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1. Introduction
Current medicine is based in an important way on two wrong assumptions: (1) The oxygen present inside the body comes from the atmosphere because theoretically it can cross the thin alveolar membrane and reach the bloodstream, which distributes it to all the cells of the body [1]. (2) Oxygen from the atmosphere is used by cells to produce energy, by combining it with glucose or its intermediate metabolites, something like graduated combustion [2].
However, the passage from atmospheric oxygen to the blood circulation through the pulmonary alveoli has not been demonstrated so far in addition to going against the behavior of gases. Therefore, the first error gives rise to a second mistake: the combination of oxygen with glucose to produce energy.
Both concepts are entirely theoretical, and concepts so far-fetched and tangled that it is not possible to contrast them experimentally. Thereby, we do not have definitive and complete answers to important questions behind the simple picture that in mammals, oxygen is extracted from the atmospheric air in the lungs and carried by the bloodstream through the circulation to the tissue, where it is utilized mainly within the mitochondria [3].
The brain is an organ whose normal function depends critically on an uninterrupted delivery of oxygen. Unlike skeletal muscle that can survive for hours without oxygen, brain cells show irreversible damage within minutes from the onset of oxygen deficiency. Thus, theoretical studies (they cannot be otherwise) have special importance for understanding how oxygen is distributed in different structures of the brain under normal and hypoxic conditions [4].
Theoretical work on oxygen transport in the brain began with applications of the Krogh Equation [5] and the extension of the Krogh model to hexagonal space-filling tissue cylinders [6]. A systematic analysis of oxygen transport in the brain with the Krogh model was performed by Reneau and his coworkers [7]. Note that they all are theoretical in their entirety (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Krogh Cylinder (simplified). The concepts handled by Krogh’s models are so complex and far-fetched that they cannot even be experimentally contrasted. I quote few names: Anoxic lethal corner, O2 radial vectors, capillary radius, capillary X-section, cylinder radius, cylinder X-section, anoxic tissue, axial kick, augmented O2 radial vectors, OPF range, average ptO2, hypercapnic lethal corner, normal intracapillary blood flow velocity.
However, the architecture of the capillary network in the brain does not provide support for the Krogh model [8]. The oxygen consumption rate within the neuron is about ten times higher than in the glial cells, and that has a significant effect on oxygen distribution [9]. There is experimental evidence that significant precapillary loss of oxygen occurs in the cerebral circulation [10].
The problem of oxygen loading in the blood capillaries of the lung is, in a sense, inverse to the problem of oxygen unloading in other tissues. Therefore, for a better understanding of oxygen transport, simultaneous analysis of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport is necessary [11].
At present none of the models of oxygen transport (including Krogh’s model) has been carefully tested against experimental data. The main reason appears to be the lack of accurate measurements of oxygen tension and hemoglobin saturation in vivo with the spatial resolution necessary for the validation of distributed transport models [12].
The mathematical and statistical models that are used to try to explain biological processes, such as gas exchange, usually do not work because, in biology, the variables are continuous random (nonlinear behavior). When the phenomena to be studied are discrete variables (linear behavior), mathematical models work better, as is the case of predicting the production of a factory, the possibility that manufacturing processes produce wrong parts, etc. But this is not the case in biology, because the values that variables can take change from one moment to the next, and it is not understood why.
Hence, Krogh’s equation of 1919, which is a mathematical (imaginary) model, has been added to other equations by different authors until reaching about 120 equations (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
A sample of the first 32 equations of already 120 described that have been implemented with the aim of building Krogh’s acceptable theoretical (imaginary) model about oxygen transportation theory.
The result is a set of mathematical operations so far-fetched and tangled that it is impossible to contrast them in the laboratory. And we are talking about Krogh or Krogh–Erlang equation, which has been the basis of most physiological estimates for the last 70 years.
Some models assumed that tissue is spatially homogeneous. Tissue consists of cells and extracellular spaces. Further, there are intracellular heterogeneities, for example, those caused by discrete oxygen consumption by mitochondria. These heterogeneities may affect the distribution of oxygen in the tissue. Theoretically, inside the cell, oxygen is consumed almost exclusively within mitochondria [13].
It has been proposed that oxygen is transported from blood to mitochondria along channels of high solubility; the endoplasmic reticulum could serve to channel oxygen [14]. The cytosol is largely free of oxygen because of its low solubility. However, theoretical and experimental validation of this hypothesis (1980) remains to be done. It is frustrating that the bases of oxygen transport and gas exchange, which constitute the foundations of the clinic, cannot be experimentally contrasted because of how tangled they are.
2. Oxygen transportation (if any) and brain
Supposedly, the brain is an organ whose normal function depends critically on an uninterrupted delivery of oxygen. However, the element of real value for cell metabolism is hydrogen and it is produced at the same time than oxygen; both come from water dissociation. It is relatively simple to show that melanin dissociates the molecule from water, generating both molecular hydrogen and oxygen (Figures 3 and 4). It is difficult to measure the levels of molecular hydrogen inside the cells; it is more practical to determine molecular oxygen levels. Thereby, oxygen levels are indirect markers of hydrogen levels because both elements come from the dissociation of water that occurs inside the cell, thanks to melanin and other pigments. It can be said that both hydrogen and oxygen are produced at the same time and in the same place.
Figure 3.
The melanin in the banana peel, illuminated with polychromatic (white) light.
Figure 4.
When the same specimen of Figure 3 is illuminated with monochromatic light in the ultraviolet light range (10–400 nm), a distinctive fluorescence appears. Due to the presence of hydrogen that comes from the dissociation of water by melanin, oxygen does not fluoresce.
Unlike skeletal muscle that can survive for hours without oxygen, brain cells show irreversible damage within minutes from the onset of oxygen deficiency that reflects low level of hydrogen by impairment of water dissociation mechanisms.
Theoretical work on oxygen transport in the brain began with applications of the Krogh Equation [5] and the extension of the Krogh model to hexagonal space-filling tissue cylinders [6]. A systematic analysis of oxygen transport in the brain with the Krogh model using the numerical finite-difference method to obtain solutions to steady and unsteady problems of physiological importance was performed in 1967 [15]. As expected, the architecture of the capillary network in the brain does not provide support for the Krogh model. Thereby, other models have been formulated trying to reflect the heterogeneity of capillary architecture and hemodynamics [8].
It is interesting that the oxygen consumption rate within the neuron is about ten times higher than in the glial cells [9], but this finding tells us that the intensity of water dissociation is 10 times more in glial cells than in neurons, because the neuron or any cells do not consume oxygen to produce energy, because the power requirements of the cells are based on the hydrogen that is released when water is dissociated, and molecular hydrogen (H2) is the element that carries energy, not only in cells but throughout the universe. In AD patients, there is chronic hypoxia that, in turn, indicates a chronic lack of hydrogen, and therefore a generalized lack of energy. The source of the problem is that the brain tissues are not able to dissociate the water at the necessary rate, and then the liquid water accumulates characteristically in the ventricles.
In most studies of oxygen transport, the governing differential equations are solved numerically by a discretization method, either finite difference or finite element, which is typical of imaginary models and that can hardly become a representation of reality due, among other things, that biological processes are made up of continuous random variables.
There is experimental evidence that significant precapillary loss of oxygen occurs in the cerebral circulation [16], which for us means that water dissociation decreases in that region normally.
3. The role of oxygen in neurodegenerative diseases
So far, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is considered an incurable neurodegenerative disease [17]. Recent studies suggest that the neurobiology of AD pathology could not be explained solely by an increase in beta-amyloid levels. In fact, success with potential therapeutic drugs that inhibit the generation of beta amyloid has been low. Therefore, due to therapeutic failure in recent years, scientists are looking for alternative hypotheses to explain the causes of the disease and the cognitive loss. These early changes affect several key metabolic processes related to glucose uptake and insulin signaling, cellular energy homeostasis, mitochondrial biogenesis, and increased Tau phosphorylation by kinase molecules, such as mTOR and Cdk5 [18].
The condition involves a progressive deterioration in memory, cognition, and mobility. Numerous studies have demonstrated a critical role of dysregulated glucose metabolism in its pathogenesis. The already described metabolic alterations in the aging brain and AD-related metabolic deficits are associated with glucose metabolism dysregulation, glycolysis dysfunction, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) deficits, and pentose phosphate pathway impairment. There are numerous biochemical alterations that occur simultaneously.
AD pathophysiology is extremely complex and heterogeneous, entailing accumulation of senile plaques caused by abnormal amyloid β (Aβ) metabolism, and neurofibrillary tangles caused by tau hyperphosphorylation. The cerebrovascular system is seriously damaged, including the disturbance of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy [19]. Functional failures and anatomical changes are multiple and varied, as they do not follow a definite pattern, which is compatible with energy failure.
Supposedly, increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce the transcription of pro-inflammatory genes and the release of cytokines (e.g., interleukin-1β [IL-1β], IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) and chemokines that cause neuroinflammation. Furthermore, reactive microglia and astrocytes and other pathological events also contribute to the dysfunction and deprivation of synapses and, ultimately, neuronal death [20]. It seems that the cells lose for some reason, the complex order that characterizes them even though neurons have done their job for millions of years, millions of times, every day.
It could be said that both functional and anatomical failure of the brain’s human body is widespread. And in any system, when the faults are so extensive, one must first think about energy [21].
4. Oxygen as a biomarker of energy levels
The brain consumes the greatest amount of energy of all the organs in the body, except the retina photoreceptor layer [22]. There is an age-related decrease in glucose utilization in most human brains [23].
However, it is conflicting that oxygen consumption is studied by determining the levels of mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase when synthases are enzymes that do not use ATP as an energy source to carry out their function [24].
The pathological metabolic alterations in aging (e.g., cerebral glucose hypometabolism) are early and consistent events in the progression of AD. Glucose, the main transportation form of carbohydrate in our blood, is also the crucial and primary energy substrate for the brain under physiological conditions [25]. Glucose is the universal precursor of any organic molecule, but it cannot provide the energy that its own metabolism requires [26], thereby, the prevalent dogma about glucose as source of biomass and energy at the same time now is broken down into thousands of pieces after our discovery of the unexpected capacity of the human body to take oxygen from the water molecule, like plants.
Alternative substrates, such as glycogen, ketone bodies, and amino acids, are also important, but only as a source of carbon chains that our body uses to build up other organic molecules. Energy hypometabolism, particularly a decline in glucose metabolism, is one of the earliest and most common anomalies observed in patients with AD [27], but glucose should not be considered an energy substrate, but a metabolic intermediate that requires energy from the dissociation of water.
Statistically, our body begins to lose its capacity to take oxygen from water at 26 years old, at approximately 10% rate each decade; and after the fifties, goes into free fall. This is an important date because the decline in glucose use capacity by the cells observed with aging is congruous with the loss of capacity to take oxygen from water. Remember that glucose metabolism requires oxygen, this is: energy.
Despite those, the main intracellular energy metabolism pathways, (theoretical all of them) occurring in our brains are necessarily complicated and include anaerobic glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) in the cytoplasm, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in mitochondria and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle and Krebs cycle) [28], these neuronal metabolic pathways are controversial in circa 98% like in other cells and tissues [29]. CNS biology is no exception to collective mistakes in regards to the wrong double role of glucose as a source of biomass and energy at the same time. No way.
Metabolic processes are regulated by a series of key enzymes. Indeed, a growing body of evidence suggests the presence of organic impairment of mitochondria [30] and damage to related metabolic enzymes [31]. In addition, oxygen and glucose metabolic rates are drastically changed in many neurodegenerative diseases, including AD due to marked alterations in the glycolytic pathway and TCA cycle [32]. Again, it seems like a generalized failure.
The picture is a metabolic dysregulation in many senses, it is a typical generalized fault. Traditionally, glucose is metabolized to ATP, an unstable high-energy compound. An entirely theoretical dogma. If we analyze the energy required by all the components that are described for glucose to end up in ATP, there would be nothing left for the cell.
Researchers are determined to explain the flow of energy where there is none, because it is not possible to obtain more energy than the molecule as is the case of glucose. They forget that the energy needs of the cell are constant, day and night. So, our discovery erases everything theoretically, because when the cell obtains oxygen from water, at the same time it obtains energy, which is transported by hydrogen, the main carrier of energy in the entire universe.
So, oxygen is important for life, it is fundamental; but not in the role that had been assigned to it —combustion of glucose—but to form the cellular scaffolding, of tissues, organs, and systems, which optimizes the use of energy that comes from the sun, but not through food as had been believed to date, but our body is able to capture it directly, like plants.
5. The oxygen inside our body (and brain) does not come from the atmosphere
There is a deeply rooted dogma that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through lung tissues by simple diffusion and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes them to all cells of the body. But from the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, intense controversy was generated due to the works of Carl Ludwig, Christian Bohr, Haldane, and others, who sought experimentally, both in man and other lung animals, the mechanism by which the %SpO2 rises to more than 95%. And not only did they not find it, but they realized that diffusion alone (the theory in vogue) could not explain the gas exchange in the lungs [33].
So, if the source of oxygen in the body is the water it contains, then the water of the cerebral-spinal fluid (CSF) acquires unusual importance. Well, it is the source of oxygen and hydrogen in the CNS.
Our finding that the human body has several molecules capable of transforming light power into chemical energy, through the dissociation of water [34], like plants, is a disruptive discovery.
6. Conclusion
It is not known if oxygen is transported in blood mainly by pure convection. The roles of diffusion and chemical kinetics are not defined yet. The importance of the resistances to oxygen transport by various membranes is unknown. It is uncertain that oxygen cross cell membranes (red blood cells, endothelial cell, and parenchymal cell) by pure diffusion or if it is facilitated by a carrier. The mechanisms of oxygen transport inside the cells are not known. It is not possible, so far, to identify active transport in oxygen delivery. It is unknown the supposed main site of oxygen exchange between the blood and tissue (arterioles, capillaries, or venules). Sadly, we do not have definitive and conclusive answers to these fundamental questions due to the experiments that are required to do so, in regards to Krogh’s model technically are not possible to date. A clear understanding of the physical mechanisms of oxygen transport throughout the pathway is a way beyond, starting because oxygen does not come from the atmosphere, and therefore is not transported.
Krogh laid the wrong foundation for the theory of oxygen transport to the tissue [35]. He proposed, without experimental foundations and based only on theoretical (imaginary) models, that oxygen is transported in the tissue by passive diffusion driven by gradients of oxygen tension (PO2). Krogh tissue cylinder or simply Krogh’s model is a simple geometrical model of the elementary tissue unit supplied by a single capillary. Krogh formulated a differential equation governing oxygen diffusion and uptake in the tissue cylinder assisted by Erlang, a mathematician.
The solution to this equation theoretically expresses oxygen tension in the tissue as a function of spatial position within the tissue cylinder. This simple assumption so-called Krogh equation, known as the Krogh or Krogh–Erlang equation, has been the basis of most physiological estimates for the last 70 years, but now it breaks into a thousand pieces thanks to the discovery of the unsuspected ability of the human body to take oxygen from the water it contains [36], just as plants do.
Only a decade ago, the picture of oxygen delivery from cells to the sites of oxygen consumption, even though it became unnecessarily complex, had not differed qualitatively from that described by Krogh in 1919. In the past 10 years, theoretical Krogh’s concept of radial PO2 gradients in the tissue from the capillary has undergone drastic changes and has all but reversed. Indeed, it is now proposed, in yet another attempt to explain to exploit with mathematical models a theory that cannot be tested experimentally, that the dominant PO2 gradients on the pathway from hemoglobin to mitochondria occur not in the tissue but inside the vessels. These new concepts, also entirely theoretical; require further and highly complex experimental validation and new theoretical developments. However, if they are valid, then much of our understanding of oxygen transport to tissue will have to be reassessed.
In any case, the models based on the Krogh theorems and the recent trend of non-Krogh models will continue to be futile, as they try to explain how oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream to be distributed throughout the body.
The discovery of the human body’s unsuspected ability to take oxygen from the water contained within cells, such as plants, constitutes the beginning of a new era in the study and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Human Photosynthesis™ Research Centre. Aguascalientes 20000, México.
\n',keywords:"oxygen, AD, water, ventricles, volume, CSF",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82876.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82876.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82876",totalDownloads:9,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 15th 2022",dateReviewed:"July 6th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 29th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"July 29th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Despite the advance in biochemistry, there are two substantial errors that have remained for at least two centuries. One is that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes it throughout the body. Another major mistake is the belief that such oxygen is used by the cell to obtain energy, by combining it with glucose. Since the late nineteenth century, it began to be published that the gas exchange in the lungs cannot be explained by diffusion. Even Christian Bohr suggested that it looked like a cellular secretion. But despite experimental evidence to the contrary and based only on theoretical models, the dogma that our body takes the oxygen it contains inside from the air around it has been perpetuated to this day. The oxygen levels contained in the human body are high, close to 99%, and the atmosphere only contains between 19 and 21%. The hypothesis that there is a supposed oxygen concentrating mechanism has not been experimentally proven to date, after almost two centuries. The mistaken belief, even among neurologists, that our body takes oxygen from the atmosphere is widespread, even though there is no experimental basis to support it, just theoretical models. Our finding that the human body can take oxygen from the water it contains, not from the air around it, like plants, comes to mark a before and after in biology in general, and the CNS is no exception. Therefore, establishing the true origin of the oxygen present within our body and brain will allow us to better understand the physio pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82876",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82876",signatures:"Arturo Solís Herrera",book:{id:"11637",type:"book",title:"Neuropsychology of Dementia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Neuropsychology of Dementia",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Devendra Kumar, Prof. Sushil Kumar Singh and Dr. Ankit Ganeshpurkar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11637.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-783-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-782-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-784-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"454030",title:"Dr.",name:"Devendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"devendra-kumar",fullName:"Devendra Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"280131",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Solis Herrera",fullName:"Arturo Solis Herrera",slug:"arturo-solis-herrera",email:"comagua2000@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Oxygen transportation (if any) and brain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The role of oxygen in neurodegenerative diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Oxygen as a biomarker of energy levels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The oxygen inside our body (and brain) does not come from the atmosphere",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nova Z, Skovierova H, Calkovska A. Alveolar-capillary membrane-related pulmonary cells as a target in endotoxin-induced acute lung injury. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2019;20(4):831. DOI: 10.3390/ijms20040831 PMID: 30769918; PMCID: PMC6412348'},{id:"B2",body:'Popel AS. Theory of oxygen transport to tissue. Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering. 1989;17(3):257-321'},{id:"B3",body:'Traystman RJ. Microcirculation of the brain. In: Mortillaro NA, editor. The Physiology and Pharmacology of the Microcirculation. Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press; 1984. p. 237'},{id:"B4",body:'Reneau DD Jr, Bruley DF, Knisely MH. A digital simulation of transient oxygen transport in capillary-tissue systems (cerebral gray matter). Development of a numerical method for solution of transport equations describing coupled convection-diffusion systems. AIChE Journal. 1969;15:916'},{id:"B5",body:'Opitz E, Schneider M. Uber die Sauerstoffversorgung des Gehirns und den mechanismus von mangelwirkungen. Electroretinograms of Physiology. 1950;46:126'},{id:"B6",body:'Thews G. Die sauerstoffdiffusion im gehirn. Ein beitrag lur frage der sauerstroffversorgung der organe. Pflügers Archive. 1960;271:197'},{id:"B7",body:'Knisely MH, Reneau DD Jr, Bruley DF. The development and use of equations for predicting the limits on the rates of oxygen supply to the cells of living tissues and organs. A contribution to the biophysics of health and disease. Angiology Journal of Vase Diseases. 1969;20:S1'},{id:"B8",body:'Metzger H. The influence of space-distributed parameters on the calculation of substrate and gas exchange in microvascular units. Mathematical Biosciences. 1976;30:31'},{id:"B9",body:'Ivanov KP, Kislyakov YY, Samoilov MO. Microcirculation and transport of oxygen to neurons of the brain. Microvascular Research. 1979;18:434'},{id:"B10",body:'Sharan M, Jones MD Jr, Koehler RC, Traystman RJ, Popel AS. A compartmental model for oxygen transport in brain microcirculation. Annals of Biomedical Engineering. 1989;17:13'},{id:"B11",body:'Weibel ER. The Pathway for Oxygen Structure and Function in the Mammalian Respiratory System. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1984'},{id:"B12",body:'Lomen DO, Gross JF. A mathematical model of the effect of oxygen consumption on the resistance to flow of sickle cell blood in capillaries. Mathematical Biosciences. 1977;37:63'},{id:"B13",body:'Clark A Jr, Clark PAA, Connett RJ, Gayeski TEJ, Honig CR. How large is the drop in PO2 between cytosol and mitochondrion? The American Journal of Physiology. 1987;252:C583'},{id:"B14",body:'Longmuir IS. Channels of oxygen transport from blood to mitochondria. Advances in Physiology Science. 1980;25:19'},{id:"B15",body:'Reneau DD Jr, Bruley DF, Knisely MH. A mathematical simulation of oxygen release, diffusion, and consumption in the capillaries and tissue of the human brain. In: Hershey D, editor. Chemical Engineering in Medicine and Biology. New York: Plenum Press; 1967. p. 135'},{id:"B16",body:'Popel AS, Gross JF. Analysis of oxygen diffusion from arteriolar networks. The American Journal of Physiology. 1979;237:H681'},{id:"B17",body:'Yan X, Hu Y, Wang B, Wang S, Zhang X. Metabolic dysregulation contributes to the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2020;14:530219. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.530219'},{id:"B18",body:'Pedros I, Patraca I, Martinez N, Petrov D, Sureda FX, Auladell C, et al. Molecular links between early energy metabolism alterations and Alzheimer’s disease. Frontiers in Bioscience (Landmark Edition). 2016;21(1):8-19. DOI: 10.2741/4372 PMID: 26709757'},{id:"B19",body:'Viswanathan A, Greenberg SM. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly. Annals of Neurology. 2011;70:871-880'},{id:"B20",body:'Martins RN, Villemagne V, Sohrabi HR, Chatterjee P, Shah TM, Verdile G, et al. Alzheimer’s disease: A journey from amyloid peptides and oxidative stress, to biomarker technologies and disease prevention strategiesgains from AIBL and DIAN cohort studies. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease. 2018;62:965-992. DOI: 10.3233/jad-171145'},{id:"B21",body:'Harrison CG, Williams PR. A systems approach to natural disaster resilience. Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory. 2016;65:11-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.simpat.2016.02.008'},{id:"B22",body:'Herrera AS, Esparza DCAM, Ashraf MG, Zamyatnin AA, Aliev G. Beyond mitochondria, what would be the energy source of the cell? Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. 2015;15(1):32-41. DOI: 10.2174/1871524915666150203093656 PMID: 25645910'},{id:"B23",body:'Petit-Taboué MC, Landeau B, Desson JF, Desgranges B, Baron JC. Effects of healthy aging on the regional cerebral metabolic rate of glucose assessed with statistical parametric mapping. NeuroImage. 1998;7:176-184. DOI: 10.1006/nimg.1997.0318'},{id:"B24",body:'Alvarez S, Valdez LB, Zaobornyj T, Boveris A. Oxygen dependence of mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase activity. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2003;305(3):771-775. ISSN 0006-291X. DOI: 10.1016/S0006-291X(03)00818-0'},{id:"B25",body:'Bouzier-Sore AK, Voisin P, Bouchaud V, Bezancon E, Franconi JM, Pellerin L. Competition between glucose and lactate as oxidative energy substrates in both neurons and astrocytes: A comparative NMR study. The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2006;24:1687-1694. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05056.x'},{id:"B26",body:'Solís-Herrera A, Ashraf GM, Esparza d CAM, Arias RI, Bachurin SO, Barreto GE, et al. Biological activities of QIAPI 1 as a melanin precursor and its therapeutic effects in wistar rats exposed to arsenic poisoning. Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. 2015;15(2):99-108. DOI: 10.2174/1871524915666150424113831 PMID: 25909193'},{id:"B27",body:'Small GW, Kepe V, Barrio JR. Seeing is believing: Neuroimaging adds to our understanding of cerebral pathology. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2006;19:564-569. DOI: 10.1097/01.yco.0000245747.53008.e2'},{id:"B28",body:'Dienel GA. Brain glucose metabolism: Integration of energetics with function. Physiological Reviews. 2019;99:949-1045. DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00062.2017'},{id:"B29",body:'Stobbe, Miranda D. 2012. The Road to Knowledge: From Biology to Databases and Back Again. University of Amsterdam, UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository). Available from: https://hdl.handle.net/11245/1.385827 [Accessed: May 16, 2022]'},{id:"B30",body:'Macdonald R, Barnes K, Hastings C, Mortiboys H. Mitochondrial abnormalities in Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease: Can mitochondria be targeted therapeutically? Biochemical Society Transactions. 2018;46:891-909. DOI: 10.1042/bst20170501'},{id:"B31",body:'Bubber P, Haroutunian V, Fisch G, Blass JP, Gibson GE. Mitochondrial abnormalities in Alzheimer brain: Mechanistic implications. Annals of Neurology. 2005;57:695-703. DOI: 10.1002/ana.20474'},{id:"B32",body:'van Gijsel-Bonnello M, Baranger K, Benech P, Rivera S, Khrestchatisky M, de Reggi M, et al. Metabolic changes and inflammation in cultured astrocytes from the 5xFAD mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease: Alleviation by pantethine. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0175369. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175369'},{id:"B33",body:'Gjedde A. Diffusive insights: On the disagreement of christian bohr and august krogh at the centennial of the seven little devils. Advances in Physiology Education. 2010;34(4):174-185'},{id:"B34",body:'Herrera AS. The biological pigments in plants physiology. Agricultural Sciences. 2015;6:1262-1271. DOI: 10.4236/as.2015.610121'},{id:"B35",body:'Krogh A. The number and distribution of capillaries in muscles with calculations of the oxygen pressure head necessary for supplying the tissue. Journal of Physiology (London). 1919;52:409. PubMed: 16993405]'},{id:"B36",body:'Herrera AS. The unsuspected intrinsic property of melanin to transform light into chemical energy and the seed growth. In: Rigobelo EC, editor. Plant Growth. London: IntechOpen; 2016 [cited June 6, 2022]. DOI: 10.5772/64542 Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/51547'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Arturo Solís Herrera",address:"comagua2000@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Human Photosynthesis™ Study Center, Aguascalientes, México
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People with hearing loss make up a significant 5.3% of the world’s population. The audiogram is an important tool used to determine the degree and type of hearing loss. This chapter presents hearing loss classification, which can aid in clinical diagnosis and help in finding appropriate therapeutic management. Hearing loss is classified based on ear anatomy, type of hearing loss, degree of the disease, and configuration of the audiogram. When the hearing loss is fully characterized, appropriate medical intervention can be assigned.",book:{id:"4654",slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Update On Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Waleed B. Alshuaib, Jasem M. Al-Kandari and Sonia M. 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The few clinical studies have shown that abstention from caffeine has little effect in patients with Meniere’s disease, both in relation to vertigo, tinnitus and hearing loss.",book:{id:"5454",slug:"up-to-date-on-meniere-s-disease",title:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease",fullTitle:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease"},signatures:"Alleluia Lima Losno Ledesma, Monique Antunes de Souza\nChelminski Barreto and Carlos Augusto Costa Pires de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"68849",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos Augusto C. P.",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"carlos-augusto-c.-p.-oliveira",fullName:"Carlos Augusto C. P. Oliveira"},{id:"175482",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",middleName:null,surname:"Barreto",slug:"monique-barreto",fullName:"Monique Barreto"},{id:"194400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alleluia",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Losno Ledesma",slug:"alleluia-losno-ledesma",fullName:"Alleluia Losno Ledesma"}]},{id:"53121",title:"Audiological Assessment in Meniere’s Disease",slug:"audiological-assessment-in-meniere-s-disease",totalDownloads:2604,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Meniere’s disease is a progressive disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of spontaneous vertigo, sensorineural hearing loss and tinnitus, often with a feeling of fullness in the ear. The exact ethology is not known. In 1972, a diagnostic criterion for Meniere’s disease was proposed by American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS), and till date, it has been revised twice in the years 1985 and 1995. The principal audiological investigation is pure tone audiometry combined with a glycerol test. Speech audiometry and otoacoustic emissions also play a limited role. The value of electrocochleography is limited.",book:{id:"5454",slug:"up-to-date-on-meniere-s-disease",title:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease",fullTitle:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease"},signatures:"Dinesh Kumar Sharma",authors:[{id:"189074",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"dinesh-sharma",fullName:"Dinesh Sharma"}]},{id:"49108",title:"Hearing Loss and the Voice",slug:"hearing-loss-and-the-voice",totalDownloads:3353,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The voice varies according to the context of speech and to the physical and psychological conditions of the human being, and there is always a normal standard for the vocal output. Hearing loss can impair voce production, causing social, educational, and speech limitations, with specific deviation of the communication related to speech and voice. Usually, the voice is not the main focus of the speech-language pathology therapy with individuals with hearing loss, but its deviations can represent such a negative impact on this population that it can interfere on speech intelligibility and crucially compromise the social integration of the individual. The literature vastly explores acoustic and perceptual characteristics of children and adults with hearing loss. Voice problems in individuals with this impairment are directly related to its type and severity, age, gender, and type of hearing device used. While individuals with mild and moderate hearing loss can only present problems with resonance, severely impaired individuals may lack intensity and frequency control, among other alterations. The commonly found vocal deviations include strain, breathiness, roughness, monotone, absence of rhythm, unpleasant quality, hoarseness, vocal fatigue, high pitch, reduced volume, loudness with excessive variation, unbalanced resonance, altered breathing pattern, brusque vocal attack, and imprecise articulation. These characteristics are justified by the incapability of the deaf to control their vocal performance due to the lack of auditory monitoring of their own voice, caused by the hearing loss. Hence, the development of an intelligible speech with a good quality of voice on the hearing impaired is a challenge, despite the sophisticated technological advances of hearing aids, cochlear implants and other implantable devices. The purpose of this chapter is therefore to present an extensive review of the literature and describe our experience regarding the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of voice disorders in individuals with hearing loss.",book:{id:"4654",slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Update On Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Coelho, Daniela Malta Medved and Alcione Ghedini\nBrasolotto",authors:[{id:"174260",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"ana-cristina-coelho",fullName:"Ana Cristina Coelho"},{id:"174643",title:"Dr.",name:"Alcione",middleName:null,surname:"Brasolotto",slug:"alcione-brasolotto",fullName:"Alcione Brasolotto"},{id:"174644",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Medved",slug:"daniela-medved",fullName:"Daniela Medved"}]},{id:"53473",title:"Hearing and Vestibular Testing in Menière’s Disease",slug:"hearing-and-vestibular-testing-in-meni-re-s-disease",totalDownloads:1897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Audiological and vestibular testing plays an important role in diagnosis of Menière’s disease,as disease per se and as staging diagnosis. A battery of tests are recommended in order to have a better evaluation of the disease. Audiological testing includes pure tone audiometry, with highlights of bone conduction especially in acute episodes of Menière’s disease, speech audiometry and glycerol test when hearing loss is documented, ABR and electrocochleography. Besides these investigations, vestibular investigations are also recommended in order to evaluate the degree of vestibular lesion present from the beginning of Menière’s disease—electro- and videonystagmography, head impulse test, vestibular evoked myogenic potentials and computerized dynamic posturography.",book:{id:"5454",slug:"up-to-date-on-meniere-s-disease",title:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease",fullTitle:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease"},signatures:"Madalina Gabriela Georgescu",authors:[{id:"189076",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Madalina",middleName:null,surname:"Georgescu",slug:"madalina-georgescu",fullName:"Madalina Georgescu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1099",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82305",title:"Nonreceptor Protein Kinases and Phosphatases Necessary for Auditory Function",slug:"nonreceptor-protein-kinases-and-phosphatases-necessary-for-auditory-function",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105425",abstract:"Phosphorylation is one of the most common posttranslational protein modifications. It has multiple roles in cell signaling during development as well as for maintenance of diverse functions of an organism. Protein kinases and phosphatases control phosphorylation and play critical roles in cellular processes from cell birth to cell death. Discovery of hearing-loss-associated gene variants in humans and the study of animal models have identified a crucial role of a plethora of protein phosphatases and kinases in the inner ear. In this review, those nonreceptor kinases or phosphatases are discussed, which are encoded by genes implicated in causing inherited hearing loss in humans or in mouse mutants. These studies have served to highlight the essential roles of protein kinases and phosphatases pathways to the function of the auditory system. However, the inner-ear-specific substrates for most of these enzymes remain to be discovered, as do the mechanisms of disease due to the variants in the genes that encode these proteins.",book:{id:"11232",title:"Auditory System - Function and Disorders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11232.jpg"},signatures:"Sadaf Naz"},{id:"82266",title:"Structure and Physiology of Human Ear Involved in Hearing",slug:"structure-and-physiology-of-human-ear-involved-in-hearing",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105466",abstract:"Hearing is the fundamental sense based on the normal functioning of the hearing organ “the ear,” which plays a vital role in social interaction and the ability of learning. The human ear is divided into three parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear. Defects in outer and middle ear can cause conductive hearing loss, while the defective inner ear may lead to sensorineural hearing loss. So, it is important to study the structure and physiology of the human ear. When a sound of particular frequency enters the outer ear, it passes through the auditory canal and strikes the tympanic membrane. It vibrates and passes these vibrations to three ossicles present in the middle ear. The ossicles amplify the vibrations of sound and send them to the cochlea in the inner ear. Cochlea contains organ of Corti, which converts these vibrations into electrical signals by its hair cells. The neural signals in turn are interpreted by the brain, which one can hear and understand. The aim of this chapter is to review the basic structure and physiology of different parts of the human ear that are involved in the hearing process.",book:{id:"11232",title:"Auditory System - Function and Disorders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11232.jpg"},signatures:"Alishbah Sheikh, Bint-e-Zainab, Kanwal Shabbir and Ayesha Imtiaz"},{id:"82244",title:"A Short Overview on Hearing Loss and Related Auditory Defects",slug:"a-short-overview-on-hearing-loss-and-related-auditory-defects",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105222",abstract:"Hearing is the ability of a person to recognize sound in the surroundings and it makes communication possible. Ear is the human organ serving as a transducer that perceives signals from the environment and converts it into detectable forms for interpretation by the brain. The auditory system is among one of the most highly studied systems. Researchers have described the physiological function of the system in detail but due to its complexity, the genetic mechanisms and genes implicated in auditory function are still being revealed. Numerous studies on the genetics of hearing indicate hearing loss as one of the most common and prevalent disorders as it affects approximately five million people worldwide. Besides hearing loss, there are several other pathologies of auditory system which are common and have an established genetic basis. In this chapter, we will introduce the genetics of some common auditory pathologies including syndromic and non-syndromic hearing loss, auditory neuropathy, age-related hearing loss, and tinnitus. These understandings will 1 day lead to better diagnosis, management, and cures.",book:{id:"11232",title:"Auditory System - Function and Disorders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11232.jpg"},signatures:"Hina Khan, Hafiza Idrees, Zunaira Munir and Memoona Ramzan"},{id:"81485",title:"Hearing Restoration through Optical Wireless Cochlear Implants",slug:"hearing-restoration-through-optical-wireless-cochlear-implants",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104622",abstract:"In this chapter, we present two novel optical wireless-based cochlear implant architectures: (i) optical wireless cochlear implant (OWCI) and (ii) all-optical cochlear implant (AOCI). Both the architectures aim to decisively improve the reliability and energy efficiency of hearing restoration devices. To provide design and development guidelines, we document their main components, discuss the particularities of the transdermal optical channel, and provide the analytical framework for their accurate modeling. Building upon this framework, we extract closed-form formulas that quantify the communication, the stimulation, and the overall performance. An overall comparison of OWCI and AOCI, as well as conventional cochlear implants, accompanied by future research directions summarizes this chapter. Our findings reveal that both the OWCI and the AOCI outperform conventional cochlear implant approaches; thus, they are identified as promising architectures for the next generation of cochlear implants.",book:{id:"11232",title:"Auditory System - Function and Disorders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11232.jpg"},signatures:"Stylianos E. Trevlakis, Alexandros-Apostolos A. Boulogeorgos and George K. Karagiannidis"},{id:"80337",title:"Short-Latency Evoked Potentials of the Human Auditory System",slug:"short-latency-evoked-potentials-of-the-human-auditory-system",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102039",abstract:"Auditory Brainstem Responses (ABR) are short-latency electric potentials from the auditory nervous system that can be evoked by presenting transient acoustic stimuli to the ear. Sources of the ABR are the auditory nerve and brainstem auditory nuclei. Clinical application of ABRs includes identification of the site of lesion in retrocochlear hearing loss, establishing functional integrity of the auditory nerve, and objective audiometry. Recording of ABR requires a measurement setup with a high-quality amplifier with adequate filtering and low skin-electrode impedance to reduce non-physiological interference. Furthermore, signal averaging and artifact rejection are essential tools for obtaining a good signal-to-noise ratio. Comparing latencies for different peaks at different stimulus intensities allows the determination of hearing threshold, location of the site of lesion, and establishment of neural integrity. Audiological assessment of infants who are referred after failing hearing screening relies on accurate estimation of hearing thresholds. Frequency-specific ABR using tone-burst stimuli is a clinically feasible method for this. Appropriate correction factors should be applied to estimate the hearing threshold from the ABR threshold. Whenever possible, obtained thresholds should be confirmed with behavioral testing. The Binaural Interaction Component of the ABR provides important information regarding binaural processing in the brainstem.",book:{id:"11232",title:"Auditory System - Function and Disorders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11232.jpg"},signatures:"Gijsbert van Zanten, Huib Versnel, Nathan van der Stoep, Wiepke Koopmans and Alex Hoetink"},{id:"80409",title:"Precocious Auditory Evoked Potential Recording with Free-Field Stimulus",slug:"precocious-auditory-evoked-potential-recording-with-free-field-stimulus",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102569",abstract:"The aim of this study is to determine the thresholds of normality in the recording of precocious auditory evoked potentials with free-field stimulation and to compare them with conventional stimulation with insertion headphones. For this purpose, we have carried out a case series study of children with normal hearing stimulated with insertion headphones, who underwent Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) and Auditory Steady-State Response (ASSR) with free-field stimuli. Fifty-four ears with normal criteria of children between 6 months and 24 months of age were assessed. The latencies found with free-field stimulation in ABR were significantly longer than the latencies with insert earphone stimulation (p<0.05), and no differences were found in the inter-latencies. No significant differences were found in the thresholds of the ASSR response. We conclude that the ABR thresholds obtained in the free-field correspond to the delay due to the distance of the sound source to the eardrum and, therefore, are superimposable, being applicable to patients where it is not possible to stimulate with insert phones.",book:{id:"11232",title:"Auditory System - Function and Disorders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11232.jpg"},signatures:"Juan Bautista Calero del Castillo, Alberto Guillén Martínez and Francisco García Purriños"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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