Advantages and disadvantages of mass-spectrometric based metabolomics.
\r\n\tThis book chapter’s main theme will be focused on transmission dynamics, pathogenesis, mechanisms of host interaction and response, epigenetics and markers, molecular diagnosis, RNA interacting proteins, RNA binding proteins, advanced development of tools for diagnosis, possible development of concepts for vaccines and anti drugs for RNA viruses, immunological mechanisms, treatment, prevention and control.
\r\n\t
Over the past decades, metabolomics has emerged as a valuable tool for the comprehensive profiling and metabolic networks in the biological system. Pauling et al. [1] coined the term metabolomics which was first used in 1998 and even up to 2010 metabolomics was considered as an emerging one in the science field. Reports were documented on the complete genome ([2]; Yu et al., 2002), transcriptome [3] and proteome studies [4, 5, 6], but in recent years metabolome analyses using mass spectrometry (MS) - based platforms attracted attention. Even though, metabolite profiling have been carried out for decades, due to ultimate mechanism of a molecule regulation as constituents of metabolic pathways, the prominence of some metabolites in human regimen and their use as diagnostic markers is now being recognized [7].
Currently, metabolomics is a powerful tool for characterizing the metabolites and their metabolic pathways which provides a clear metabolic picture of biological samples. Metabolites are small molecules with diverse structures that are chemically transformed during the cellular metabolism [8]. The number of metabolites is expected to be significantly lowered than the number of genes, mRNAs and proteins which reduce the sample complexity. So far, the total number of metabolites in the plant kingdom is estimated to exist between 100000 to 200000, which make the task more challenging to detect more diverse group of metabolites [9]. Plant metabolomics therefore aims to highlight the characterization of metabolite pool of a plant tissue in response to its environment [10, 11, 12, 13]. Since, metabolomics is a balanced approach that obtains inclusive information on the cell’s, tissues or organisms metabolite content with low molecular weight, their configuration likely to be changed owing to diverse environmental conditions which reproduces different genetic background [14, 15].
Recent reports on the plant metabolome bought huge challenges to analytical technologies that have been used in current plant metabolomics programs. Some analytical approaches comprise metabolite profiling, metabolite target analysis and metabolite fingerprinting which can be employed according to focus of the research and research questions [16, 17]. Metabolite profiling does not certainly determine the absolute concentrations of metabolites; rather their comparative levels within a structurally related predefined group. Targeted metabolite analysis aims to determine the absolute concentration of metabolites using specialized extraction protocols with an adapted separation and detection methods [18]. Metabolite fingerprinting generally not used to detect individual metabolites, but rather it provides a fingerprint of all compounds which can be measured for sample comparison and discrimination analysis by non-specific rapid analysis of crude metabolite mixtures. However, single analytical technology is not enough to cover the whole metabolome owing to the metabolic diversity and their broad dynamic range in cellular abundance. Accordingly, different extraction techniques and combinations of analytical methods are often employed in order to acquire diverse group of metabolite coverage.
Historically, metabolite concentrations were achieved either by spectrophotometric assays capable of detecting single metabolites or by simple chromatographic separation of mixtures with low complexity. However, over the past decade several methods with high accuracy and sensitivity have been established for the analysis of highly complex mixtures of compounds [19, 20, 21]. These methods include gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry (LC–MS), fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS) and capillary electrophoresis - mass spectrometry (CE-MS). In addition, NMR coupled with chromatography have found great efficacy in addressing specific issues with respect to medical fields [22, 23] and conceivably more important to the unequivocal determination of metabolite structures [24]. However, NMR shows relatively low sensitivity and hence can be used for profiling the diverse group of metabolites from complex mixtures. The pros and cons of mass-spectrometric based metabolomics is given in Table 1.
Metabolomics Technology | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
GC–MS |
|
|
LC–MS |
|
|
FT-ICR-MS |
|
|
Advantages and disadvantages of mass-spectrometric based metabolomics.
Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry assists the identification and robust quantification of few hundred metabolites in a single plant extracts, which results in inclusive coverage of the central pathways of primary metabolism [25]. GC–MS has a major advantage than other methods that it has long been used for profiling the metabolites and therefore it has stable protocols for machine setup, their maintenance with chromatogram evaluation and interpretation. Though, single analytical system cannot cover the whole metabolome, GC–MS has a quite broad coverage of compounds classes including organic and amino acids, sugars, sugar alcohols, lipophilic compounds and phosphorylated intermediates [26]. During method validation, recovery experiments of all measurable compounds have been done and for unknown compounds, recombination experiments were executed to determine the recovery rates in which the extracts of two plant species are evaluated independently and also with mixtures [27, 28]. Liquid chromatography-based methods offer numerous advantages such as detection of broad range of metabolites, as they suffer from the lower reproducibility of retention time. In addition, they are more susceptible to ion suppression effects due to the predominant use of electrospray ionization, which renders the precise quantification more difficult [29, 30, 31]. FT-ICR-MS and CE-MS has been reported to be worth mentioning, where FT-ICR-MS has unsurpassed mass accuracy thereby allows the researcher to obtain an idea about the chemical composition of the specific compounds. In case of CE-MS, the low-abundance metabolites can be detected and affords good chromatographic separation [32, 33]. Of these techniques, GC–MS is mostly preferred for the separation of low molecular weight metabolites which can be either volatile or can be converted into volatile and thermally stable compounds via chemical derivatization prior to the analysis [34]. The experimental procedure for GC–MS based metabolomics analysis is represented in Figure 1.
Schematic overview of MS based metabolomics.
Derivatization is a process by which a compound is chemically modified to produce a new compound that has properties which are more amenable to specific analytical procedure. Samples analyzed by gas chromatography requires derivatization in order to make them suitable for analysis. Derivatization procedure imparts volatility, decreases the adsorption in the injector, increases the stability of compounds; improve the resolution and detectability between coeluting compounds and overlapping which assist in structure determination [35]. A good derivatizing reagents and the procedure should produce the compound of interest with desired chemical modification and be efficient, reproducible and non-hazardous (www.piercenet.com). For GC, derivatization reaction can be done by three basic types: silylation, acylation and alkylation. Silylating reagents react with compounds containing active hydrogen and are most frequently used in GC. Acylating reagents react with compounds having high polar functional groups such as amino acids or carbohydrates. While alkylating reagents target the active hydrogen’s on amines and acidic hydroxyl group [36].
Seagrasses, a marine hydrophilus angiosperm live entirely in an estuarine or in the marine environment and nowhere else [37]. Seagrass ecosystem act as a breeding and nursery ground for numerous organisms and also help in promoting the commercial fisheries. It is considered to be one of the most productive ecosystems that retain the structural complexity and biodiversity shed light to some researchers to describe seagrass community as marine representation of the tropical rainforests [38]. Currently, seagrasses are assigned to four families Hydrocharitaceae, Cymodoceaceae, Posidoniaceae and Zosteraceae (den [39, 40]). According to angiosperm Group III System, all four families occurred exclusively to monocot order Alismatales [41]; while Les and Tippery [40] favored to treat the same clades as a subclass Alismatidae. The family hydrocharitaceae comprises of three genera namely
Seagrass and Seagrass beds | Properties |
---|---|
Common names | Eelgrass, turtle grass, tape grass, shoal grass, and spoon grass |
Families: 4 |
|
Total Species: 72 | In India: 14 species exist |
Habitat | Found in salt and brackish water |
Depth | 1 meter - 58-meter depth |
Seagrass Parts | |
Leaves
| Photosynthesis Help for buyoncy Exchange oxygen and carbondioxide in the water column Transport nutrients throughout the plants |
Rhizome | Stabilize the seagrass beds under wave action |
Roots | Absorb nutrients from the soil and transport to the plants |
Growth and reproduction | Sexual reproduction and asexual clonal growth |
Biodiversity
| Small thin leaves Small rhizome “Guerilla” strategy Short lived with fast turnover Low biomass Abundant flowering Many small seeds and seed bank |
| Large thick leaves Large rhizome “Phalanx” strategy Long-lived with slow turnover High biomass and holds space Patchy flowering Few large seeds and seeds germinate rapidly |
Ecosystem benefits | Lungs of the sea Creation of Living Habitat Foundation of Coastal Food Webs Blue Carbon |
Seagrass ecosystem and their benefits.
Seagrasses share a number of analogous acquired metabolic adaptations owing to their convergent evolution, but their secondary metabolism varies among the four families that can be considered as true seagrasses. During the period of ancient Tethys Sea, approximately 90 million years ago surrounded by Africa, Gondwanaland, and Asia, the terrestrial like species returned to the sea and thus explaining the “terrestrial-like” chemical profile of seagrass. From a chemotaxonomic viewpoint, numerous secondary metabolites have been often studied in seagrasses. The metabolome of seagrasses may differ with respect to geographical location, substrates and other physiological factors includes wide fluctuations in the salinity which are prone to synthesize novel metabolites with defined physiological, biochemical, defense and ecological roles [45, 46]. Preliminary suggestions confirmed that seagrasses have pharmaceutically potent bioactive secondary metabolites [47], that are directed to prove to be a lead molecule for drug discovery [48]. The status of metabolomic study in seagrasses reported so far is tabulated in Table 3.
Seagrass | Methods used | Derivation method | Results | Potential application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GC/TOF | Trimethyl silylation | Adaptivemechanisms are involved through metabolic pathways to dampen the impacts of heat stress | Sucrose, fructose, and myo-inositol were identified to be the most responsive metabolites of the 29 analyzed organic metabolites. | Gu et al. [49] | |
GC-QTOF-MS | Trimethyl silylation | Growth promoting metabolites (sucrose, fructose, myo-inositol, heptacosane, tetracosane, stigmasterol, catechin and alpha-tocopherol) were lower close to the zone, whereas metabolites involved with stress-response (alanine, serine, proline, putrescine, ornithine, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid and cinnamic acid) were identified | Metabolomic fingerprinting of seagrass provides opportunities for early detection of environmental degradation in marine ecological studies | Kock et al. [50] | |
GC–MS | Trimethylsilyl etherification | GC–MS analysis revealed the presence of thirty-five compounds which include flavonoids, sugars, amino acids and plant hormones | Study has explored a newer marine source, | Jeyapragash et al. [51] | |
GC–MS | Trimethyl silylation | Decreased carbohydrate decomposition products and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediate products, indicating that the energy supply of the eelgrass may be insufficient at high temperature | composition of the membrane system of eelgrass may change at high temperature and implying that high temperature may cause the membrane system to be unstable | Gao et al. [52] | |
GC–MS | Trimethyl silylation | 98 metabolites in wild and 125 metabolites in SCC were identified. 77 primary and secondary metabolism pathways in wild, while 73 metabolism pathways in SCC were reported | Baseline information on | Jeyapragash et al. [53, 54] | |
NMR | Trimethyl-silylation | Several potential bioindicators of low-light stress: a reduction of soluble sugars and their derivatives, glucose, fructose, sucrose and myo-inositol, N-methylnicotinamide, organic acids and various phenolic compounds were identified | Metabolomics measurements may be useful bio-indicators of low-light stress in seagrass | Griffith et al. [55] | |
GC–MS | Trimethyl-Silylation | Three thermo-protective metabolites such as trehalose (sugar), glycine betaine (amino acid) and methyl vinyl ketone (organic acid) were profiled from | Facilitate the further research on identifying gene to metabolite networks for an effective management of seagrass conservation by genetic manipulation | Jeyapragash et al. (2021) |
Status of metabolomics studies in seagrasses.
Primary metabolites from seagrasses reported to be similar, to that of any other terrestrial angiosperms [56]. Despite the higher phenol content, seagrasses found to be rich source of protein which alleviates the chronic problem of protein deficiency in developing countries like India [47]. In addition, seagrasses are a rich source of secondary metabolites such as simple phenolic compounds, phenylmethane and phenylethane derivatives, flavonoid and volatile derivatives with high commercial value [38]. Jeyapragash et al., reported that the plant growth regulators enhance the production of flavonoid production in the callus and cellular suspension cultured cells of seagrass
Growth regulators mediated flavonoid production in callus and cellular siuspenison of
Seagrasses, the only higher plants solely living in the marine habitats and are ultimate importance for marine ecological systems close to the shorelines. Several studies dealt with the function of seagrasses as primary producers, shelter and food for fish, turtles and invertebrates as well as spawning areas for these organisms [59, 60, 61]. The reviews existing on seagrasses with different focus than the present one deal in more detail with other aspects of the ecological role of seagrasses, particulary the metabolite classes which are very few and primitive. Seagrasses reported to share the most features of primary and secondary metabolites with respect from the Alismatales order which live in land and freshwater habitats [62]. Kannan and Kannal [63] and Pradheeba et al. [56] reported that primary metabolites such as carbohydrate, protein and lipid content from seagrasses acts as a rich source of nutritional value and was eveidenced by the obvious increase in the carbohydrate content o
Secondary metabolism occurs in seagrasses depends on the season and environmental conditions and was reported as a rich source of diverse natural products from simple to conjugated phenolic compounds such as phenolic acids, flavones, tannins and lignins [65, 66]. It was also reported that
Compound Name | Molecular Formula | Molecular weight (g/ mol) | Exact Mass (g/mol) |
---|---|---|---|
D-Glucose | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Maltose | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
D-Fructose | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Sucrose | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
Inositol | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Methyl alpha-D- Glucopyranose | C7H14O6 | 194.183 | 194.079 |
D-Galactose | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Lactose | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
L-Rhamnose | C6H12O5 | 164.157 | 164.068 |
D-Ribose | C5H10O5 | 150.13 | 150.053 |
Adenosine-2′:3′- cyclic monophosphate | C10H14N5O7P | 347.224 | 347.063 |
N-Acetyl-Î-D-glucosamine | C8H15NO6 | 221.209 | 221.09 |
Aspartyl-Leucine | C10H18N2O5 | 246.263 | 246.122 |
Glycine | C2H5NO2 | 75.067 | 75.032 |
Threonine | C4H9NO3 | 119.12 | 119.058 |
Valine | C5H11NO2 | 117.148 | 117.079 |
Proline | C5H9NO2 | 115.132 | 115.063 |
Alanine | C3H7NO2 | 89.094 | 89.048 |
Thiamine | C12H17N4OS+ | 265.355 | 265.112 |
Methionine | C5H11NO2S | 149.208 | 149.051 |
Phenylanaline | C9H11NO2 | 165.192 | 165.079 |
Tyrosine | C9H11NO3 | 181.191 | 181.074 |
Methyl Pyroglutamate | C6H9NO3 | 143.142 | 143.058 |
Glutamic acid | C5H9NO4 | 147.13 | 147.053 |
Vanillic acid | C8H8O4 | 168.148 | 168.042 |
Oxalic acid | C2H2O4 | 90.034 | 89.995 |
gamma-Aminobutyric acid | C4H9NO2 | 103.121 | 103.121 |
Citrate | C6H5O7−3 | 189.099 | 189.004 |
Stearic acid | C18H36O2 | 284.484 | 284.272 |
Hexadecanoic acid | C16H32O2 | 257.422 | 257.244 |
Potassium Gluconate | C6H11KO7 | 234.245 | 234.014 |
Nicotinic acid | C6H5NO2 | 123.111 | 123.032 |
Phosphoric acid | H3PO4 | 97.994 | 97.977 |
Sodium Pyrophosphate | Na4P2O7 | 265.9 | 265.871 |
Acetamide | C2H5NO | 59.068 | 59.037 |
Decanedioic acid | C12H22O4 | 230.304 | 230.152 |
Indoleaceteic acid | C10H9NO2 | 175.187 | 175.063 |
1-Napthaleneacetic acid | C12H10O2 | 186.21 | 186.068 |
4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde | C7H6O2 | 122.123 | 122.037 |
2,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde | C7H6O3 | 138.122 | 138.032 |
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic | C7H6O4 | 154.121 | 154.027 |
List of metabolites identified from wild seagrasses.
Distribution of metabolic pathways of differential metabolites derived from wild
The presence of sulphated flavones was reported to be accumulated in
Jeyapragash et al. [53] investigated the systematic identification and characterization of metabolic changes in wild and SCC of
In addition, Jeyapragash et al. [79] reported the heat stress responsive metabolomics analysis of seagrass
Plants are considered as the factories of chemical compounds produced in order to carry out their biochemical pathways for survival and propagation [80]. All plants produce secondary metabolites which gained importance in pharmaceutical applications since ancient periods. The plant-based drug discovery gained importance with the development of anti-infectious and anti-cancer drugs which contributes to new bioactive molecules that are being isolated for the treatment of other diseases such as diabetes and obesity [81]. However, the important plant derived drugs are obtained commercially by the extraction from their respective plants. Currently, the natural plant habitats are vanishing due to environmental and geopolitical instabilities and so making it very difficult to procure important secondary metabolites and in the process many potential bioactive compounds have been left undiscovered. Plant cell culture is considered as a promising alternative approach for producing the bioactive compounds that are challenging to be obtained by chemical synthesis or plant extraction [82]. Plant cell culture studies have been carried out on the basis of the totipotent nature, in which the cell has the full set of genes necessary for secondary metabolisms [83]. The production of secondary metabolite via plant tissue culture have been commercialized sincelate 1950s, when atropine from the roots of
Distribution of metabolic pathways of differential metabolites derived from SCC of
Query | Match | HMDB | PubChem |
---|---|---|---|
Rosmarinic acid | C18H16O8 | 360.318 | 360.085 |
Caffeic acid | C9H8O4 | 180.159 | 180.042 |
p-Coumaric acid | C9H8O3 | 164.16 | 164.047 |
Protocatacheuic acid | C7H6O4 | 154.121 | 154.027 |
p-Anisic acid | C8H8O3 | 152.149 | 152.047 |
Vanillic acid | C8H8O4 | 168.148 | 168.042 |
Naringenin | C15H12O5 | 272.256 | 272.068 |
4-hydroxybenzoic acid | C7H6O3 | 138.122 | 138.032 |
Fructose-6-phosphate | C6H13O9P | 260.135 | 260.03 |
Glucose-6-phosphate | C6H13O9P | 260.135 | 260.03 |
Glucose | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Phosphoenol pyruvic acid | C3H5O6P | 168.041 | 167.982 |
Pyruvic acid | C3H4O3 | 88.062 | 88.016 |
Citric acid | C6H5O7−3 | 189.099 | 189.004 |
Fumaric acid | C4H4O4 | 116.072 | 116.011 |
3-PGA | C3H7O7P | 186.056 | 185.993 |
Ketoglutaric acid | C5H6O5 | 146.098 | 146.022 |
Malic acid | C4H6O5 | 134.087 | 134.022 |
Succinic acid | C4H6O4 | 118.088 | 118.027 |
Mannose | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Oxaloacetic acid | C4H4O5 | 132.071 | 132.071 |
Sucrose | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
D-Fructose | C6H12O6 | 180.156 | 180.063 |
Raffinose | C18H32O16 | 504.438 | 504.169 |
Trehalose | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
Turanose | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
Mannitol | C6H14O6 | 182.172 | 182.079 |
Inositol | C12H22O11 | 342.297 | 342.116 |
Xylitol | C5H12O5 | 152.146 | 152.146 |
Alanine | C3H7NO2 | 89.094 | 89.048 |
Aspargine | C4H8N2O3 | 132.119 | 132.053 |
Aspartic acid | C4H7NO4 | 133.103 | 133.038 |
Glutamic acid | C5H9NO4 | 147.13 | 147.053 |
Glycine | C2H5NO2 | 75.067 | 75.032 |
Proline | C5H9NO2 | 115.132 | 115.063 |
Serine | C3H7NO3 | 105.093 | 105.043 |
Threonine | C4H9NO3 | 119.12 | 119.058 |
Valine | C5H11NO2 | 117.148 | 117.079 |
2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid | C7H6O3 | 138.122 | 138.032 |
2-hydroxybutyric acid | C4H8O3 | 104.105 | 104.047 |
Gamma-aminobutyric acid | C4H9NO2 | 103.121 | 103.121 |
Dimethylamine | (CH3)2NH | 45.085 | 45.058 |
Ethanolamine | C2H7NO | 61.084 | 61.053 |
Thiamine | C12H17N4OS+ | 265.355 | 265.112 |
Nicotinic acid | C6H5NO2 | 123.111 | 123.032 |
Pyridoxine | C8H11NO3 | 169.18 | 169.074 |
Phenylanaline | C9H11NO2 | 165.192 | 165.079 |
Tryrosine | C9H11NO3 | 181.191 | 181.074 |
Shikimic acid | C7H10O5 | 174.152 | 174.053 |
Acotinic acid | C6H6O6 | 174.108 | 174.016 |
Xylonic acid | C5H10O6 | 166.129 | 166.048 |
Ascorbic acid | C6H8O6 | 176.124 | 176.032 |
Guanine-2′3’-cyclic monophosphate | C10H12N5O7P | 345.208 | 345.047 |
Pantothenate | C9H16NO5 | 218.229 | 218.103 |
Sphingosine | C18H37NO2 | 299.499 | 299.28 |
N-acetylglucosamine | C8H15NO6 | 221.209 | 221.09 |
Aspartyl leucine | C10H18N2O5 | 246.263 | 246.122 |
2-hydroxy glutaric acid | C5H8O5 | 148.114 | 148.037 |
Glyceric acid | C3H6O4 | 106.077 | 106.027 |
Chlorogenic acid | C16H18O9 | 354.311 | 354.095 |
Rhamnose | C6H12O5 | 164.157 | 164.068 |
Guanosine monophosphate | C10H15N5O11P2 | 443.202 | 443.024 |
Ribose | C5H10O5 | 150.13 | 150.053 |
Adenosine-2′3’-cyclic Monophosphate | C10H14N5O7P | 347.224 | 347.063 |
Dihydroquercetic acid | C15H12O7 | 304.254 | 304.058 |
Adenosine-2- Monophosphate | C10H14N5O7P | 347.224 | 347.063 |
p-hydroxybenzoic acid | C7H6O3 | 138.122 | 138.032 |
Quinic acid | C7H12O6 | 192.167 | 192.063 |
Tryptophan | C11H12N2O2 | 204.229 | 204.09 |
Pyroglutamic acid | C5H7NO3 | 129.115 | 129.043 |
Salicylic acid | C7H6O3 | 138.122 | 138.032 |
Methionine | C5H11NO2S | 149.208 | 149.051 |
Lactic acid | C3H6O3 | 90.078 | 90.032 |
Isovaleric acid | C5H10O2 | 102.133 | 102.068 |
2-oxyglutaric acid | C5H6O5 | 146.098 | 146.022 |
2-hydroxyisobutyric acid | C4H8O3 | 104.105 | 104.047 |
1-methylnicotinic acid | C7H8NO2+ | 138.146 | 138.056 |
Hypoxanthine | C5H4N4O | 136.114 | 136.039 |
Indole Acetic acid | C10H9NO2 | 175.187 | 175.063 |
Naptheline acetic acid | C12H10O2 | 186.21 | 186.068 |
List of metabolites identified from suspension cultured cells seagrasses.
Improved plant cell culture techniques made possible to increase the target metabolite production under
Elicitor induced comparative metabolomics of wild and cellular suspension of seagrass.
Plant also synthesizes the secondary metabolites to protect themselves in response to various environmental stresses. It might be physical, chemical or a biological factor which induces the higher secondary metabolism known as elicitors. The use of elicitors in cell suspension cultures has been developed to enhance the yield of secondary metabolites, wherein elicitation of target compounds can be induced by the addition of trace number of elicitors [101]. Biotic and abiotic elicitors are available which depends on the target compounds that need to be synthesized.
Ravn
To summarize, experiments in seagrass metabolomics to date helped us to validate a vast array of metabolites and their alterations in response to various stress mechanisms. This approach has previously enabled to recognize a large number of metabolites whose accumulation is affected upon the exposure of organisms under stress conditions. Nevertheless, despite the many advancements that have been achieved in this field, much work is still needed to identify the seagrass metabolites and their novel metabolic pathways connected to stress response and their tolerance mechanism and to interpret the extensive organization and interaction among gene to metabolite networks. This chapter provides knowledge on the systematic identification and metabolic characterization of seagrass metabolites using metabolomics approach. The bioactive potential of compounds derived from seagrasses paves a way to lead as potential inhibitors of many harmful pathogens in the pharmaceutical sectors and therefore, seagrass explored as newer marine source for the development of plant-based drugs. Further, in-vitro cultures of seagrass afford an alternate model for the up-regulation of enhanced bioactive compound synthesis. Moreover, various stress related metabolomics approach of wild seagrasses should be studied in order to derive diverse group of bioactive metabolites as much as possible, so as to fill the knowledge gap of seagrass metabolites and step forward towards the commercialization of bioactive natural products from seagrasses.
The authors would be grateful to University Grants Commission - Basic Scientific Research (UGC-BSR) for their funding and thankful to the Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University for their research facility. Our sincere gratitude to Department of Biotechnology, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education for their scientific interactions to complete the work.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
GC–MS | Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry |
LC–MS | Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry |
FT-ICR-MS | Fourier Transform- Ion Cyclotron Resonance-Mass Spectrometry |
SCC | suspension cultured cells |
NMR | Nuclear Magnetic Resonance |
4-MBA | 4-methoxy benzoic acid |
MIC | minimum inhibitory concentration |
KEGG | Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes |
IUCN | International Union for conservation of Nature |
CE-MS | Capillary Electrophoresis-Mass Spectrometry |
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
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\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
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\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. 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Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"42016",doi:"10.5772/55187",title:"Why are Early Life Stages of Aquatic Organisms more Sensitive to Toxicants than Adults?",slug:"why-are-early-life-stages-of-aquatic-organisms-more-sensitive-to-toxicants-than-adults-",totalDownloads:3477,totalCrossrefCites:35,totalDimensionsCites:99,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Azad Mohammed",authors:[{id:"147061",title:"Dr.",name:"Azad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"azad-mohammed",fullName:"Azad Mohammed"}]},{id:"42020",doi:"10.5772/54493",title:"Screening of Herbal Medicines for Potential Toxicities",slug:"screening-of-herbal-medicines-for-potential-toxicities",totalDownloads:7862,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:69,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Obidike Ifeoma and Salawu Oluwakanyinsola",authors:[{id:"142730",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoma",middleName:null,surname:"Ezenyi",slug:"ifeoma-ezenyi",fullName:"Ifeoma Ezenyi"}]},{id:"41968",doi:"10.5772/54463",title:"The Kidney Vero-E6 Cell Line: A Suitable Model to Study the Toxicity of Microcystins",slug:"the-kidney-vero-e6-cell-line-a-suitable-model-to-study-the-toxicity-of-microcystins",totalDownloads:3667,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Carina Menezes, Elisabete Valério and Elsa Dias",authors:[{id:"86640",title:"Dr",name:"Elsa",middleName:null,surname:"Dias",slug:"elsa-dias",fullName:"Elsa Dias"},{id:"160227",title:"MSc.",name:"Carina",middleName:null,surname:"Menezes",slug:"carina-menezes",fullName:"Carina Menezes"},{id:"160228",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabete",middleName:null,surname:"Valério",slug:"elisabete-valerio",fullName:"Elisabete Valério"}]},{id:"58235",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72539",title:"Role of Cytotoxicity Experiments in Pharmaceutical Development",slug:"role-of-cytotoxicity-experiments-in-pharmaceutical-development",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Through the twentieth century, the road from synthetizing a new drug molecule to become an actual product got longer than ever before. Cytotoxicity assays are a quick way to assess a certain chemical compound’s effects on a given human cell line. The most well-known techniques are the MTT- and the LDH-assays. These tests are cheap, easy to execute, but not very precise and dependent on various environmental factors and also, they show no detail about the time-dependency of the toxic effect. Cytotoxicity experiments are a crucial part of a modern pharmaceutical development process. They are a cheap and safe way to get vital information about a new molecule’s biological attributes focusing on its basic tolerability. These studies not only save human lives and test animals, but they save the time and resources to be spared on a test molecule which is a complete failure having no in vitro safety.",book:{id:"6380",slug:"cytotoxicity",title:"Cytotoxicity",fullTitle:"Cytotoxicity"},signatures:"Ildikó Bácskay, Dániel Nemes, Ferenc Fenyvesi, Judit Váradi, Gábor\nVasvári, Pálma Fehér, Miklós Vecsernyés and Zoltán Ujhelyi",authors:[{id:"215449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ildikó",middleName:null,surname:"Bácskay",slug:"ildiko-bacskay",fullName:"Ildikó Bácskay"},{id:"215453",title:"Dr.",name:"Dániel",middleName:null,surname:"Nemes",slug:"daniel-nemes",fullName:"Dániel Nemes"},{id:"215454",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltán",middleName:null,surname:"Ujhelyi",slug:"zoltan-ujhelyi",fullName:"Zoltán Ujhelyi"},{id:"215456",title:"Dr.",name:"Ferenc",middleName:null,surname:"Fenyvesi",slug:"ferenc-fenyvesi",fullName:"Ferenc Fenyvesi"},{id:"215457",title:"Dr.",name:"Judit",middleName:null,surname:"Váradi",slug:"judit-varadi",fullName:"Judit Váradi"},{id:"215458",title:"Dr.",name:"Gábor",middleName:null,surname:"Vasvári",slug:"gabor-vasvari",fullName:"Gábor Vasvári"},{id:"215459",title:"Dr.",name:"Pálma",middleName:null,surname:"Fehér",slug:"palma-feher",fullName:"Pálma Fehér"},{id:"215460",title:"Dr.",name:"Miklós",middleName:null,surname:"Vecsernyés",slug:"miklos-vecsernyes",fullName:"Miklós Vecsernyés"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10237,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:229,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"71742",title:"Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology",slug:"forensic-chemistry-and-toxicology",totalDownloads:800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The current chapter deals with forensic chemistry & toxicology which is completely based on the introduction and classification of poisons and their impacts on the body and the factors affecting them and detection and examination of poisons. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss their mode of action and function once they reached in the human body. The impacts of poisons are severe and even cause death if not treated properly.",book:{id:"7847",slug:"medical-toxicology",title:"Medical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Medical Toxicology"},signatures:"Amarnath Mishra",authors:[{id:"259941",title:"Dr.",name:"Amarnath",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"amarnath-mishra",fullName:"Amarnath Mishra"}]},{id:"71771",title:"The Clinical Importance of Herb-Drug Interactions and Toxicological Risks of Plants and Herbal Products",slug:"the-clinical-importance-of-herb-drug-interactions-and-toxicological-risks-of-plants-and-herbal-produ",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Approximately 70% of the world’s population has been using medicinal herbs as a complementary or alternative medicine that has grown tremendously in both developed and developing countries over the past 20 years (World Health Organization Drugs Strategy 2002–2005). This increase in consumer demand for medicinal plants continues, although scientific data are rare to create safety and efficacy profiles. Its popularity is also related to easy availability, cost-effectiveness leading to better purchasing power, and various factors that perceive that they are generally safe. Herbs are often administered simultaneously with therapeutic drugs for the treatment of major ailments, and herb-drug interactions (HDIs) increase their potential. The main routes proposed for HDIs include cytochrome P450 (CYP450)-mediated inhibition or induction and transport and flow proteins. In our review, we highlighted herbal medicines used for the treatment of various diseases with pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic analysis and case reports together with their adverse effects and herb-drug interactions. Therefore, this review can be used as a quick reference database for physicians and healthcare professionals involved in therapy, aiming to maximize clinical outcomes by reducing the negative and toxic effects of plants along with avoiding herb-drug interactions.",book:{id:"7847",slug:"medical-toxicology",title:"Medical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Medical Toxicology"},signatures:"Cigdem Kahraman, Zekiye Ceren Arituluk and Iffet Irem Tatli Cankaya",authors:[{id:"319337",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem Tatli",middleName:null,surname:"Cankaya",slug:"irem-tatli-cankaya",fullName:"Irem Tatli Cankaya"},{id:"319339",title:"Dr.",name:"Zekiye Ceren",middleName:null,surname:"Arituluk",slug:"zekiye-ceren-arituluk",fullName:"Zekiye Ceren Arituluk"},{id:"319340",title:"Dr.",name:"Cigdem",middleName:null,surname:"Kahraman",slug:"cigdem-kahraman",fullName:"Cigdem Kahraman"}]},{id:"65306",title:"Nephrotoxic Effects of Drugs",slug:"nephrotoxic-effects-of-drugs",totalDownloads:1612,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Drug-induced nephrotoxicity is a renal dysfunction that occurs as a result of exposure to nephrotoxic drugs. It is a common problem in certain clinical situations such as underlying renal dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and sepsis. Drugs can cause mild to moderate nephrotoxic problems such as intrarenal obstruction, interstitial nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, acid-base and fluid-electrolyte disturbances, alteration in intraglomerular hemodynamics, inflammatory changes in renal tubular cells, tubulointerstitial disease, and renal scarring leading to acute or chronic kidney injury. Therefore, early detection of adverse effects of drugs as well as the clinical history of the patient, basic renal functions, drug-related risk factors, and nephrotoxic drug combinations must be well known in order to prevent drug-induced nephrotoxicity and progression to end-stage renal disease.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Azade Sari",authors:[{id:"271267",title:"Dr.",name:"Azade",middleName:null,surname:"Sari",slug:"azade-sari",fullName:"Azade Sari"}]},{id:"42020",title:"Screening of Herbal Medicines for Potential Toxicities",slug:"screening-of-herbal-medicines-for-potential-toxicities",totalDownloads:7862,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:69,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Obidike Ifeoma and Salawu Oluwakanyinsola",authors:[{id:"142730",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoma",middleName:null,surname:"Ezenyi",slug:"ifeoma-ezenyi",fullName:"Ifeoma Ezenyi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:12}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:228,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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