Studies included in the meta-analysis.
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6134",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Intermetallic Compounds - Formation and Applications",title:"Intermetallic Compounds",subtitle:"Formation and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Intermetallic compounds are usually brittle with high melting points. Their properties are often found among ceramic and metallic materials. In most cases, their hot corrosion resistance and simultaneously hardness are important. One of the main applications of intermetallic compounds is for superalloy turbine blades in which they show appropriate high-temperature-related properties. This book collects new developments about intermetallic compounds and their recent usages.",isbn:"978-1-78923-179-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-178-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-298-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68256",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"intermetallic-compounds-formation-and-applications",numberOfPages:226,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d417aabc209ed4ce28dee750fd15c479",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",publishedDate:"May 30th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6134.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11636,numberOfWosCitations:37,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:107,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 9th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 24th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155413/images/3939_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei works in the corrosion and surface engineering group at the Tarbiat Modares University. He is the head of Aliofkhazraei research group (www.aliofkhazraei.com). Dr. Aliofkhazraei has received several honors, including the Khwarizmi award and the best young nanotechnologist award of Iran. He is a member of the National Association of Surface Sciences, Iranian Corrosion Association, and National Elite Foundation of Iran. His research focuses on materials science, nanotechnology, and its use in surface and corrosion science.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Tarbiat Modares University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"950",title:"Solid-State Chemistry",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-solid-state-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"59839",title:"FeAl Intermetallic Alloy: Its Heat-Resistant and Practical Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73184",slug:"feal-intermetallic-alloy-its-heat-resistant-and-practical-application",totalDownloads:1226,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Intermetallic phases, as a group of materials which have a great practical importance, both in the past and in the present day, are subject of research on the basis of physicochemical and mechanical properties. The presented studies were conducted for Fe40Al5Cr0.2TiB intermetallic alloy, their purpose was to determine the corrosion resistance of this alloy in an oxidizing environment, at temperatures up to 1373 K. The test material was made of Fe40Al5Cr0.2TiB intermetallic alloy after plastic processing. The kinetics of corrosion, allotropic variants according to the temperature of the process and the surface condition after corrosion were determined during the study. Based on the results obtained, the verification was performed under operating conditions. Taking into account the properties of the FeAl alloys, the working conditions and material requirements of turbochargers, studies have been undertaken to determine the possibility of the use of Fe40Al5Cr0.2TiB intermetallic alloys for components of the hot turbocharger of the automobile with compression ignition engines. The components of the hot turbocharger parts were used from the test material. The tests distance of turbocharger was 80,000 km.",signatures:"Janusz Cebulski and Dorota Pasek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59839",authors:[{id:"210940",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Janusz",surname:"Cebulski",slug:"janusz-cebulski",fullName:"Janusz Cebulski"},{id:"210942",title:"MSc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Pasek",slug:"dorota-pasek",fullName:"Dorota Pasek"}],corrections:null},{id:"58937",title:"Intermetallics Formation and Their Effect on Mechanical Properties of Al-Si-X Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73188",slug:"intermetallics-formation-and-their-effect-on-mechanical-properties-of-al-si-x-alloys",totalDownloads:1932,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study focuses on primary impurities, called intermetallics, in the microstructure of Al-Si-X alloys, their formation, effects and treatments to eliminate or ameliorate their deleterious effects. Intermetallic compounds are usually formed when alloying elements, such as Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg and Sr. are added to Al-Si based alloys. These elements are depicted by X in the alloys formation expression. The chapter noted that the most common intermetallics are iron (Fe) based, and several of these Fe-phases, including the most harmful Fe-phase, β-Al5SiFe, are listed and discussed. Fe-phase intermetallics are deleterious to the mechanical properties of Al-alloys; however, addition of <0.7% Fe helps prevent soldering in die casting mould. The effects of Fe-phase and other intermetallics formed by Cu, Mg and Mn were examined. Further, some techniques of eliminating or mitigating the negative influences of intermetallics were discussed.",signatures:"Williams S. Ebhota and Tien-Chien Jen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58937",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58937",authors:[{id:"206268",title:"Dr.",name:"Williams",surname:"Ebhota",slug:"williams-ebhota",fullName:"Williams Ebhota"},{id:"214786",title:"Prof.",name:"Tien-Chien",surname:"Jen",slug:"tien-chien-jen",fullName:"Tien-Chien Jen"}],corrections:null},{id:"60256",title:"Intermetallic Bonding for High-Temperature Microelectronics and Microsystems: Solid-Liquid Interdiffusion Bonding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75139",slug:"intermetallic-bonding-for-high-temperature-microelectronics-and-microsystems-solid-liquid-interdiffu",totalDownloads:1172,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Solid-liquid interdiffusion (SLID) bonding for microelectronics and microsystems is a bonding technique relying on intermetallics. The high-melting temperature of intermetallics allows for system operation at far higher temperatures than what solder-bonded systems can do, while still using similar process temperatures as in common solder processes. Additional benefits of SLID bonding are possibilities of fine-pitch bonding, as well as thin-layer metallurgical bonding. Our group has worked on a number of SLID metal systems. We have optimized wafer-level Cu-Sn SLID bonding to become an industrially feasible process, and we have verified the reliability of Au-Sn SLID bonding in a thermally mismatched system, as well as determined the actual phases present in an Au-Sn SLID bond. We have demonstrated SLID bonding for very high temperatures (Ni-Sn, having intermetallics with melting points up to 1280°C), as well as SLID with low process temperatures (Au-In, processed at 180°C, and Au-In-Bi, processed at 90–115°C). We have verified experimentally the high-temperature stability for our systems, with quantified strength at temperatures up to 300°C for three of the systems: Cu-Sn, Au-Sn and Au-In.",signatures:"Knut E. Aasmundtveit, Thi-Thuy Luu, Hoang-Vu Nguyen, Andreas\nLarsson and Torleif A. Tollefsen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60256",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60256",authors:[{id:"216490",title:"Dr.",name:"Knut",surname:"Aasmundtveit",slug:"knut-aasmundtveit",fullName:"Knut Aasmundtveit"},{id:"239422",title:"Dr.",name:"Thi-Thuy",surname:"Luu",slug:"thi-thuy-luu",fullName:"Thi-Thuy Luu"},{id:"239424",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoang-Vu",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hoang-vu-nguyen",fullName:"Hoang-Vu Nguyen"},{id:"239426",title:"MSc.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Larsson",slug:"andreas-larsson",fullName:"Andreas Larsson"},{id:"239427",title:"Dr.",name:"Torleif A.",surname:"Tollefsen",slug:"torleif-a.-tollefsen",fullName:"Torleif A. Tollefsen"}],corrections:null},{id:"61032",title:"The Importance of the Fluorine Effect on the Oxidation of Intermetallic Titanium Aluminides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75696",slug:"the-importance-of-the-fluorine-effect-on-the-oxidation-of-intermetallic-titanium-aluminides",totalDownloads:1e3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the low Al activity within technical titanium aluminides and the similar thermodynamic stabilities of Al- and Ti-oxide these alloys always form a mixed oxide scale at elevated temperatures consisting of TiO2, Al2O3 and also nitrides if the exposure takes place in air. This mixed scale does not provide any oxidation protection especially under thermocyclic load or in water vapor containing environments. Thus accelerated oxidation occurs. Alloying of additional elements such as Nb improves the oxidation behavior if the additions stay within a certain concentration range but such additions cannot suppress non-protective mixed scale formation. Coatings are another way to protect these materials but several obstacles and new degradation mechanisms exist such as delamination e.g. due to CTE mismatch or development of brittle intermetallic phases due to interdiffusion. Therefore, other suitable protective measures have to be undertaken to make sure a protective oxide scale will develop. The so called halogen effect is a very promising way to change the oxidation mechanism from mixed scale formation to alumina formation. After optimized halogen treatment the alumina layer is very protective up to several thousand hours even under thermocyclic load and in atmospheres containing water vapor or SO2.",signatures:"Alexander Georg Donchev and Mathias Christian Galetz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61032",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61032",authors:[{id:"174362",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathias",surname:"Galetz",slug:"mathias-galetz",fullName:"Mathias Galetz"},{id:"222128",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Donchev",slug:"alexander-donchev",fullName:"Alexander Donchev"}],corrections:null},{id:"60516",title:"Structural and Mechanical Behaviour of Al-Fe Intermetallics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73944",slug:"structural-and-mechanical-behaviour-of-al-fe-intermetallics",totalDownloads:1496,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, results of our recent investigations on Al-25%Fe (at.%), Al-30%Fe and Al-34.5%Fe alloys close to Al3Fe, Al5Fe2 and Al2Fe intermetallic phases have been discussed. The effect of process parameters on structural aspects and mechanical behaviour of Al-Fe intermetallics has been studied. The high melting intermetallics that are difficult to prepare by conventional processing technique are easily synthesized in nanocrystalline state with a homogeneous structure by mechanical means. In this process, we have come out with a single orthorhombic Al5Fe2 nanocrystalline intermetallic phase. Hardness measurements of intermetallic revealed an increase in hardness with a decreasing grain size up to a critical grain size, followed by a decrease. A decrease in hardness with a grain size refinement, an indication of softening behaviour, demonstrating the Inverse Hall-Petch (IHP)-like phenomenon has been observed in intermetallic compounds. The deviation from the regular Hall-Petch (HP) behaviour has been discussed using various deformation models based on the dislocations and grain boundary-mediated processes. The study is focused on investigations of Al-rich iron aluminide intermetallics to understand the structure property correlations.",signatures:"Mohammed Ishaq Raviathul Basariya and Nilay Krishna\nMukhopadhyay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60516",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60516",authors:[{id:"220122",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Raviathul",surname:"Basariya",slug:"m.-raviathul-basariya",fullName:"M. Raviathul Basariya"},{id:"220646",title:"Dr.",name:"N. K.",surname:"Mukhopadhyay",slug:"n.-k.-mukhopadhyay",fullName:"N. K. Mukhopadhyay"}],corrections:null},{id:"61063",title:"Technological Aspects of Production and Processing of Functional Materials Based on Intermetallic Fe-Al",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76701",slug:"technological-aspects-of-production-and-processing-of-functional-materials-based-on-intermetallic-fe",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The problems of this paper relate to a possibility to affect the structure and properties of new alloys with an intermetallic phase matrix of the Fe-Al system by improvements in casting and hot plastic working processes. The studies were focused on selection of an optimum chemical composition and parameters of the casting and heat treatment processes for further hot plastic working process. The primary goal was to obtain semifinished products in the forms of sheets and bars with specified set of mechanical and physical properties. The works included several selected alloys with various Al content and variable contents of alloying elements influencing the formation of intermetallic phases. A series of characteristics of mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of alloys containing 28 and 38% of Al were developed. The result of the work consists in the development of a technology for hot forming of flat and round products.",signatures:"Magdalena Jabłońska, Iwona Bednarczyk, Anna Śmiglewicz and\nTomasz Mikuszewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61063",authors:[{id:"211483",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Jabłońska",slug:"magdalena-jablonska",fullName:"Magdalena Jabłońska"}],corrections:null},{id:"59086",title:"Inter-Diffusion of Nickel and Palladium with Germanium",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73190",slug:"inter-diffusion-of-nickel-and-palladium-with-germanium",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nickel and palladium germanides are the most promising candidates for nano-electronic contact materials to active areas of germanium-based devices. Solid-state reactions were thermally induced in conventional thin film couples of the Ni/Ge and Pd/Ge systems in order to study the sequence of phase formation. By embedding a thin layer of tantalum or tungsten as an inert marker between coupling thin film layers and observing its movement during phase formation, the dominant diffusing species were identified and monitored. In the Ni/Ge system, Ni5Ge3 was the first phase to form followed by NiGe. The results showed that during Ni5Ge3 formation, Ni was the sole diffusing species. During NiGe formation, both Ni and Ge diffused with the Ge diffusion prominent during the early stages, while the later stage of growth was dominated by Ni diffusion. The only phases observed to form in the Pd/Ge system were PdGe and Pd2Ge, the latter being the first. Palladium was the dominant diffusing species during both phase formations. Lateral diffusion couples were also prepared by the deposition of thick rectangular islands of germanium on to thin films of nickel and palladium. Several aspects of thermally induced lateral (as opposed to vertical) growth of phases were studied.",signatures:"Adrian Habanyama and Craig M. Comrie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59086",authors:[{id:"211243",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Habanyama",slug:"adrian-habanyama",fullName:"Adrian Habanyama"},{id:"220838",title:"Prof.",name:"Craig",surname:"Comrie",slug:"craig-comrie",fullName:"Craig Comrie"}],corrections:null},{id:"58790",title:"Transition Metal Aluminide Coatings and Initial Steps on Additive Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72582",slug:"transition-metal-aluminide-coatings-and-initial-steps-on-additive-manufacturing",totalDownloads:1180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last decades, Fe-, Ni- and Ti-based aluminides have been studied in terms of bulk materials with an effort to develop alloying and processing strategies to overcome their low ductilities and toughness compared to conventional alloys. Whenever significant improvements can be addressed in this direction, they will be opened to an extensive range of industrial applications, especially those related to high temperature resistance requirements. In parallel, progressing interest has also been focused on their application as protective layers. This chapter is intended to provide a review of the evolution that has been made mainly during the last two decades of the several coating technologies devoted for this purpose. From thick to thin coatings are revised, with insight into coating microstructures and properties as well. Lack of space has forced the selection of those technologies arising most interest within last years; therefore, the content will follow this order: joining (laser cladding and electrospark deposition), thermal spraying (high velocity oxygen fuel and cold spraying) and physical vapor deposition (magnetron sputtering and cathodic arc deposition).",signatures:"Núria Cinca i Luis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58790",authors:[{id:"209969",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Núria",surname:"Cinca",slug:"nuria-cinca",fullName:"Núria Cinca"}],corrections:null},{id:"59014",title:"Physical Properties of Yttrium-Rhodium and Yttrium-Copper B2-Type Rare Earth Intermetallic Compounds: First Principles Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73189",slug:"physical-properties-of-yttrium-rhodium-and-yttrium-copper-b2-type-rare-earth-intermetallic-compounds",totalDownloads:811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The electronic structure of B2-YCu and YRh intermetallic compounds which crystallize in the CsCl structure has attracted the attention of the scientific world because of their excellent mechanical properties. The advantage of studying these materials is to answer of some industrial request in the materials that resist for high temperature and high oxidation resistance. However, high ductility has been observed in these compounds at room temperature. In this present work, we employed ab initio calculation methods while basing on the full-potential linearized augmented plane wave (FP-LAPW) method within density functional theory implanted in the Wien-2 k code, which is used to examine the various properties of these materials (YCu, YRh) like structural, electronic, and elastic properties. The results obtained are in good agreement with those found in other theoretical studies and experimental data.",signatures:"Abdessamad Sekkal, Mohamed Sahlaoui and Abdelnour Benzair",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59014",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59014",authors:[{id:"210648",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdessamad",surname:"Sekkal",slug:"abdessamad-sekkal",fullName:"Abdessamad Sekkal"}],corrections:null},{id:"60530",title:"Effect on Heat Treatment and Doping of Cubic NaZn13-Type La0.7Pr0.3(Fe,Si)13 for Magnetic Refrigerator Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75607",slug:"effect-on-heat-treatment-and-doping-of-cubic-nazn13-type-la0-7pr0-3-fe-si-13-for-magnetic-refrigerat",totalDownloads:855,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soft ferromagnetic cubic NaZn13-type La0.7Pr0.3Fe11.4Si1.6 has turned out to be a standout amongst the most fascinating compounds for investigating substantial magnetocaloric effect (MCE) on the grounds that the attractive properties of this compound shows large enough spontaneous magnetization for applications, strongly doping dependent, and as well as delicate soft ferromagnetism. These impacts can be attributed to the itinerant electron metamagnetic (IEM) transition especially around the first-order magnetic transition region. However, this compound is difficult to frame by the basic cementing process because of the inherent deficiency of the peritectic response, Υ-Fe + La → La(Fe,Si)13(τ1a), which frequently brings about a blended microstructure of α-Fe + La(Fe,Si)13(τ1a) + LaFeSi(τ4). Additionally, dependability of La(FexSi1−x)13 is no middle-of-the-road stage and common solvency amongst Fe and La in the Fe-La framework as a reality is represented by response dispersion as indicated by magnetic and electronic states’ contribution. From this point of view, the structure, attractive properties and MCE of this compound have been talked about in detail as indicated by various temperatures and times of the annealing treatment. In addition, efficiently contemplating on the doping impact from various concentrations of transition metal elements such as Copper (Cu) and Chromium (Cr) on Iron (Fe) in the La0.7Pr0.3Fe11.4Si1.6 compound is likewise discussed.",signatures:"Muhamad Faiz Md Din, Jianli Wang and Mohd Taufiq Ishak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60530",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60530",authors:[{id:"209538",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhamad Faiz",surname:"Md Din",slug:"muhamad-faiz-md-din",fullName:"Muhamad Faiz Md Din"},{id:"212495",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianli",surname:"Wang",slug:"jianli-wang",fullName:"Jianli Wang"},{id:"212496",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Taufiq",surname:"Ishak",slug:"mohd-taufiq-ishak",fullName:"Mohd Taufiq Ishak"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. Aliofkhazraei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3817.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3558",title:"Advances in Graphene Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3a2158260a79c0fc8a4298864aa7dcd",slug:"advances-in-graphene-science",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3558.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3530",title:"Modern 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In recent years, mental health of adolescents has taken considerable attention worldwide, because of a dramatic upward trend in suicide [1]. More than twenty percent of adolescents in the U.S. have a mental health disorder [2], and one in five of them are affected by a mental health problem [3], which is estimated to account for a larger burden of disease than any other class of health conditions [4].
The mental health field has traditionally focused on psychological ill-health, such as symptoms of anxiety or depression [5]. The most common mental health disorders among adolescents include obsessive–compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactive disorder, bi-polar disorder, impulse disorders, and oppositional defiance disorder [6]. Often, adolescents experience mental health problems, with fewer than half of them [7], in other words nearly one third of them need receiving treatment [8]. The situation is much more severe in adolescents living in racial and ethnic communities, who are more likely to have mental health problems [9]. Moreover, evidence suggests that adolescents coming from such communities are less likely to use mental health services, compared adolescents living in non-racial and ethnic communities [10]. Thus, when adolescents struggle with mental health problems, they often have attendance problems, difficulty completing assignments, increased conflicts with adults and peers [11]. Also, mental health problems adolescents have negatively impact their academic productivity and interpersonal relationships [12], and as a result of such problems, one million of adolescents – which is deemed to be very high – drop out of school annually in the U.S., for example [13].
Mental health issues among adolescents not only cause such problems, but they also negatively influence schooling [14]. Adolescents with mental health problems are at risk for schooling [15], and they may have increased difficulties primarily with academic achievement in school [16]. Frequent feelings of mental health problems exhibit school difficulties, including poor academic achievement [17]. Adolescents displaying strong mental health are likely to have better academic achievement, compared to adolescents displaying weak mental health [18]. Adolescents showing strong mental health have good social skills with both adults and peers [19], and their enhanced social and emotional behaviors have a strong impact on academic achievement [20]. Therefore, mental health problems in adolescents may have an important influence on academic achievement, which in turn have lifelong consequences for employment, income, and other outcomes [21]. Mental health issues may become problematic for adolescents in that they negatively influence academic achievement [22], which also might affect their future employment, health, and socioeconomic status [23].
Mental health problems of adolescents have an important influence on their schooling, particularly their academic achievement, which in turn may create important lifelong consequences. Due to a growing interest in mental health of adolescents in recent years, a meta-analysis seems timely, not only to demonstrate the association between mental health and academic achievement, but also to identify moderators that should be articulated in more depth in future research. Although there is a body of research on the relationship between mental health and academic achievement across the world, the literature is missing a meta-analysis of this relationship. To date, no meta-analytic research has examined the potential relationship between mental health and academic achievement, and the present research aims to fill this gap in the scope. Thus, the present research attempts to synthesize this association between mental health and academic achievement of adolescents. This meta-analysis aimed to answer the following research questions: (a) What is the relationship between mental health and academic achievement? (b) Does this relationship depend on year of publication? (c) Does this relationship depend on setting? (d) Does this relationship depend on community? (e) Does this relationship depend on sample size?
The present research adopted meta-analysis model [24] to combine data from independent studies to draw a single conclusion with greater statistical power [25]. Meta-analysis is a model that reviews the research results and combines the data obtained from independent studies in statistical ways [26].
Research examining the relationship between mental health and academic achievement was identified through a search of reference databases. To identify relevant empirical research on the relationship between mental health and academic achievement, a systematic literature review was conducted over a two-month time for the period 2000 to 2020, using such databases as Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), PsycINFO, Web of Science, EBSCOhost, Science Direct, Scopus, ProQuest®, and Google Scholar, with the following queries: [(“mental health” OR “mental health disorders”) AND (“mental health and academic achievement” OR “mental health disorders and academic achievement”], [“academic achievement” AND “academic success”], [(“adolescents mental disorders” OR “adolescents mental health”) AND (“adolescents mental health academic achievement” OR “adolescents mental health disorders academic success”)]. As a result of such review, a total of 52 studies including 34 journal articles and 18 postgraduate dissertations were reached. Thus, over 50 potential independent studies were generated for preliminary review as a result of the literature search.
To be eligible for inclusion in the present meta-analysis, a study had to (a) investigate the relationship between mental health and academic achievement; (b) include studies conducted on adolescents; (c) have taken place from 2000 to the present; (d) be reported to be available in English; and (e) include sample size and correlation coefficients.
The first four criteria were used in an initial screening of the abstracts of the studies. If the study had no abstract available, the full publication was collected and examined thoroughly. For the last criterion, the full publication was examined, and it was checked whether it included sample size as well as correlation coefficients. For the studies with insufficient statistical information, the corresponding author was contacted and the relevant information for the missing data was requested. If the author did not respond or could not provide the missing data, the study was excluded from the meta-analysis. After checking each study in the light of the inclusion criteria, the author agreed that 13 studies met all the five criteria of the research (see Table 1).
Author(s) | Publication type | Setting | Community | Sample size |
---|---|---|---|---|
White [27] | Dissertation | U.S. | Urban | 780 |
Sathiyaraj and Babu [28] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (India) | Combination | 750 |
Chung [29] | Dissertation | Non-U.S. (Australia) | Urban | 261 |
Eisenberg et al. [30] | Journal article | U.S. | Urban | 2.798 |
Gilavand and Shooriabi [31] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (Iran) | Combination | 200 |
Mundia [32] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (Brunei) | Urban | 6 |
Geetha [33] | Dissertation | Non-U.S. (India) | Combination | 1.088 |
Jenkins [34] | Dissertation | U.S. | Urban | 331 |
Singh [35] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (India) | Urban | 200 |
Sheykhjan et al. [36] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (Iran) | Urban | 314 |
Murphy et al. [37] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (Chile) | Urban | 37.397 |
Talawar and Das [38] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (India) | Combination | 200 |
Manchri et al. [39] | Journal article | Non-U.S. (India) | Urban | 270 |
Studies included in the meta-analysis.
In order to investigate possible relationship between mental health and academic achievement, five moderators were extracted from the studies [40]. The first moderator concerned with the year of publication. The year of the publications were classified as 2009–2014 and 2015–2020, with a range of five years. The second moderator, publication type, referred to whether a study appeared as a journal article or a postgraduate dissertation. The third moderator, setting, referred to the country in which the research was conducted. Because the studies included in the meta-analysis were not from diverse settings – they were mainly coming from the U.S. and some Asian countries including India and Iran – the setting was classified as U.S. and non-U.S. The fourth moderator of the research, community, referred to the society people are living in. Because there was no study only conducted in rural settings, the community included urban and combination (urban, suburban, and rural). The last moderator, sample size, was classified as 1–500 and 501 above.
Standard procedures for conducting meta-analyses were followed [41], and the correlation between mental health and academic achievement were examined though effect sizes of independent studies. The effect size obtained in meta-analysis is a standard measure value used to determine the strength and direction of the relationship in the research [42]. In meta-analytic research, the variance depends strongly on correlation coefficient [43]. Pearson’s correlation coefficient (
There are two basic models in meta-analysis research; they are fixed effects and random effects models. When deciding which model to use, it is necessary to look at which model’s prerequisites are met by the features of the studies included in meta-analysis [46]. The fixed effect model is based on the assumption that when the data obtained are homogeneous, all the collected studies estimate exactly the same effect [47]. In this model, it is thought that the variance among the study results is caused by the data related to each other [48]. According to the fixed effect model, there is one effect size shared by the studies showing the same effect size for all studies [49]. In cases where the studies included in the meta-analysis show heterogeneous characteristics, it is more appropriate to use the random effect model [50]. This model is used in cases where the data obtained are not homogeneous [51]. As a result, while deciding which statistical model to use during meta-analysis, it should be tested whether the effect sizes show a homogeneous distribution.
In addition, the coefficient classification is taken into account in the interpretation of the effect sizes obtained as a result of meta-analysis [52]. In this research, Cohen’s [53] effect size classification was taken into account in the interpretation of effect sizes. According to this classification, values between .20 and .50 correspond to small effect size; values between .50 and .80 correspond to medium effect size; and values above .80 correspond to large effect size.
Publication bias refers to the possibility that all studies performed on a particular subject will not be representative of the reported studies [54]. Since the studies where statistically significant relationships are not determined or studies with low level relationships are not deemed worthy to be published, this affects the total effect size negatively and increases the average effect size bias [55]. So, effect sizes seem to be higher than what they normally are [56].
A number of calculations are used to reveal publication bias in meta-analysis research, including methods such as funnel plot, classical fail-safe
Funnel plot for the effect size of the relationship between mental health and academic achievement.
The funnel plot is expected to be significantly asymmetrical in publication bias. In cases where publication bias is not observed on the funnel plot, the effect sizes are symmetrically scattered around the vertical line. The line in the middle of the funnel plot shows the overall effect, and individual studies are expected to cluster around this line [59]. Studies which are asymmetrically scattered around the funnel plot refer to a possible publication bias in meta-analysis [60].
Also, classical fail-safe
Lastly, to assess the possibility of publication bias in the studies the trim and fill method, which is a nonparametric method of data augmentation used to estimate the number of studies absent from a meta-analysis due to the exclusion on one side of the funnel plot of the most extreme findings [63], was performed. With the help of this statistic, small studies at the far end on the positive side of the funnel plot are removed. The effect size is recalculated until the funnel plot is symmetrical [64]. When there is publication bias in the studies, the effect sizes are distributed asymmetrical on the funnel plot. In the research, the funnel plot provided evidence that there is no publication bias in the meta-analysis.
A total of 13 studies were included in the meta-analysis with a sample size of 44.595 adolescents. As a result of the comparisons, the
Model | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||||||
Overall | 13 | .334 | .155 | [.187 | .467] | 98.803 | |||
Year of publication 2009–2014 2015–2020 Publication type Journal article Dissertation | 4 9 9 4 | .256 .267 .256 .430 | .034 .010 .010 .047 | [.227 [.258 [.247 [.397 | .285] .276} .265] .462] | .004 .005 | 1 1 | .949 .942 | .00 .00 |
Settinga U.S. Non-U.S. | 3 10 | .107 .399 | .232 .206 | [−.126 [.212 | .329] .557] | 3.899 | 1 | .048 | .00 |
Communityb Urban Combination Sample size 1 ≤ N ≤ 500 501 ≤ N | 9 4 8 5 | .250 .532 .408 .260 | .010 .051 .053 .010 | [.241 [.502 [.369 [.251 | .259] .562] .447] .268] | .990 .796 | 1 1 | .320 .360 | .00 .00 |
Results related to overall effect sizes of the studies.
Due to that they did not report in English, other studies coming from diverse settings across the world were not included.
Because there was no study only conducted in rural settings, the community included urban and combination (urban, suburban and rural).
Table 2 demonstrated the relationship between mental health and academic achievement of adolescents. The effect size of the relationship between mental health and academic achievement computed by random effects model was
Forest plot of the relationship between mental health and academic achievement.
Moderator analyses were performed to examine whether the effect sizes were attributable to the basic research sub-groups. Results indicated that this was not the case, as neither sub-group, excluding the setting, moderated the research findings. There was no significant relationship within sub-group variation in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in terms of year of publication
The present research quantitatively synthesized the results of 13 independent studies, conducted over the past two decades, which examined the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in adolescents. The results of the research confirmed that there is a significant positive relationship between mental health and academic achievement. These results are consistent with the recent research investigating the relationship between mental health and academic achievement [27, 34]. Mental health problems may create many obstacles to adolescents, not just in their daily life routines, but also in their schooling academically. Mental health risks have long term and complex interactions with academic outcomes [27]. Mental health issues among adolescents not only cause pain and distress, but they also influence negatively their potential for success in school [14]. More and more adolescents – for example in the U.S. – face with mental health problems annually [1], and their behaviors lead to feelings of anxiety or depression [66]. The effects of mental health problems negatively influence the academic performance primarily [22], and as a result of it, more than one million adolescents drop out of school every year in the U. S. [23]. Mental health problems make adolescents face with a decline in academic achievement [67], which in turn results in school absence, poor grades, and even repeating a grade in school [68]. Those adolescents reporting high level of mental health problems are more likely to perceive themselves as less academically competent [69], and they display low academic achievement in school [70]. When schools identify problem behaviors with programs of intervention, it is likely to improve academic achievement of adolescents [71]. Well planned and well-implemented programs to foster mental health [72] can make adolescents achieve better academically in school [20]. However, in the U.S. – for example – 70 percent of adolescents who need mental health intervention cannot receive services [22], and nearly one third of them who need help receive treatment [8], which in turn negatively influences their academic achievement. Therefore, early detection of mental health problems of adolescents can have access to appropriate services which lead to improvement in both mental disorder symptoms and academic performance [73].
In addition to these overall findings, this meta-analysis also looked at the influence of some moderators in the association between mental health and academic achievement. It was revealed that no variables moderated the relationship between mental health and academic achievement, but not the setting. There was no significant relationship within sub-group variation in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in terms of year of publication, publication type, community, and sample size.
First, year of publication did not appear to be a moderator in the association between mental health and academic achievement, indicating that the effect sizes of all studies included in the meta-analysis were similar. Second, the publications included in this meta-analysis were dissertations and journal articles. Although dissertations had a higher effect size compared to journal articles, publication type did not appear to be a moderator in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement. This showed that in spite of the fact that journal articles are selective to display significant results [74], they produced similar effect sizes as with dissertations which keep relatively minor results unpublished. Third, community did not appear to be a moderator in the association between mental health and academic achievement, which indicated that studies conducted both in urban and combination societies had similar effect sizes. This result revealed that mental health of adolescents living in both urban and combination communities is associated positively with academic achievement. Also, sample size did not appear to be a moderator in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement. Studies including more than 500 adolescents did not contribute significantly to the effect sizes, which indicated that the association between mental health and academic achievement was not affected by sample size.
However, it was indicated that setting appeared to be a significant moderator in the association between mental health and academic achievement. This result showed that studies conducted in the U.S. and countries out of the U.S. impacted differently to overall effect size. According to this result, countries out of the U.S., which are mainly Asian contexts, had a high effect size in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement. It may be due that the U.S. has relatively more racial and ethnic communities, or immigrants, compared to other countries, and such diversity of the U.S. may have an influence on the result obtained in the research. In the U.S. 70 percent of the adolescents need mental health interventions [22]; however, the situation is much more severe in minority communities [9]. Adolescents living in racial and ethnic communities in the U.S. are less likely to use mental health services due to poverty in particular [10]. Poverty has a disproportionate effect on racial and ethnic minorities, and adolescents who live in such condition are more likely to have a mental disorder [9]. As a result, almost half of the adolescents living in ethnic and racial communities in the U.S. fail to graduate due to the low level of academic achievement in school [75].
Lastly, although the meta-analysis included the studies which took place from 2000 to the present, no study could be reached in 2020 probably due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Since the outbreak in Wuhan, China, nearly all countries across the world has faced with the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020. The pandemic has created severe consequences for millions of people in either losing their lives or their jobs. Many countries, including the U.S., the U.K., France, Germany, China, Italy, and Spain at the top, imposed lockdowns for several months and tried to prevent the fast spread of the virus. The pandemic not only affected general health of individuals and social lives of people, but it also impacted the schooling of many students. Most educational institutions around the world canceled in-person instruction and moved to distant teaching in an attempt to contain the spread of Covid-19 [76], and they are still pursuing this kind of teaching through digital platforms, such as Zoom, Skype, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and so on. Owing to the closure of schools, researchers have faced with considerable difficulty in reaching participants to conduct empirical studies; so this may have influenced the future research on the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in 2020.
On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic might have affected the mental health of adolescents worldwide because they were imposed curfew for several months at home. During the lockdown, millions of adolescents had to stay home, and they were in social isolation both from their peers and the society. Many countries implemented isolation policies for adolescents in particular, due to the fact that these individuals have the potential to spread the virus easily to relatively older people which may result in higher fatalities. Affected by the long months in lockdown, many adolescents had to spend their time at home and pursue their education through digital platforms. Many adolescents faced with severe difficulties in pursuing their education at home, as well as they had problems in access to treatment as a result of losing their mental health. Many students confined at home due to Covid-19 may have felt stressed and anxious, and this may negatively have affected their mental health [76]. Many adolescents, having mental health problems, have faced with severe academic difficulties and dropped out of school [77]. During the pandemic, the dropout rates in adolescents have substantially increased across the world, and this in turn may have affected their schooling negatively, particularly their academic achievement. However, there is no empirical evidence to support the relationship between mental health and academic achievement during the Covid-19 pandemic; therefore it is timely to conduct research to investigate this potential association to prevent mental health disorders in adolescents and improve their academic achievement. Although the present meta-analysis showed that there is a positive relationship between mental health and academic achievement in adolescents, this cannot be the case during the pandemic. Months of curfew and lockdown may have influenced the mental health and academic achievement of adolescents; so future research is needed to better clarify the relationship between these two phenomena.
The present meta-analysis aimed to determine the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in adolescents. This research, as expected, confirmed that there is a positive relationship between mental health and academic achievement. The research also indicated that mental health of adolescents is very important for schooling, in that it has a potential to influence academic achievement positively or negatively. Therefore, it is deemed crucial for adolescents to have a strong mental health to perform better academically in school, which in turn have lifelong consequences for employment, income, and other outcomes [21].
Results also indicated that there was no significant relationship within sub-group variation in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in terms of year of publication, publication type, community, and sample size, but not the setting. It was indicated that setting appeared to be a significant moderator in the association between mental health and academic achievement. This result showed that studies conducted in the U.S. and countries out of the U.S. impacted differently to overall effect size. According to this result, countries out of the U.S. had a high effect size in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement. The effect size of the studies conducted in the U.S. was found to be relatively low, which implied that ethnic and racial diversity might have an impact on the result obtained in the research. This underlines the role of the school; thus, if schools identify mental health problems of adolescents with programs of intervention, it is likely to improve academic achievement [71]. Schools play an important role in determining the mental health of adolescents because they serve more than 95 percent of a country’s young people population [78].
A relatively small number of studies have been identified in the present meta-analysis, so more studies are needed to better clarify the relationship between mental health and academic achievement in adolescents. This research included only studies reported in English; therefore further meta-analyses might be conducted to include other reports out of English. Also, the role of school-based intervention programs in the relationship between mental health and academic achievement has not been taken into account in the present meta-analysis, so further research might be carried out to clarify the issue. The research has reported that school-based intervention programs may be effective to prevent mental health problems, and thus foster academic achievement [14]. In particular, adolescents living in ethnic and racial communities suffer from mental health problems, and academic achievement in school is influenced by such background. Because of this, mental health issues of adolescents living in ethnic and racial communities should be taken into consideration seriously.
The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
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