochemical characteristics of three microalgae species.
Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of triplicates. FW: fresh weight; DW: dry weight; GAE: gallic acid equivalent; − not realized.
Mineral | |
---|---|
Sodium (g Kg−1DW) | 1.125 ± 0.2 |
Potassium (g Kg−1DW) | 0.485 ± 0.05 |
Calcium (g Kg−1DW) | 0.584 ± 0.05 |
Magnesium (g Kg−1DW) | 0.747 ± 0.1 |
Iron (g Kg−1DW) | 0.016 ± 0.002 |
Copper (g Kg−1DW) | 0.008 ± 0.001 |
Zinc (g Kg−1DW) | 0.008 ± 0.001 |
Mineral content of
The fatty acid profile of
Fatty acids | ||
---|---|---|
C14:0 | 3.623 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 1.2 |
C15:0 | 3.418 ± 0.3 | — |
C16:0 | 27.427 ± 0.5 | 21.0 ± 3.5 |
C17:0 | 1.664 ± 0.4 | — |
C18:0 | 1.974 ± 0.3 | 9.05 ± 1.0 |
C20:0 | 0.734 ± 0.2 | — |
C24:0 | 2.468 ± 0.2 | — |
SFA | ||
C14:1 | 3.386 ± 0.3 | 9.6 ± 1.1 |
C16:1 | 45.089 ± 0.8 | 2.2 ± 1.2 |
C17:1 | 0.521 ± 0.1 | — |
C18:1 | 3.658 ± 0.3 | 14.9 ± 1.2 |
MUFA | ||
C16:2 | 1.603 ± 0.2 | — |
C16:3 | 0.924 ± 0.3 | 0.1 ± 0.1 |
C16:4 | — | 14.0 ± 2.3 |
C18:2 | 0.432 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.2 |
C18:3 | — | 0.8 ± 0.3 |
C18:4 | — | 0.6 ± 0.2 |
C20:4 | 0.712 ± 0.2 | — |
C20:5 (EPA) | 2.367 ± 0.3 | 0.1 ± 0.1 |
C22:6 (DHA) | — | 4.3 ± 1.3 |
PUFA |
Moreover,
In conclusion, the saline of Sfax presents a high microalga diversified. Three species
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These environmental adversities generally induce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause severe oxidative damage to plants. ROS are toxic molecules found in various subcellular compartments. The equilibrium between the production and detoxification of ROS is sustained by enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Due to advances in molecular approaches during the last decades, nowadays it is possible to develop economically important transgenic crops that have increased tolerance to stresses. This chapter discusses the oxidative stress and damage to plants. In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]},{id:"49289",doi:"10.5772/61442",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Elicitors–Role in Secondary Metabolites Production through In Vitro Culture of Medicinal Plants",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-elicitors-role-in-secondary-metabolites-production-through-in-vitro-culture-of-me",totalDownloads:6998,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites are having the great application in human health and nutritional aspect. Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. 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The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5808,totalCrossrefCites:54,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7556,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5802,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. 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