\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
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Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Overview of a text-to-speech synthesis system’s main components.
At first sight this seems like a straightforward mapping of each character in the input text to its acoustic realisation. However, there are numerous technical issues which make natural speech synthesis an extremely complex problem, with some of the most important ones being indexed below:
The problems listed above have been solved, to some extent, in TTS systems by employing high-level machine learning algorithms, developing large expert resources or by limiting the applicability and use-case scenarios for the synthesised speech. In the following sections we describe each of the main components of a TTS system, with an emphasis on the acoustic modelling part which poses the greatest problems as of yet. We also index some of the freely available resources and tools which can aid a fast development of a synthesis system for commercial IVAs in a dedicated section of the chapter, and conclude with the discussion of some open problems in the final section.
Before diving into the text-to-speech synthesis components, it is important to define a basic set of terms related to digital speech processing. A complete overview of this domain is beyond the scope of this chapter, and we shall only refer to the terms used to describe the systems in the following sections.
Looking into the time domain, as a result of the articulator movement, the speech signal is not stationary, and its characteristics evolve through time. The smallest time interval in which the speech signal is considered to be
The
One other frequency-derived representation of the speech is the
Text processing or
The acoustic modelling or
Coming to the more recent developments, and based on the main method of generating the speech signal, speech synthesis systems can be classified into
The advantages of formant synthesis are related to the good intelligibility even at high speeds, and its very low computation and memory requirements, making it easy to deploy on limited resource devices. The major drawback of this type of synthesis is, of course, its low quality and robotic sound, and also the fact that for high-pitched outputs, the formant tracking mechanisms can fail to determine the correct values.
As the name entails, concantenative synthesis is a method of producing spoken content by concatenating pre-recorded speech samples. In its most basic form, a concatenative synthesis system contains recordings of all the words needed to be uttered, which are then combined in a very limited vocabulary scenario. For example, in a rudimentary IVA, it will combine the typed-in phone number of a customer by combining pre-recorded digits. Of course, in a large vocabulary, open-domain system, pre-recording all the words in a language is unfeasible. The solution to this problem is to find a smaller set of acoustic units which can be then combined into any spoken phrase. Based on the type of segment stored in the recorded database, the concatenative synthesis is either
A natural evolution of the fixed inventory synthesis is the variable length inventory, or unit selection [31, 32]. In unit selection, the recorded corpus includes segments as small as half-phones and go up to short common phrases. The speech database is either stored as-is, or as a set of parameters describing the exact acoustic waveform. The speech corpus, therefore, needs to be very accurately annotated with information regarding the exact phonetic content and boundaries, lexical stress, syllabification, lexical focus and prosodic trends or patterns (e.g. questions, exclamation, statements). The combination of the speech units into the output spoken phrase is done in an iterative manner, by selecting the best speech segments which minimise a global cost function [31] composed of: a
Although this type of synthesis is almost 30 years old, it is still present in many commercial applications. However, it poses some design problems, such as: the need for a very large manually segmented and annotated speech corpus; the control of prosody is hard to achieve if the corpus does not contain all the prosodic events needed to synthesise the desired output; changing the speaker identity requires the database recording and processing to be started from scratch; and there are quite a lot of concatenation artefacts present in the output speech making it unnatural, but which have, in some cases, been solved by using a hybrid approach [33].
Because concatenative synthesis is not very flexible in terms of prosody and speaker identity, in 1989 a first model of statistical-parametric synthesis based on Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) was introduced [34]. The model is parametric because it does not use individual stored speech samples, but rather parameterises the waveform. And it is statistical because it describes the extracted parameters using statistics averaged across the same phonetic identity in the training data [35]. However this first approach did not attract the attention of the specialists because of its highly unnatural output. But in 2005, the HMM-based Speech Synthesis System (HTS) [36] solved part of the initial problems, and the method became the main approach in the research community with most of its studies aiming at fast speaker adaptation [37] and expressivity [38]. In HTS, a 3 state HMM models the statistics of the acoustic parameters of the phones present in the training set. The phones are clustered based on their identity, but also on other contextual factors, such as the previous and next phone identity, the number of syllables in the current word, the part-of-speech of the current word, the number of words in the sentence, or the number of sentences in a phrase, etc. This context clustering is commonly performed with the help of decision trees and ensures that the statistics are extracted from a sufficient number of exemplars. At synthesis time, the text is converted in a context aware complex label and drives the selection of the HMM states and their transitions. The modelled parameters are generally derived from the source-filter model of speech production [1]. One of the most common vocoders used in HTS is STRAIGHT [39] and it parameterises the speech waveform into
There are several advantages for the statistical-parametric synthesis, such as: the small footprint necessary to store speech information; automatic clustering of speech information–removes the problems of hand-written rules; generalisation–even if for a certain phoneme context there is not enough training data, the phone will be clustered along with similar parameter characteristics; flexibility–the trained models can be easily adapted to other speakers or voice characteristics with minimum amount of adaptation data. However, the parameter averaging yields the so-called
In 1943, McCulloch and Pitts [42] introduced the first computational model for artificial neural networks (ANN). And although the incipient ANNs have been successfully applied in multiple research areas, including TTS [43], their learning power comes from the ability to stack multiple neural layers between the input and output. However, it was not until 2006 that the hardware and algorithmic solutions enabled adding multiple layers and making the learning process stable. In 2006, Geoffrey Hinton and his team published a series of scientific papers [44, 45] showing how a many-layered neural network could be effectively pre-trained one layer at a time. These remarkable results set the trend for all automatic machine learning algorithms in the following years, and are the bases of the
In text-to-speech synthesis, the progression from HMMs to DNNs was gradual. Some of the first impacting studies are those of Ling et al. [46] and Zen et al. [47]. Both papers substitute parts of the HMM-based architecture, yet model the audio on a frame-by-frame basis, maintaining the statistical-parametric approach, and also use the same contextual factors in the text processing part. The first open source tool to implement the DNN-based statistical-parametric synthesis is Merlin [48]. A comparison of the improvements achieved by the DNNs compared to HMMs is presented in [49]. However, these methods still rely on a time-aligned set of text features and their acoustic realisations, which requires a very good frame-level aligner systems, usually an HMM-based one. Also, the sequential nature of speech is only marginally modelled through the contextual factors and not within the model itself, while the text still needs to be processed with expert linguistic automated tools which are rarely available in non-mainstream languages.
An intermediate system which replaces all the components in a TTS pipeline with neural networks is that of [50], but it does not incorporate a single end-to-end network. The first study which removes the above dependencies, and models the speech synthesis process as a sequence-to-sequence recurrent network-based architecture is that of Wang et al. [51]. The architecture was able to
Starting with the publication of Tacotron, the DNN-based speech synthesis research and development area has seen an enormous interest from both the academia and the commercial sides. Most focus has been granted on generating extremely high quality speech, but also to the reduction of the computational requirements and generation speed–which in the DNN domain is called
Inspired by the success of the Transformer network [66] in text processing, TTS systems have adopted this architecture as well. Transformer based models include Transformer-TTS [67], FastSpeech [68], FastSpeech 2 [69], AlignTTS [70], JDI-T [71], MultiSpeech [72], or Reformer-TTS [73]. Transformer-based architectures improve the training time requirements, and are capable of modelling longer term dependencies present in the text and speech data.
As the naturalness of the output synthetic speech became very high-quality, researchers started to look into ways of easily controlling the different factors of the synthetic speech, such as duration or style. The go-to solution for this are the Variational AutoEncoders (VAEs) and their variations, which enable the disentanglement of the latent representations, and thus a better control of the inferred features [74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. There were also a few approaches including Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs), such as GAN-TTS [79] or [80], but due to the fact that GANs are known to pose great training problems, this direction was not that much explored in the context of TTS.
A common problem in all generative modelling irrespective of deep learning methodologies, is the fact that the true probability distribution of the training data is not directly learned or accessible. In 2015, Rezende et al. [81] introduced the normalising flows (NFs) concept. NFs estimate the true probability distribution of the data by deriving it from a simple distribution through a series of invertible transforms. The invertible transforms make it easy to project a measured data point into the latent space and find its likelihood, or to sample from the latent space and generate natural sounding output data. For TTS, NFs have just been introduced, yet there are already a number of high-quality systems and implementations available, such as: Flowtron [82], Glow-TTS [83], Flow-TTS [84], or Wave Tacotron [56]. From the generative perspective, this approach seems, at the moment, to be able to encompass all the desired goals of a speech synthesis system, but there are still a number of issues which need to be addressed, such as the inference time and latent space disentanglement and control.
All the above mentioned neural systems only solve the first part of the end-to-end problem, by taking the input text and converting it into a Mel spectrogram, or variations of it. For the spectrogram to be converted into an audio waveform, there is the separate component, called the vocoder. And there are also numerous studies on this topic dealing with the same trade-off issue of quality versus speed [85].
WaveNet [55] was one of the first neural networks designed to generate audio samples and achieved remarkably natural results. It is still the one vocoder to beat when designing new ones. However, its auto-regressive processes make it unfeasible for parallel inference, and several methods have been proposed to improve it, such as FFTNet [86] or Parallel WaveNet [87], but the quality is somewhat affected. Some other neural architectures used in vocoders are, of course, the recurrent networks used in WaveRNN [88] and LPCNet [89], or the adversarial architectures used in MelGAN [90], GELP [91], Parallel WaveGAN [92], VocGAN [93]. Following the trend of normalising flows-based acoustic modelling, flow-based vocoders have also been implemented. Some of the most remarkable being: FlowWaveNet [94], WaveGlow [95], WaveFlow [96], WG-WaveNet [97], EWG (Efficient WaveGlow) [98], MelGlow [99], or SqueezeWave [100].
In light of all these methods available for neural speech synthesis, it is again important to note the trade-offs between the quality of output speech, model sizes, training times, inference speed, computing power requirements and ease of control and adaptability. In the ideal scenario, a TTS system would be able to generate natural speech, at an order of magnitude faster than real-time processing speed, on a limited resource device. However, this goal has not yet been achieved by the current state-of-the-art, and any developer looking into TTS solutions should first determine the exact applicability scenario before implementing any of the above methods. It may be the case that, for example, in a limited vocabulary, non-interactive assistant, a simple formant synthesis system implemented on a dedicated hardware might be more reliable and adequate.
Some aspects which we did not take into account in the above enumeration are the multispeaker, multilingual TTS systems. However, in a commercial setup these are not directly required and can be substituted by independent high-quality systems integrated in a seamless way withing the IVA.
Deploying any research result into a commercial environment requires at least a baseline functional proof-of-concept from which to start optimising and adapting the system. It is the same in TTS systems, where especially the speech resources, text-processing tools, and system architectures can be at first tested and only then developed and migrated to the live solution. To aid this development, the following table indexes some of the most important resources and tools available for text to speech synthesis systems. This is by no means an exhaustive list, but rather a starting point. The official implementations pertaining to the published studies are marked as such. If no official implementation was found, we relied on our experience and prior work to link an open tool which comes as close as possible to the original publication.
Although there are no objective measures which can perfectly predict the perceived naturalness of the synthetic output [110, 111], we still need to measure a TTS system’s performance. The current approach to doing this is to use
In this chapter we aimed to provide a high-level indexing of the available methods to generate the voice of an IVA, and to provide the reader with a clear, informed starting point for developing his/her own text-to-speech synthesis system. In the recent years there has been an increasing interest in this domain, especially in the context of vocal chat bots and content access. So that it would be next to impossible to index all the publications and available tools and resources. Yet, we consider that the provided knowledge and minimal scientific description of the TTS domain is sufficient to trigger the interest and application of these methods in the reader’s commercial products. It should also be clear that there is still an important trade-off between the quality and the resource requirements of the synthetic voices, and that a very thorough analysis of the applications’ specifications and intended use should guide the developer into making the right choice of technology.
We should also point out that, although the recent advancements achieve close to human speech quality, there are still a number of issues that need to be addressed before we can easily say that the topic of speech synthesis has been thoroughly solved. One of these issues is that of
In terms of speaker identity, the fast adaptation, and also cross-lingual adaptation are of great interest to the TTS community at this point. Being able to copy a person’s speech characteristics using as little examples as possible is a daunting task, yet giant leaps have been taken with the NN-based learning. More so, transferring the identity of a person speaking in a language, to the identity of a synthesis system generating a different language is also open for solutions.
On the more far-fetched goals is that of
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Gobas",authors:[{id:"53467",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Alava",slug:"juan-jose-alava",fullName:"Juan Jose Alava"},{id:"156374",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Gobas",slug:"frank-gobas",fullName:"Frank Gobas"}]},{id:"80211",title:"Perspective Chapter: Status of Dolphin in the Maritime Area of Bangladesh",slug:"perspective-chapter-status-of-dolphin-in-the-maritime-area-of-bangladesh",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aquatic mammalian species is the best indicator for the health of water specially dolphins. Due to human anthropogenic activities, dolphin survival rate and movement are reduced. The dreadful conditions of coastal habitats can have major concerns for dolphin population and distribution. Some dolphins swim in a short distance and some swim in a long distance. Southeast Asia is a significant geographical region for dolphin conservation. Several dolphins are highly important for the maritime area of Bangladesh that were sighted in the coastal and marine water such as Irrawaddy dolphin, Indo-Pacific Humpback dolphin, Bottlenose dolphin, Spotted dolphin, Spinner dolphin, and Ganges dolphins. Marine protected area (MPA) is a valuable zone for dolphin conservation as well as biological species. This primary information of dolphins helps for further investigation in the Bangladeshi water. The research action plan must be considered with coastal habitat, marine protected area and fishing community to conserve dolphins. We should be concerned about dolphin conservation through local and international community to develop the environment and the blue economy. Local community directly involved in the maritime area due to livelihood opportunities.",book:{id:"11335",slug:null,title:"Marine Mammals",fullTitle:"Marine Mammals"},signatures:"Md. Muzammel Hossain",authors:null},{id:"40763",title:"When Whales Became Mammals: The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science",slug:"when-whales-became-mammals-the-scientific-journey-of-cetaceans-from-fish-to-mammals-in-the-history-o",totalDownloads:3495,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2363",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-study-of-marine-mammals",title:"New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals"},signatures:"Aldemaro Romero",authors:[{id:"139025",title:"Dr.",name:"Aldemaro",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",slug:"aldemaro-romero",fullName:"Aldemaro Romero"}]},{id:"40768",title:"Uruguayan Pinnipeds (Arctocephalus australis and Otaria flavescens): Evidence of Influenza Virus and Mycobacterium pinnipedii Infections",slug:"uruguayan-pinnipeds-arctocephalus-australis-and-otaria-flavescens-evidence-of-influenza-virus-and-my",totalDownloads:2748,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"2363",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-study-of-marine-mammals",title:"New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals"},signatures:"Juan Arbiza, Andrea Blanc, Miguel Castro-Ramos, Helena Katz, Alberto Ponce de León and Mario Clara",authors:[{id:"142157",title:"PhD.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Arbiza",slug:"juan-arbiza",fullName:"Juan Arbiza"},{id:"142185",title:"BSc.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce De Leon",slug:"alberto-ponce-de-leon",fullName:"Alberto Ponce De Leon"},{id:"142190",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Blanc",slug:"andrea-blanc",fullName:"Andrea Blanc"},{id:"142219",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Ramos",slug:"miguel-castro-ramos",fullName:"Miguel Castro-Ramos"},{id:"142221",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Katz",slug:"helena-katz",fullName:"Helena Katz"},{id:"142222",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Clara",slug:"mario-clara",fullName:"Mario Clara"}]},{id:"40764",title:"Host-Virus Specificity of the Morbillivirus Receptor, SLAM, in Marine Mammals: Risk Assessment of Infection Based on Three-Dimensional Models",slug:"host-virus-specificity-of-the-morbillivirus-receptor-slam-in-marine-mammals-risk-assessment-of-infec",totalDownloads:2577,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"2363",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-study-of-marine-mammals",title:"New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals"},signatures:"Kazue Ohishi, Rintaro Suzuki and Tadashi Maruyama",authors:[{id:"127528",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadashi",middleName:null,surname:"Maruyama",slug:"tadashi-maruyama",fullName:"Tadashi Maruyama"},{id:"139905",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazue",middleName:null,surname:"Ohishi",slug:"kazue-ohishi",fullName:"Kazue Ohishi"},{id:"141969",title:"Dr.",name:"Rintaro",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"rintaro-suzuki",fullName:"Rintaro Suzuki"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"301",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81844",title:"Typical Changes in Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Ratios and Mercury Concentration during the Lactation of Marine Mammals",slug:"typical-changes-in-carbon-and-nitrogen-stable-isotope-ratios-and-mercury-concentration-during-the-la",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103067",abstract:"The increase and decrease in the δ15N values of offspring owing to the suckling of δ15N-enriched milk (nursing) and the feeding shift from milk to solid food (weaning), respectively, are thought to be common traits observed in mammals. However, there are a few studies on lactation in marine mammals, especially large whales, because samples of calf, lactating mother, and milk are difficult to obtain. In this chapter, we review the studies on reproduction of marine mammals using δ13C and δ15N values analyzed in several tissues and describe the typical changes reported to date in those values and Hg concentrations in offspring and milk during lactation. Next, we present data on ontogenetic changes in δ15N and δ13C profiles and Hg concentration, especially focusing on the lactation period, in muscle samples of hunted bowhead whale, and stranded common minke whale (mysticetes), Dall’s porpoise (odontocete), and the harbor seal (phocid). Finally, we compare the δ15N and δ13C values in muscle samples of calves from common mink whale, Dall’s porpoise, and killer whale and suggest that these values could be excellent proxies for maternal forging habits and trophic levels.",book:{id:"11335",title:"Marine Mammals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg"},signatures:"Tetsuya Endo and Mari Kobayashi"},{id:"81209",title:"Phylogeny and Population Genetic Structure of Minke Whales Worldwide: A Review of Recent Studies",slug:"phylogeny-and-population-genetic-structure-of-minke-whales-worldwide-a-review-of-recent-studies",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102675",abstract:"In 1998, two species of minke whales were recognized based on the review of the morphological and genetic information available at that time: the Antarctic minke whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis), which is restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, and the cosmopolitan common minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata). Furthermore, three sub-species of the common minke whale were recognized: the North Atlantic (B. a. acutorostrata), North Pacific (B. a. scammoni) and Southern Hemisphere (B. a. subsp.). This chapter reviews the genetic studies on minke whales conducted after 1998. The review is organized by topic, e.g., those studies focused on phylogeny and other matters most relevant for taxonomy, and those focused on population genetic structure within oceanic basins most relevant for conservation and management. On the former topic, the new genetic information, whilst strongly supporting the minke whale taxonomic classification recognized in 1998, also reveals substantial genetic differentiation within the Southern Hemisphere common minke whales, with subsequent taxonomic implications. On the latter topic, results from different analytical procedures have provided information on population identification and structure in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic and western North Pacific, but they have failed to identify unequivocally any population within the North Atlantic common minke whales.",book:{id:"11335",title:"Marine Mammals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg"},signatures:"Luis A. Pastene, Mutsuo Goto, Mioko Taguchi and Yoshihiro Fujise"},{id:"81556",title:"Marine Mammals in Syria",slug:"marine-mammals-in-syria",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104475",abstract:"The Syrian marine water is one of the least studied areas for cetaceans in the Mediterranean Sea. Lack of basic knowledge, such as species composition and habitat, makes it impossible to develop effective conservation measures. The survey carried out along the Syrian coast by monitoring the stranding individuals on the shore since 2002 showed that there were 11 species of marine mammals living in/or visiting the Syrian marine waters at present of which 10 species belonging to the cetacean order and on belonging to pinnipeds order. The following species have been recorded: Pseudorca crassidens, Megaptera novaeangliae, Physeter macrocephalus, Tursiops truncatus, Stenella coeruleoalba, Delphinus delphis, Ziphius cavirostris, Grampus griseus, Balaenoptera physalus, Balaenoptera acutorostrata, and Manchus manchus. On the other hand, there are four species whose presence in the Syrian marine waters was mentioned a century ago by the researcher Gruvel and his team during three missions (1929–1931), but neither alive nor dead have been seen in this area during the surveys that were carried out since 1996 until the present, these species are: Phocoena phocoena, Globicephalus melas, Phocoena communis, Hyperoodon rostratus, Balaenoptera musculus. These observations reflect the vulnerability of marine mammals to anthropogenic activities, such as fishing operations, shipping, seismic activities, and climate change.",book:{id:"11335",title:"Marine Mammals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg"},signatures:"Adib Saad and Ilene Mahfoud"},{id:"81288",title:"How Do Whales See?",slug:"how-do-whales-see",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104564",abstract:"The eyes of two whales Balaenoptera physalus and Baleoptera borealis were studied by our group. In this chapter, we present the anatomical, histological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural studies of the eyes of both types of whales. Based on the results, we can conclude that at least in these two species, the whales are rod monochromat; their resolution is very limited due to the reduced number of retinal ganglion cells, some of which were giant size (more than 100 micrometers in diameter). The excellent representation of melanopsinic positive retinal ganglion cells suggests an adaptation to the dim light as well as involvement in the circadian rhythms. The large cavernous body located in the back of the eye may provide a mechanism that allows them to move the eye forward and backwords; this may facilitate focusing and provide protection from cold deep-sea temperatures.",book:{id:"11335",title:"Marine Mammals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg"},signatures:"Elena Vecino, Xandra Pereiro, Noelia Ruzafa and Sansar C. Sharma"},{id:"80632",title:"Applications of Omics Approaches to Decipher the Impact of Contaminants in Dolphins",slug:"applications-of-omics-approaches-to-decipher-the-impact-of-contaminants-in-dolphins",totalDownloads:45,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102424",abstract:"With the advent of omic technologies (genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic and lipidomic), it has been possible to identify global profiles of genes, proteins or metabolites in cells, tissues or organ systems at the same time. Key pathways can be identified associated with certain diseases, physiology processes or adverse effects in response to contaminants in marine organisms. This review focuses on underlining how the use of omics technology in dolphins has contributed to understanding its physiological responses and ambient stressors. They provide a basis for understanding dolphins’ physiology and a means for monitoring health conditions as well as furthering ecotoxicology studies.",book:{id:"11335",title:"Marine Mammals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg"},signatures:"Reyna Cristina Collí-Dulá and Ixchel Mariel Ruiz-Hernández"},{id:"80211",title:"Perspective Chapter: Status of Dolphin in the Maritime Area of Bangladesh",slug:"perspective-chapter-status-of-dolphin-in-the-maritime-area-of-bangladesh",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102022",abstract:"The aquatic mammalian species is the best indicator for the health of water specially dolphins. Due to human anthropogenic activities, dolphin survival rate and movement are reduced. The dreadful conditions of coastal habitats can have major concerns for dolphin population and distribution. Some dolphins swim in a short distance and some swim in a long distance. Southeast Asia is a significant geographical region for dolphin conservation. Several dolphins are highly important for the maritime area of Bangladesh that were sighted in the coastal and marine water such as Irrawaddy dolphin, Indo-Pacific Humpback dolphin, Bottlenose dolphin, Spotted dolphin, Spinner dolphin, and Ganges dolphins. Marine protected area (MPA) is a valuable zone for dolphin conservation as well as biological species. This primary information of dolphins helps for further investigation in the Bangladeshi water. The research action plan must be considered with coastal habitat, marine protected area and fishing community to conserve dolphins. We should be concerned about dolphin conservation through local and international community to develop the environment and the blue economy. 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