\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n
\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
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Elkamchouchi",authors:[null]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3649",title:"Robot Manipulators",subtitle:"New Achievements",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"robot-manipulators-new-achievements",bookSignature:"Aleksandar Lazinica and Hiroyuki Kawai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3649.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67123",title:"A High-Order Finite Volume Method for 3D Elastic Modelling on Unstructured Meshes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86400",slug:"a-high-order-finite-volume-method-for-3d-elastic-modelling-on-unstructured-meshes",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Wave propagation based on wave equations has important applications in geophysics. It is usually used as a powerful tool to detect the structures of reservoir. Thus solving wave equations efficiently and accurately is always an important research topic. There are several types of numerical methods to solve wave equations, for example, the finite difference (FD) method [1, 2], the pseudo-spectral (PS) method [3, 4], the finite element (FE) method [5, 6, 7, 8, 9], the spectral element (SE) method [10, 11, 12, 13, 14], the discontinuous Galerkin (DG) method [15, 16, 17, 18], and the finite volume (FV) method [19, 20, 21, 22]. Each numerical method has its own inherent advantages and disadvantages. For example, the FD method is efficient and relatively easy to implement, but the inherent restriction of using regular meshes limits its application to complex topography. The FE method has good adaptability to complex topography, but it has huge computational cost. In this chapter, the FV method is the key consideration.
\n
In order to simulate wave propagation on unstructured meshes efficiently, the FV method is a good choice due to its high computational efficiency and good adaptability to complex geometry. In this chapter an efficient FV method for 3D elastic wave simulation on unstructured meshes is developed. It incorporates some nice features from the DG and FV methods [15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23] and the spectral FV (SFV) method [24, 25, 26]. In our method, the computational domain is first meshed with relative coarse tetrahedral elements in 3D or triangle elements in 2D. Then, each element is further divided as a collection of finer subelements to form a stencil. The high-order polynomial reconstruction is performed on this stencil by using local cell-averaged values on the finer elements. The resulting reconstruction matrix on all coarse elements remains unchanged, and it can be pre-computed before time evolution. Moreover, the method can be written as an inner-split computational scheme. These two advantages of our method are very beneficial to enhancing the parallelization and reducing computational cost.
\n
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, the theory is described in detail. In Section 3, numerical results are given to illustrate the effectiveness of our method. Finally, the conclusion is given in Section 4.
\n
\n
\n
2. Theory
\n
\n
2.1 The governing equation
\n
The three-dimensional (3D) elastic wave equation with external sources in velocity-stress formulation can be written as the following system [1, 15]:
where \n\nu\n\n, \n\nv\n\n, and \n\nw\n\n are the wavefield of particle velocities in \n\nx\n\n, \n\ny\n\n, and \n\nz\n\n directions, respectively; \n\nλ\n\n and \n\nμ\n\n are the Lamé coefficients and \n\nρ\n\n is the density; \n\n\ng\ni\n\n\nx\ny\nz\nt\n\n\n are the known sources; \n\n\nσ\nxx\n\n\n, \n\n\nσ\nyy\n\n\n, and \n\n\nσ\nzz\n\n\n are the normal stress components while \n\n\nσ\nxy\n\n\n, \n\n\nσ\nxz\n\n\n, and \n\n\nσ\nyz\n\n\n are the shear stresses. For the convenient of discussion, we rewrite Eq. (1) as the following compact form:
where \n\ng\n=\n\n\n\ng\n1\n\n⋯\n\ng\n9\n\n\nT\n\n\n,\n\nu\n=\n\n\n\nσ\nxx\n\n\nσ\nyy\n\n\nσ\nzz\n\n\nσ\nxy\n\n\nσ\nyz\n\n\nσ\nxz\n\nu\nv\nw\n\nT\n\n\n, and the matrices \n\nA\n\n, \n\nB\n\n, and \n\nC\n\n are all \n\n9\n×\n9\n\n matrices and can be obtained obviously [27].
\n
The propagation velocities of the elastic waves are determined by the eigenvalues \n\n\ns\ni\n\n\n of matrices \n\nA\n\n, \n\nB\n\n, and \n\nC\n\n and are given by
In practical computations, the integrals in the FV scheme on physical tetrahedral element \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n are usually changed to be computed on its reference element. Figure 1 shows a physical tetrahedron \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n in the physical system, and \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n is transformed into a reference element \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n in the reference system \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n. Let \n\n\n\nx\ni\n\n\ny\ni\n\n\nz\ni\n\n\n\n for \n\ni\n=\n1,2,3,4\n\n be the coordinates of physical element \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n. The transformations between \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n system and \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system will be given in the final subsection of Section 2. For convenience, let \n\nx\n=\n\nx\ny\nz\n\n\n and \n\nξ\n=\n\nξ\nη\nζ\n\n\n. And denote the transformation from \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system to \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n system by
\n
Figure 1.
The physical element \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n (left) in the physical coordinate system \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n is transformed into a reference element \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n (right) in the reference coordinate system \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n.
\n
\n\nx\n=\nx\n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\nξ\n\n,\n\nE6
\n
and its corresponding inverse transformation by
\n
\n\nξ\n=\nξ\n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\nx\n\n.\n\nE7
\n
The detailed expressions of the transformations (6) and (7) will be given in Section 2.5.
\n
Inside each \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n the solutions of Eq. (2) are approximated numerically by using a linear combination of polynomial basis functions \n\n\nϕ\nl\n\n\nξ\nη\nζ\n\n\n and the time-dependent coefficients \n\n\n\nw\n̂\n\nl\n\nm\n\n\n\nt\n\n\n:
where \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n is the degree of freedom of a complete polynomial.
\n
In order to construct a high-order polynomial, we need to choose a stencil. Traditionally, the elements being adjacent to the element \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n are selected to form a stencil. In [20] three types of stencils, i.e., the central stencil, the primary sector stencil, and the reverse stencil, are investigated. These stencils usually choose \n\n2\nN\n\n neighbors for the 3D reconstruction. Here \n\nN\n\n is the degree of a complete polynomial. Due to geometrical issues, the reconstruction matrix resulting from these stencils may be not invertible. This may happen when all elements are aligned in a straight line [20]. In the following, we propose to partition \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n or in fact its corresponding reference element \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n into finer subelements to form a stencil. The subdivision algorithm guarantees the number of subelements is greater than the degrees of freedom of a complete polynomial. Moreover, this algorithm is easy to implement especially in 3D and for all elements whether they are internal or boundary elements.
\n
Let \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n be the number of subelements in \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n after subdividing. For a complete polynomial of degree \n\nN\n\n in 3D, a reconstruction requires at least \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n subelements, where
In our algorithm, we guarantee \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n is always greater than \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n. As shown in Figure 2, we divide each edge of the reference element \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n into \n\nM\n\n uniform segments. Thus we have \n\n\nN\ne\n\n≔\n\nM\n3\n\n\n tetrahedral subelements in \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n. Note that a small subcubic in \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n consists of six tetrahedrons. With the transformations of Eqs. (6) and (7), we denote all subelements in \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n for a fixed \n\nm\n\n by \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n for \n\nk\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nN\ne\n\n\n. In Table 1, the degree of a complete polynomial \n\nN\n\n and its corresponding degrees of freedom \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n are listed. Correspondingly, the number of \n\nM\n\n and \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n are also listed in Table 1. This algorithm for generating the stencil is easily implemented for all coarse tetrahedrons. Moreover, the reconstruction matrix resulting from this stencil is always invertible and remains unchanged for all elements \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n for \n\nm\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nN\nE\n\n\n. Note that the reconstruction matrix may be not invertible if all elements are aligned on a straight line [15]. However, this will not happen here for our algorithm.
\n
Figure 2.
The stencil obtained by subdividing the reference element \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n into \n\n\nM\n3\n\n=\n\n3\n3\n\n\n tetrahedral subelements, where \n\nM\n=\n3\n\n is the number of uniform segments on each edge of \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n. Note that a small subcubic (red) in \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n consists of six tetrahedrons.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n\n\nN\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
2
\n
3
\n
4
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\nN\np\n\n\n\n
\n
4
\n
10
\n
20
\n
35
\n
\n
\n
\n\n\nM\n\n\n
\n
2
\n
3
\n
3
\n
4
\n
\n
\n
\n\n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n\n
\n
8
\n
27
\n
27
\n
64
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The degree of a complete polynomial \n\nN\n\n and its corresponding degrees of freedom \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n are listed. Correspondingly, the number of uniform segments \n\nM\n\n on each edge and the number of subelements \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n are also listed.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 The high-order polynomial reconstruction
\n
The high-order polynomial is reconstructed in each element \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n or \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n. For the stencil designed above, we have
where \n\nk\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nN\ne\n\n\n is the index for subelements in \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n. The FV method will use the cell-averaged quantities, i.e.,
to reconstruct a high-order polynomial, where \n\n∣\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n∣\n\n represents the volume of the subelement \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n. The time variable \n\nt\n\n in \n\n\nu\n\nm\n\n\n\n is omitted for discussion convenience. The reconstruction requires integral conservation for \n\n\nu\n\nm\n\n\n\n in each subelement \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n, i.e.,
To solve the reconstruction problem, inspired by the DG method [15, 16, 17, 23, 28, 29], we use hierarchical orthogonal basis functions. The basis functions \n\n\nϕ\nl\n\n\nξ\nη\nζ\n\n\n of a complete polynomial of degree \n\nN\n\n (\n\nN\n=\n1,2,3,4\n\n) in the reference coordinate system can be found in [27]. We remark that the basis functions are orthonormal and satisfy the following property:
Transforming equation (12) in the physical coordinate system \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n into the reference coordinate system \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n and noticing Eq. (8), we obtain
where \n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\nm\n\n\n\n is in fact the reference element \n\n\nT\nE\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n is the transformed element corresponding to the subelement \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n.
\n
The integration in Eq. (14) over \n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n in \n\nξ\n\n system can be computed efficiently if it is performed over its reference element in a second reference system \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n\n. Denote the transformation from \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n\n to \n\nξ\n\n and its inverse by \n\nξ\n=\nξ\n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n=\n\nξ\n˜\n\n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\nξ\n\n\n, respectively. Transforming Eq. (14) into \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n\n system and rewriting the result as a compact form, we have
\n
\n\nG\n\nw\n̂\n\n=\n\nu\n¯\n\n,\n\nE15
\n
where \n\nG\n\n is the \n\n\nN\ne\n\n×\n\nN\np\n\n\n matrix with entries \n\n\nG\nkl\n\n\n given by
We need at least \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n subelements in the stencil since the reconstructed number of degrees of freedom is \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n. As listed in Table 1, \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n subelements are used to form the stencil. Note that \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n is definitely larger than \n\n\nN\np\n\n\n, which is helpful to improve the reconstruction robustness [20, 21]. Thus Eq. (15) is an overdetermined problem. We use the constrained least squared technique to solve it.
\n
From the orthogonality of basis functions and the property of Eq. (13), we remark that Eq. (15) is subject to the following constraint condition [27]:
The coefficient matrix on the left-hand side of Eq. (19) is the so-called reconstruction matrix [19, 20].
\n
\n
\n
2.4 The spatial discrete formulation
\n
We now derive the semi-discrete finite volume scheme based on Eqs. (2) and (8). Integrating over each subelement \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n on both sides of Eq. (2), we have
where \n\ndS\n\n denotes the infinitesimal element in the face integral and \n\n\nF\nh\n\n\n is the numerical flux, and we adopt the widely used Godunov flux [15, 19, 20, 23]
where \n\n\nm\nj\n\n\n is the index number of coarse tetrahedral element neighboring subelement \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n. The notation \n\n∣\n\nA\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n∣\n\n denotes applying the absolute value operator of the eigenvalues given in Eq. (3), i.e.,
where \n\n\n\nn\nx\n\n\nn\ny\n\n\nn\nz\n\n\n\n is the normal vector of the face and \n\n\n\ns\nx\n\n\ns\ny\n\n\ns\nz\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nt\nx\n\n\nt\ny\n\n\nt\nz\n\n\n\n are the two tangential vectors. \n\n\nT\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n denotes the inverse of \n\nT\n\n.
\n
Inserting Eqs. (23) into (22) and rewriting the result into a splitting form of easy computation in the reference system \n\nξ\n\n, we have
where \n\n\nS\nj\n\n\n is the area of the \n\nj\n\n-th \n\n\n\nj\n=\n1,2,3,4\n\n\n\n face of subelement \n\n\nT\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n. \n\n\nF\nl\n\n−\n,\nj\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nF\nl\n\n+\n,\ni\n,\np\n\n\n\n are the left flux matrix and the right state flux matrix, respectively, which are given by
where \n\nχ\n\n and \n\nτ\n\n are the face parameters. The transformation of the face parameters \n\nχ\n\n and \n\nτ\n\n to the face parameters \n\n\nχ\n˜\n\n\n and \n\n\nτ\n˜\n\n\n in the neighbor tetrahedron depends on the orientation of the neighbor face with respect to the local face of the considered tetrahedron. And the mapping is given in Table 2. For a given tetrahedral mesh with the known indices \n\ni\n\n and \n\np\n\n, there are only 4 of 12 possible matrices \n\n\nF\n\n+\n,\ni\n,\np\n\n\n\n per element [15, 20]. Comparing with the traditional FV method, the method with the splitting form described above has much less computations of face integrations. Note that only our proposed FV method can be written as a splitting form. Theoretical analysis shows our method can save about half computational time under the condition of the same number of elements [27].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n\n\np\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
2
\n
3
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\nχ\n˜\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nτ\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n1\n−\nχ\n−\nτ\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nχ\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n\n\nτ\n˜\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nχ\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nτ\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n1\n−\nχ\n−\nτ\n\n\n
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Transformation of the face parameters \n\nχ\n\n and \n\nτ\n\n to the face parameters \n\n\nχ\n˜\n\n\n and \n\n\nτ\n˜\n\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
2.5 The time discretization
\n
Equation (27) is in fact a semi-discrete ordinary differential equation (ODE) system. In order to solve it formally, we denote the spatial semi-discrete part in Eq. (27) by a linear operator \n\nL\n\n. Then Eq. (27) can be written as a concise ODE form:
\n
\n\n\n\nd\nu\n\ndt\n\n=\nL\n\nu\nt\n\n.\n\nE32
\n
Traditionally, the classic fourth-order explicit RK (ERK) method
can be applied to advance \n\nu\n\n from \n\n\nu\nn\n\n\n to \n\n\nu\n\nn\n+\n1\n\n\n\n. Here \n\nΔ\nt\n\n is the time step. Now we use the low-storage version of ERK (LSERK) to solve Eq. (32):
As we can see the LSERK only requires one additional storage level, while ERK has four. The coefficients required in Eq. (34) are listed in Table 3 [30].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n\n\ni\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\na\ni\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\nb\ni\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\nc\ni\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
0
\n
0.1496590219992291
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
−0.4178904744998519
\n
0.3792103129996273
\n
0.1496590219992291
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
−1.1921516946426769
\n
0.8229550293869817
\n
0.3704009573642048
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
−1.6977846924715279
\n
0.6994504559491221
\n
0.6222557631344432
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
−1.5141834442571558
\n
0.1530572479681520
\n
0.9582821306746903
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Coefficients for the low-storage five-stage fourth-order ERK method.
\n
As to the stability condition, it is controlled by the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy (CFL) condition [15, 19];
where \n\n\nv\np\n\n\n is the \n\nP\n\n wave velocity and \n\n\nh\nmin\n\n\n is the minimum diameter of the circumcircles of tetrahedral elements. This condition is a necessary condition for discrete stability, and a bit more restrictive form is actually used in numerical computations.
\n
The absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs) in computations are required as the computational domain is finite. There are two typical ABCs to be adopted here. One is flux type ABCs [16, 19]. That is to say, the following numerical flux in Eq. (23) at all tetrahedral faces that coincide with domain boundary
which allows only for outgoing waves and is equivalent to the first order ABCs. Though the absorbing effects of this method vary the angles of incidence, it is still effective in many cases [19]. The advantage of this type ABCs is that it merged into the FVM framework naturally and there is almost no additional computational cost. Another type is the perfectly matched layer (PML) technique originally developed by [31], which is very popular in recent more 10 years.
\n
\n
\n
2.6 Coordinate transformation
\n
The transformation between different coordinate systems is frequently used. For ease of reading, we present the formulations here. Let \n\n\n\nx\ni\n\n\ny\ni\n\n\nz\ni\n\n\n\n for \n\ni\n=\n1,2,3,4\n\n be the coordinates of a physical element. The transformation from \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system to \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n system is defined by
then the transformation from \n\nx\n−\ny\n−\nz\n\n system to \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system can be solved for \n\nξ\n,\nη\n\n and \n\nζ\n\n from Eq. (37) by the Cramer ruler, i.e.,
Note that \n\nJ\n\n is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of the transformation being equal to six times the volume of the tetrahedron element \n\n\nT\n\nm\n\n\n\n.
\n
The coordinate transformation from the second reference coordinate \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n−\n\nη\n˜\n\n−\n\nζ\n˜\n\n\n to \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system is defined by
then the transform from \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system to \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n−\n\nη\n˜\n\n−\n\nζ\n˜\n\n\n system can be solved for \n\n\nξ\n˜\n\n−\n\nη\n˜\n\n−\n\nζ\n˜\n\n\n from Eq. (41) by Cramer ruler similarly. Denote
which is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of the transformation being equal to six times the volume of the subelement \n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n for \n\nk\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nN\ne\n\n\n. In Eqs. (41) and (42), \n\n\n\nξ\ni\n\n\nη\ni\n\n\nζ\ni\n\n\n\n for \n\ni\n=\n1,2,3,4\n\n, denote the vertex coordinates of \n\n\n\nT\n˜\n\n\n\nm\n\nk\n\n\n\n\n\n in \n\nξ\n−\nη\n−\nζ\n\n system.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Numerical computations
\n
In this section we give three numerical examples to illustrate the performance of the developed method above. The convergence test of the proposed method can be found in [27]. Though the method is developed for the 3D case, it can be simplified to 2D without essential difficulty. The principle is the same. The first example is a test for a 2D model with uneven topography. The other two examples are for two 3D models.
\n
Example 1. The first example is a two-layered model with the inclined interface shown in Figure 3a. The range of the model is \n\nx\n∈\n\n\n−\n1.6\nkm\n\n\n1.6\nkm\n\n\n\n and \n\nz\n∈\n\n\n−\n1.6\nkm\n,1.8\nkm\n\n\n\n. The surface of the model is uneven to imitate the real topography. The \n\n\nv\np\n\n\n and \n\n\nv\ns\n\n\n velocities are \n\n3000\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n and \n\n2000\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n in the upper layer and \n\n2400\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n and \n\n1600\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n in the lower layer, respectively. The densities \n\nρ\n\n are \n\n2200\n\nkg\n/\n\nm\n3\n\n\n and \n\n1800\n\nkg\n/\n\nm\n3\n\n\n in the upper and lower layer, respectively. Figure 3b is the coarser triangular meshes for this model. A coarser version of the mesh is shown here as the finest mesh in computations cannot be seen clearly. The triangular meshes can fit the curve topography very well. Note that none triangular element crosses the interface. In computations the \n\n\nP\n4\n\n\n polynomial reconstruction is applied. The computational domain is meshed by 113472 coarse elements. Each coarse element is subdivided into 25 subelements further. So there are 2,836,800 fine elements totally. The time step is \n\nΔ\nt\n=\n5\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n5\n\n\n\ns\n\n. The source is located at \n\n\nx\nz\n\n=\n\n\n0,0.2\nkm\n\n\n\n with time history
\n
Figure 3.
A two-layered model with curved surface topography (a) and the triangular meshes (b).
where \n\n\nf\n0\n\n=\n20\n\nHz\n\n is the main frequency. In order to simulate point source excitation, a spatial local distribution function defined by
is applied, where \n\n\nx\n0\n\n=\n\n\nx\n0\n\n\ny\n0\n\n\nz\n0\n\n\n\n are positions of the source center. The source is added to the \n\nu\n\n component; that is to say, all source terms except \n\n\ng\n7\n\n\n in Eq. (1) are all zero. Figure 4 is the snapshots of \n\nu\n\n and \n\nv\n\n components at propagation time \n\n0.25\n\ns\n\n. Figure 5 is the snapshots of \n\nu\n\n and \n\nv\n\n components at propagation time \n\n0.30\n\ns\n\n. We can see the \n\nP\n\n wave and \n\nS\n\n wave propagate toward out of the model. The reflected and transmitted waves due to the tilted physical interface are also very clear. These are the expected physical phenomena of wave propagation in elastic media.
\n
Figure 4.
Snapshots of \n\nu\n\n component (a) and \n\nv\n\n component (b) at propagation time \n\n0.25\ns\n\n.
\n
Figure 5.
Snapshots of \n\nu\n\n component (a) and \n\nv\n\n component (b) at propagation time \n\n0.30\ns\n\n.
\n
Example 2. The second example is a cuboid model. The physical size of the model is \n\n\nx\ny\nz\n\n∈\n\n\n0,2\nkm\n\n\n×\n\n\n0,2\nkm\n\n\n×\n\n\n0,1\nkm\n\n\n\n. The model and its unstructured tetrahedral meshes are shown in Figure 6. There are totally 836,612 coarse tetrahedrons to mesh the model. A coarser mesh is shown as the actual mesh in computations is too fine to see clearly. Each coarse tetrahedron is subdivided into \n\n\nN\ne\n\n=\n27\n\n subelements as we adopt \n\n\nP\n3\n\n\n polynomial reconstruction. The parameters for \n\nλ\n\n, \n\nμ\n\n, and \n\nρ\n\n are \n\n\n10\n9\n\n\nPa\n\n, \n\n\n10\n9\n\n\nPa\n\n, and \n\n1000\n\nkg\n/\n\nm\n3\n\n\n. The time step in computations is \n\n\n10\n\n−\n4\n\n\n\ns\n\n. The source is located in the center of the model with time history given by
\n
Figure 6.
A cubic model and its unstructured tetrahedral meshes.
It is applied to the \n\nu\n\n component. The 3D snapshots of \n\nu\n\n, \n\nv\n\n, and \n\nw\n\n components at propagation time \n\n0.42\n\ns\n\n are shown in Figure 7. From these figures, we can clearly see two types of waves, i.e., the compressive wave and the shear wave. The splitting PML in nonconvolutional form is adopted here [32], and the boundary reflections are absorbed obviously and effectively. The message passing interface (MPI) parallelization based on spatial domain decomposition is applied. The CPU time for extrapolation 1000 time steps is about \n\n33\n,\n310\n\ns\n\n with 128 processors each with 2.6 GHz main frequency.
\n
Figure 7.
The 3D snapshots of \n\nu\n\n component (a), \n\nv\n\n component (b), and \n\nw\n\n component (c) at propagation time \n\n0.42\n\ns\n\n in a cuboid model. The source is located in the center of the model.
\n
Example 3. The third example is a real geological model in China. As shown in Figure 8a, it has a very complex topography. The physical scope of the model is \n\nx\n∈\n\n\n0,2.0\nkm\n\n\n\n, \n\ny\n∈\n\n\n0,3.5\nkm\n\n\n\n, and \n\nz\n∈\n\n\n0,1.1\nkm\n\n\n\n. The corresponding 3D mesh is shown in Figure 8b. A coarser version of the mesh is given as the actual mesh in computations is too fine to see clearly in the figure. The model is meshed with 210,701 relative coarse tetrahedral elements. Each coarse tetrahedron is subdivided into \n\n\nN\ne\n\n=\n64\n\n subelements as we adopt \n\n\nP\n4\n\n\n polynomial reconstruction, and thus there are 13,484,864 fine elements totally. The time step \n\nΔ\nt\n\n is \n\n\n10\n\n−\n4\n\n\n\ns\n\n. The source is situated at \n\n\n\nx\n0\n\n\ny\n0\n\n\nz\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n750\nm\n\n\n1300\nm\n\n\n300\nm\n\n\n\n with the same time history in Eq. (45). The media velocities of \n\n\nv\np\n\n\n and \n\n\nv\ns\n\n\n are \n\n\nv\np\n\n=\n3000\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n and \n\n\nv\ns\n\n=\n2000\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n. The MPI parallelization based on spatial domain decomposition is applied. The nonconvolutional splitting PML [32] is adopted. The 3D snapshots of \n\nu\n\n, \n\nv\n\n, and \n\nw\n\n components at propagation time \n\n0.80\n\ns\n\n are shown in Figure 9. The CPU time for extrapolation 10,000 time steps is \n\n100\n,\n449\n\ns\n\n with 256 processors each with 2.6 GHz main frequency. From Figure 9, we can see clearly the propagation of \n\nP\n\n wave and \n\nS\n\n wave.
\n
Figure 8.
A real 3D model with complex topography. (a) model and (b) unstructured tetrahedral meshes.
\n
Figure 9.
3D snapshots of \n\nu\n\n, \n\nv\n\n, and \n\nw\n\n components at propagation time \n\n0.80\n\ns\n\n in a real 3D model. The results are obtained by the method in this chapter with \n\n\nP\n4\n\n\n reconstruction. (a) u component, (b) v component, (c) w component.
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
A new efficient high-order finite volume method for the 3D elastic wave simulation on unstructured meshes has been developed. It combines the advantages of the DG method and the traditional FV method. It adapts irregular topography very well. The reconstruction stencil is generated by refining each coarse tetrahedron which can be implemented effectively for all tetrahedrons whether they are internal or boundary elements. The hierarchical orthogonal basis functions are exploited to perform the high-order polynomial reconstruction on the stencil. The resulting reconstruction matrix remains unchanged for all tetrahedrons and can be pre-computed and stored before time evolution. The method preserves a very local property like the DG method, while it has high computational efficiency like the FV method. These advantages facilitate 3D large-scale parallel computations. Numerical computations including a 3D real physical model show its good performance. The method also can be expected to solve other linear hyperbolic equations without essential difficulty.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
I appreciate Dr. Y. Zhuang, Prof. Chung, and Dr. L. Zhang very much for their important help and cooperation. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under the grant number 11471328 and 51739007. It is also partially supported by the National Center for Mathematics and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
\n
\n',keywords:"numerical solutions, computational seismology, 3D elastic wave, wave propagation, high-order finite volume method, unstructured meshes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67123.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67123.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67123",totalDownloads:758,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 22nd 2019",dateReviewed:"April 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 17th 2019",datePublished:"November 20th 2019",dateFinished:"May 14th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, a new efficient high-order finite volume method for 3D elastic modelling on unstructured meshes is developed. The stencil for the high-order polynomial reconstruction is generated by subdividing the relative coarse tetrahedrons. The reconstruction on the stencil is performed by using cell-averaged quantities represented by the hierarchical orthonormal basis functions. Unlike the traditional high-order finite volume method, the new method has a very local property like the discontinuous Galerkin method. Furthermore, it can be written as an inner-split computational scheme which is beneficial to reducing computational amount. The reconstruction matrix is invertible and remains unchanged for all tetrahedrons, and thus it can be pre-computed and stored before time evolution. These special advantages facilitate the parallelization and high-order computations. The high-order accuracy in time is obtained by the Runge-Kutta method. Numerical computations including a 3D real model with complex topography demonstrate the effectiveness and good adaptability to complex topography.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67123",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67123",signatures:"Wensheng Zhang",book:{id:"8257",type:"book",title:"Seismic Waves",subtitle:"Probing Earth System",fullTitle:"Seismic Waves - Probing Earth System",slug:"seismic-waves-probing-earth-system",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao and Genti Toyokuni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8257.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-328-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-327-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-759-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The governing equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 The generation of a stencil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 The high-order polynomial reconstruction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 The spatial discrete formulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 The time discretization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Coordinate transformation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Numerical computations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Minkoff SE. Spatial parallelism of a 3D finite difference velocity-stress elastic wave propagation code. SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing. 2002;24:1-19. DOI: 10.1137/S1064827501390960'},{id:"B2",body:'Virieux J. P-SV wave propagation in heterogeneous media: Velocity-stress finite-difference method. Geophysics. 1986;51:889-901. DOI: 10.1190/1.1442147'},{id:"B3",body:'Klin P, Priolo E, Seriani G. Numerical simulation of seismic wave propagation in realistic 3-D geo-models with a Fourier pseudo spectral method. Geophysical Journal International. 2010;183:905-922. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04763.x'},{id:"B4",body:'Zhang W. Stability conditions for wave simulation in 3-D anisotropic media with the pseudospectral method. Communications in Computational Physics. 2012;12:703-720. DOI: 10.4208/cicp.120610.090911a'},{id:"B5",body:'Bécache E, Joly P, Tsogka C. A new family of mixed finite elements for the linear elastodynamic problem. SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis. 2002;39:2109-2132. DOI: 10.2307/4101053'},{id:"B6",body:'Cohen G, Joly P, Roberts JE, Tordjman N. Higher order triangular finite elements with mass lumping for the wave equations. SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis. 2001;38:2047-2078. DOI: 10.1137/s0036142997329554'},{id:"B7",body:'Cohen G, Fauqueux S. Mixed finite elements with mass-lumping for the transient wave equation. Journal of Computational Acoustics. 2000;8:171-188. DOI: 10.1142/s0218396x0000011x'},{id:"B8",body:'Cohen G, Fauqueux S. Mixed spectral finite elements for the linear elasticity system in unbounded domains. SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing. 2005;26:864-884. DOI: 10.1137/S1064827502407457'},{id:"B9",body:'Zhang W, Chung E, Wang C. Stability for imposing absorbing boundary conditions in the finite element simulation of acoustic wave propagation. Journal of Computational Mathematics. 2014;32:1-20. DOI: 10.4208/jcm.1310-m3942'},{id:"B10",body:'Dubiner M. Spectral methods on triangles and other domains. Journal of Scientific Computing. 1991;6:345-390. DOI: 10.1007/BF01060030'},{id:"B11",body:'Komatitsch D, Tromp J. Introduction to the spectral element method for three-dimensional seismic wave propagation. Geophysical Journal International. 1999;139:806-822. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-246x.1999.00967.x'},{id:"B12",body:'Komatitsch D, Martin R, Tromp J, Taylor MA, Wingate BA. Wave propagation in 2-D elastic media using a spectral element method with triangles and quadrangles. Journal of Computational Acoustics. 2001;9:703-718. DOI: 10.1142/S0218396X01000796'},{id:"B13",body:'Komatitsch D, Tromp J. Spectral-element simulations of global seismic wave propagation—I. Validation. Geophysical Journal International. 2002;149:390-412. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-246X.2002.01653.x'},{id:"B14",body:'Seriani G. 3-D large-scale wave propagation modeling by spectral-element method on Cray T3E multiprocessor. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 1998;164:235-247. DOI: 10.1016/S0045-7825(98)00057-7'},{id:"B15",body:'Dumbser M, Käser M. An arbitrary high-order discontinuous Galerkin method for elastic waves on unstructured meshes-II: The three-dimensional isotropic case. Geophysical Journal International. 2006;167:319-336. 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An arbitrary high-order discontinuous Galerkin method for elastic waves on unstructured meshes—V: Local time stepping and p-adaptivity. Geophysical Journal International. 2007;171:695-717. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03427.x'},{id:"B24",body:'Liu Y, Vinokur M, Wang ZJ. Spectral (finite) volume method for conservation laws on unstructured grids. V: Extension to three-dimensional systems. Journal of Computational Physics. 2006;212:454-472. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcp.2003.09.012'},{id:"B25",body:'Wang ZJ. Spectral (finite) volume method for conservation laws on unstructured grids: Basic formulation. Journal of Computational Physics. 2002;178:210-251. DOI: 10.1006/jcph.2002.7041'},{id:"B26",body:'Wang ZJ, Liu Y. Spectral (finite) volume method for conservation laws on unstructured grids. II: Extension to two-dimensional scalar equation. Journal of Computational Physics. 2002;179:665-697. DOI: 10.1006/jcph.2002.7082'},{id:"B27",body:'Zhang W, Zhuang Y, Zhang L. A new high-order finite volume method for 3D elastic wave simulation on unstructured meshes. Journal of Computational Physics. 2017;340:534-555. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcp.2017.03.050'},{id:"B28",body:'Puente J, Käser M, Dumbser M, Igel H. An arbitrary high-order discontinuous Galerkin method for elastic waves on unstructured meshes-IV: Anisotropy. Geophysical Journal International. 2007;169:1210-1228. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03381.x'},{id:"B29",body:'Puente J, Dumbser M, Käser M, Igel H. Discontinuous Galerkin method for propagation in poroelastic media. Geophysics. 2008;73:T77-T97. DOI: 10.1190/1.2965027'},{id:"B30",body:'Hesthaven JS, Warburton T. Nodal Discontinuous Galerkin Methods. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2008. 502 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-72067-8'},{id:"B31",body:'Bérenger JP. A perfectly matched layer for the absorption of electromagnetic waves. Journal of Computational Physics. 1994;114:185-200. DOI: 10.1006/jcph.1996.0181'},{id:"B32",body:'Collino F, Tsogka C. Application of the perfectly matched absorbing layer model to the linear elastodynamic problem in anisotropic heterogeneous media. Geophysics. 2001;66:294-307. DOI: 10.1190/1.1444908'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Wensheng Zhang",address:"zws@lsec.cc.ac.cn",affiliation:'
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14525,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7520,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"58270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3447,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"26489",doi:"10.5772/28224",title:"Alternative and Traditional Medicines Systems in Pakistan: History, Regulation, Trends, Usefulness, Challenges, Prospects and Limitations",slug:"alternative-and-traditional-medicines-systems-in-pakistan-history-regulation-trends-usefulness-chall",totalDownloads:9226,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Shahzad Hussain, Farnaz Malik, Nadeem Khalid, Muhammad Abdul Qayyum and Humayun Riaz",authors:[{id:"73162",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"shahzad-hussain",fullName:"Shahzad Hussain"},{id:"82266",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"farnaz-malik",fullName:"Farnaz Malik"},{id:"124185",title:"Dr.",name:"Humayun",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"humayun-riaz",fullName:"Humayun Riaz"},{id:"124186",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qayyum",slug:"muhammad-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"125340",title:"Mr.",name:"Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"nadeem-khalid",fullName:"Nadeem Khalid"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14512,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:9021,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"77433",title:"Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and Herbs",slug:"extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-from-medicinal-plants-and-herbs",totalDownloads:1428,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",book:{id:"10356",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno"},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha"},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali"}]},{id:"26491",title:"Homeopathy: Treatment of Cancer with the Banerji Protocols",slug:"homeopathy-treatment-of-cancer-with-the-banerji-protocols",totalDownloads:54241,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Prasanta Banerji and Pratip Banerji",authors:[{id:"79939",title:"Dr",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"prasanta-banerji",fullName:"Prasanta Banerji"},{id:"79943",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratip",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"pratip-banerji",fullName:"Pratip Banerji"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7515,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"991",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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