Adsorption capacities at high pressure
\r\n\tThe study of populations and plant communities in their different aspects; ecological, structural, functional and dynamic, it is essential to establish a posteriori models of forest and agricultural management.
\r\n\r\n\tFor this, the methodological approaches on the type of sampling are considered essential, since there are differences between the purely ecological and the phytosociological methods, despite the fact that both pursue the same objective.
\r\n\tAlthough the ecological method for the knowledge of the vegetation is widely extended, the phytosociological one is no less so, since in the European Union it has been developed as a consequence of policies on sustainability, through which regulations have been issued, such as the habitats directive.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, research on plant dynamics and knowledge of the landscape in an integral way, have multiplied in the last 30 years, which has favored a deep knowledge of the floristic and phytocenotic wealth, which is fundamental for agricultural management, livestock and forestry.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-386-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-385-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-387-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",keywords:"Climatic Factors, Bioclimate, Thermotype, Flora, Conservation, Phytocenosis, Plant Dynamics, Landscape, Cartography, Vegetation Series, Crops, Reforestation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cano Carmona and colleagues have directed 12 doctoral theses and more than 200 publications among articles, books, and book chapters. He has participated in national and international congresses with about 250 papers. He has held a number of different academic positions, including Dean of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences at the University of Jaen, Spain, and founder and director of the International Seminar on Management and Conservation of Biodiversity.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Ricardo Jorge Quinto Canas is currently an Invited Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Sciences and Technology at the University of Algarve – Portugal, and a member of the Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve. His current research projects focus on Botany, Vegetation Science (Geobotany), Biogeography, Plant Ecology, and Biology Conservation, aiming to support Nature Conservation.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Ana Cano Ortiz's fundamental line of research is related to botanical bioindicators. She has worked in Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Central America. It presents more than one hundred works published in various national and international journals, as well as books and book chapters; and has presented a hundred papers to national and international congresses.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Carmelo Maria Musarella is a biologist, specialized in Plant Biology. He is a member of the permanent scientific committee of the International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management” guested by several European universities. He has participated in several international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops and presented oral communications and posters.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/87846/images/system/87846.png",biography:"Eusebio Cano Carmona obtained a PhD in Sciences from the\nUniversity of Granada, Spain. He is Professor of Botany at the\nUniversity of Jaén, Spain. His focus is flora and vegetation and he\nhas conducted research in Spain, Italy, Portugal, Palestine, the\nCaribbean islands and Mexico. As a result of these investigations,\nDr. Cano Carmona and colleagues have directed 12 doctoral theses\nand more than 200 publications among articles, books and book\nchapters. He has participated in national and international congresses with about\n250 papers/communications. He has held a number of different academic positions,\nincluding Dean of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences at the University of Jaen,\nSpain and founder and director of the International Seminar on Management and\nConservation of Biodiversity, a position he has held for 13 years. He is also a member of the Spanish, Portuguese and Italian societies of Geobotany.",institutionString:"University of Jaén",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Jaén",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"216982",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Quinto",middleName:null,surname:"Canas",slug:"ricardo-quinto-canas",fullName:"Ricardo Quinto Canas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216982/images/system/216982.JPG",biography:"Ricardo Quinto Canas, Phd in Analysis and Management of Ecosystems, is currently an Invited Assistant Professor in the Faculty\nof Sciences and Technology at the University of Algarve, Portugal, and member of the Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR),\nUniversity of Algarve. He is also the Head of Division of Environmental Impact Assessment - Algarve Regional Coordination\nand Development Commission (CCDR - Algarve). His current\nresearch projects focus on Botany, Vegetation Science (Geobotany), Biogeography,\nPlant Ecology and Biology Conservation, aiming to support Nature Conservation.\nDr. Quinto Canas has co-authored many cited journal publication, conference articles and book chapters in above-mentioned topics.",institutionString:"University of Algarve",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"203697",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Ortiz",slug:"ana-cano-ortiz",fullName:"Ana Cano Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203697/images/system/203697.png",biography:"Ana Cano Ortiz holds a PhD in Botany from the University of\nJaén, Spain. She has worked in private enterprise, in university\nand in secondary education. She is co-director of four doctoral\ntheses. Her research focus is related to botanical bioindicators.\nDr. Ortiz has worked in Spain, Italy, Portugal and Central America. She has published more than 100 works in various national\nand international journals, as well as books and book chapters.\nShe has also presented a great number of papers/communications to national and\ninternational congresses.",institutionString:"University of Jaén",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Jaén",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"276295",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Musarella",slug:"carmelo-maria-musarella",fullName:"Carmelo Maria Musarella",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276295/images/system/276295.jpg",biography:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, PhD (Reggio Calabria, Italy –\n23/01/1975) is a biologist, specializing in plant biology. He\nstudied and worked in several European Universities: Messina,\nCatania, Reggio Calabria, Rome (Italy), Valencia, Jaén, Almeria\n(Spain), and Evora (Portugal). He was the Adjunct Professor\nof Plant Biology at the “Mediterranea” University of Reggio\nCalabria (Italy). His research topics are: floristic, vegetation,\nhabitat, biogeography, taxonomy, ethnobotany, endemisms, alien species, and\nbiodiversity conservation. He has authored many research articles published in\nindexed journals and books. He has been the guest editor for Plant Biosystems and a\nreferee for this same journal and others. He is a member of the permanent scientific\ncommittee of International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management”, which includes several European universities. He has participated in several\ninternational and national congresses, seminars, workshops, and presentations of\noral communications and posters.",institutionString:'"Mediterranea" University of Reggio Calabria',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6893",title:"Endemic Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3290be83fff5bc015f5bd3d78ae9c6c7",slug:"endemic-species",bookSignature:"Eusebio Cano Carmona, Carmelo Maria Musarella and Ana Cano Ortiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6893.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49936",title:"Review of Recent Developments in CO2 Capture Using Solid Materials: Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs)",doi:"10.5772/62275",slug:"review-of-recent-developments-in-co2-capture-using-solid-materials-metal-organic-frameworks-mofs-",body:'The increasing level of CO2 emission is considered one of the major environmental challenges that our planet is facing today. The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere reached a new record in 2013, with CO2 at 396 ppm which represents 142% of the concentration of the pre-industrial era [1]. Findings of a recent global atmosphere watch reported in a greenhouse gas bulletin [1] revealed that CO2 concentration has increased between 2012 and 2013, more than any other year since 1984, which was attributed to the reduced uptake by the earth’s biosphere. This alarming level of CO2 shows the urgency for taking immediate actions to prevent serious repercussions of climate change. On December 2015, at the Paris Climate Conference (COP21), 195 countries adopted a historical and the first legally binding global climate agreement to keep the increase in global average temperature to well below 2oC above pre-industrial levels. The discovery of new fossil fuel reserves, combined with rising energy demand, led to an increase in the number and capacities of power plants worldwide. This situation is expected to extend into the future due to various factors such as industrial development and economic growth, especially in developing nations, which in turn is expected to further contribute to increasing levels of greenhouse gas emissions in years to come. According to a recent report by the Energy Information Administration, energy consumption is projected to rise by 56% between 2010 and 2040. Fossil fuels will continue to supply about 80% of the world energy through 2040. Industrial energy consumption represents the greatest share of emissions and is projected to consume more than 50% of the energy delivered in 2040. According to currently implemented regulations regarding fossil fuels, CO2 emissions from power plants is projected to increase by 46% compared to emission level in 2010 [2].
Among several approaches that could be used to overcome the greenhouse gas effect is the utilization of clean energy alternatives which could be the ultimate solution to the climate change problem in terms of reducing CO2 emissions. However, these green technologies still require significant modifications to the current energy framework. The great challenges facing these green technologies lie in the difficulty for implementation at industrial scale, which makes it economically infeasible when compared to fossil fuel-based power plants. This implies that unless green energy alternatives and energy infrastructure for the commercialization and the implementation of these new technologies are attained, the pursuit of new CO2 emission reduction technologies will continue to be the most practical method to address greenhouse gas effects until the advancement in clean energy technologies reaches commercial stages.
There are three different strategies to reduce emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel-based power plants. These include post-combustion capture in which CO2 is separated from the combustion flue gas stream that is mainly composed of nitrogen and some other minor components such as water vapor and oxygen. The separation process in this scheme is a downstream unit which allows for an easy retrofit of a post-combustion capture unit to an existing power plant. However, the limitations of this technique include a low CO2 partial pressure, relatively high flue gas temperature and large quantities of CO2 in the flue gas stream [3, 4]. In the pre-combustion capture scenario, the fossil fuel is treated under certain temperature and pressure to gasify the fuel and produce hydrogen. This method offers streams with high CO2 partial pressure and thus easy separation by utilizing variety of solvents; however, it requires significant modifications to the power generation plant. The last scenario is called the oxy-fuel capture in which the fuel is burned under a pure oxygen environment which requires the separation of oxygen/nitrogen from an air stream. The process produces pure CO2 and water vapor which can be easily recovered through a simple condensation unit. Each separation scenario requires a different capture technology, and therefore the properties, characteristics, and operation of the separation process are also entirely different among the three strategies. The most advanced process for implementation in the field is post-combustion. We will therefore, in this chapter, focus on the post-combustion separation applications.
In order to locate metal organic frameworks (MOFs) on the map of the technologies used for CO2 capture applications, we will briefly describe the major technologies that have been employed and discuss their advantages and limitations. Figure 1 shows the different technologies used for CO2 capture, whereas MOFs are used under the category of membranes and adsorbents.
The most widely investigated technology for CO2 capture from flue gas is absorption using aqueous amine solutions such as monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), as well as blends of different amines [5–7]. Amine scrubbers are considered a well-developed technology and is available in commercial scale for post-combustion capture applications [8]. The major limitations of this technology include the high energy required for solvent regeneration, stability of the amine system at the regeneration conditions, and the negative influence of impurities present in the flue gas that might significantly affect the stability and performance of the solvent [9, 10].
Under the category of absorption technology and in order to overcome the limitations of amine-based technologies, aqueous ammonia as a solvent for CO2 separation has also been widely used to benefit from the low heat of absorption of ammonia-based solvents as compared to amine systems. Besides, the ammonia can also absorb other impurities existing in the gas stream such as NO and SOx. The major drawback of ammonia-based solvents lies in the need to cool the flue gas prior to introducing it to the absorption column to prevent ammonia losses to the gas stream. This adds a huge energy requirement considering the large volume of flue gas stream that typically needs to be treated [11]. The chilled ammonia process faces similar issues in addition to fouling of the heat exchanger by ammonium bicarbonate deposition from saturated solutions [4].
Great efforts have been made to find new and efficient materials for absorptive CO2 separation. Ionic liquids (ILs) are liquid salts composed of cations and anions, have been proposed as promising solvents to replace the existing amine-based solvents. ILs possess several remarkable properties that make their application in CO2 separation one of the hottest research topics in the last few years [12–14]. These properties include low volatility, high CO2 solubility, good thermal stability, and the possibility of systematically tuning the structure toward certain properties [15–17]. Several review papers reporting experimental data related to CO2 solubility, selectivity, effect of ILs structure on performance, and the stability of ILs are available [12, 18]. Recent developments on the application of the amine-modified ILs, known as task-specific ILs (TSILs), are also widely discussed in the literature [19, 20], including both physical and chemical interactions with CO2. Unfortunately, many ILs and TSILs suffer from a common problem of high viscosity after CO2 absorption. Even though some recent reports mentioned the availability of ILs with low viscosities, it is still evident that much work has to be done to overcome this limitation. Finding cheap routes for the synthesis of these materials is one of the greatest challenges facing researchers working in this area [21]. In this chapter, a great portion will be dedicated to the incorporation of ILs into the pores of MOFs to improve their CO2 capture capabilities.
Different technologies used for CO2 capture [22].
In order to evaluate solid materials for their performance in CO2 separation from flue gases, some important performance criteria must be met. These include:
Adsorption capacity: it is a key criteria in evaluating solid sorbent performance. It provides information on the amount of CO2 that could be adsorbed by a given solid material. It can be represented in terms of gravimetric uptake which is the amount of CO2 adsorbed per unit mass sorbent (gram CO2/gram sorbent, or cm3 CO2/gram sorbent). The volumetric uptake is another measure for capacity, and it reports the CO2 uptake per volume of sorbent material (gram CO2/cm3 sorbent, or cm3 CO2/cm3 sorbent). This criterion is of great importance because it represents the amount of sorbent needed for a particular duty and therefore the size of the adsorption bed. It is also considered a crucial factor in determining the energy requirement during the regeneration step.
Selectivity for CO2: it represents the CO2 uptake ratio to the adsorption of any other gas (typically nitrogen for post-combustion capture, and methane for natural gas). It is an essential evaluation criterion, and affects the purity of the adsorbed gas, which will significantly influence the sequestration of CO2. The simplest method to estimate the selectivity factor is to use single-component adsorption isotherms of CO2 and nitrogen.
Enthalpy of adsorption: it represents another critical parameter in the evaluation of the performance of solid sorbents. It is a measure of the energy required to regenerate the solid sorbent, and it therefore significantly influences the cost of the regeneration process. It represents the affinity of the material toward CO2 and measures the strength of the adsorbate–adsorbent interaction.
Physical, thermal, and chemical stability: in order to reduce operating costs, solid sorbents must demonstrate stability under flue gas conditions, adsorption operation conditions, and during the multi-cycle adsorption–regeneration process. In particular, stability in the presence of water vapor is essential for the sustainable performance of the solid sorbent. In addition to thermal properties of the solid sorbent, heat capacity and thermal conductivity are also important in heat transfer operations.
Adsorption/desorption kinetics: the time of the adsorption–regeneration cycle greatly depends on the kinetics of the CO2 adsorption–desorption profile, which is measured in breakthrough experiments. Sorbents that adsorb and desorb CO2 in a shorter time are preferred as these reduce the cycle time as well as the amount of sorbent required, and ultimately the cost of CO2 separation.
Cost of the sorbent material: it is an important factor in the selection of the sorbent material. Materials that exhibit excellent adsorption attributes, and are readily available at low cost, are considered the main targets for researchers working in the field of CO2 capture. Besides, the environmental impact of synthesizing these materials is considered one of the greatest challenges to overcome.
In the following sections, we describe the main solid sorbents used for CO2 capture, their applications, major attributes, and limitations.
Zeolites are porous crystalline aluminosilicate materials available naturally, but can also be prepared synthetically. The zeolite framework is composed of tetrahedral T atoms where T could be Si or Al, connected by oxygen atoms to form rings of different pore structures and sizes. The pore size of the zeolite framework varies between 5 and 12 Å [23]. They are widely used as catalysts in the refining industry [24, 25], fine chemicals synthesis [26, 27], and in gas separation applications [28, 29]. Zeolites are considered promising candidates in CO2 capture application as has been widely reported in the literature [30–32]. CO2 can be adsorbed on zeolites through different mechanisms, such as molecular sieving effect based on the difference in size [33, 34]. Separation can also take place based on polarization interactions between the gas molecule and the electric field on the charged cations in the zeolite framework [33]. Accordingly, CO2 removal with zeolites can be controlled by changing the pore size, polarity, and the nature of the extra framework cation. Among the different zeolites investigated for CO2 capture applications, zeolite 13X is the most widely studied sorbent, and is considered the benchmark technology for solid sorbents [35, 36]. Research on the use of zeolites as sorbents for CO2 capture can be categorized into different areas depending on the approach and the techniques adopted to address the improvement in capture performance. These categories comprise tuning the pore size, designing zeolites with controlled polarities, investigating novel zeolites, optimizing the cation exchange, and most recently incorporating amine moieties and other chemical functions into the zeolite frameworks. Ocean et al. [37] have studied the selectivity to adsorb CO2 by controlling the pore size of an NaKA zeolite through the synthesis of nanosized NaKA zeolites. Overall, the adsorption kinetics on the nanosized crystals was fast enough for CO2 capture applications; however, the formation of a thin layer on the nanosized NaKA zeolite, due to intergrowth on the surface, did not considerably improve the adsorption kinetics. In contrast, Goj et al. [38] performed atomistic simulations for silicalite, ITQ-3, and ITQ-7, and reported a positive effect on CO2 uptake and selectivity by tuning the pore apertures. Sravanthi et al. [39] provided a novel approach to control the pore size and volume by utilizing pore expansion agents and obtained average pore size around 30 nm. The application of the pore-expanded MCM-41 in CO2 separation resulted in the uptake of about 1.2 mmol/g.
Several studies have been conducted to control zeolite affinity toward CO2, which can be realized by tuning the polarity of the zeolite through alteration of the Si/Al ratio and the nature of the cation. Remy et al. [33] studied the selective separation of CO2 on low-silica KFI zeolite (Si/Al = 1.67) by employing ion exchange with Na, Li, and K. Li-exchanged KFI has shown the highest CO2 uptake which was attributed to the large pore volume as compared to Na and K cations. In comparison with high-silica KFI sample (Si/Al = 3.57–3.67), Li–KFI had the highest capacity at low pressure due to the strong electrostatic field. The overlap between pore size and polarity effects is also strongly observed for amine-supported zeolites, which have gained considerable attention in the last few years [40–45]. For instance, Ahmad et al. [46] have impregnated melamine into β-zeolite and obtained dynamic CO2 uptake of 3.7 mmol/g at atmospheric pressure and temperature of 25 °C. The major challenge facing amine-modified zeolites is the tradeoff between the increased affinity toward CO2 (strong interaction with the sorbent) and the reduction in pore volume, and consequently the uptake, especially, at low pressures. Factors such as amines loading, distribution, and the nature of the cation can play a vital role to avoid the blockage of the porous structures with the bulky amine moieties [42, 47]. Kim et al. [48] have performed a rigorous investigation through the simulation of thousands of zeolites to evaluate the adsorption properties of these materials and identify the optimum structures for improved CO2 separation attributes. This study provides a systematic approach to rank and select appropriate zeolites for the required capture objectives. However, important factors such as stability under humid environment, adsorbent and process cost, and the availability of zeolite structures were not taken into consideration.
The hydrophilic nature of most zeolite structures is considered a major drawback of zeolites especially for post-combustion CO2 applications [49, 50]. Water competes with CO2 on the available sorption sites and might influence the zeolite structure and framework [51]. As explained earlier, the presence of the exposed cation sites increases CO2 uptake. In a recent study by Serena et al. [52], the relationship between the water content of the zeolite and the density of the cations was investigated, and a linear relationship was found to describe the decrease of the cation population with increasing water content. This observation highlights the detrimental effect of the presence of water vapor on the adsorption of CO2 on zeolites.
Carbon-based adsorbents have been used for CO2 separation in different forms including activated carbons (ACs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphenes. Activated carbons have an amorphous porous structure with high surface areas that are readily available for CO2 uptake. They have been widely investigated as sorbents for CO2 removal due to their low cost and the availability of raw materials [53–55]. However, there are no active sites to bond with the adsorbed CO2 as cations in zeolite sorbents. This weak interaction results in lower enthalpy and therefore lower energy requirement for regeneration. On the contrary, ACs have very low CO2 uptake at low pressures due to the absence of the electric field on the surface. Kacem et al. [56] performed a comparison between the performance of ACs and zeolite for CO2/N2 and CO2/CH4 separation based on their capacity, regeneration capacity, and reusability. It was concluded that at higher pressures (above 4 bars), the CO2 uptake for ACs was much higher than zeolites. Also, the recovered CO2 after the regeneration of ACs had higher purity than in the case of zeolites. When compared to zeolites, ACs maintain their adsorption stability even in the presence of water vapor which does not cause any framework failure [57].
In order to enhance the adsorption capacity on ACs, several studies have been conducted in order to improve the affinity toward CO2 by introducing amine-based functional groups [58–61]. In a recent study, Maria et al. [62] described a systematic surface modification of microporous ACs through a stepwise chemical treatment. They were successful in grafting amine and amide functional groups on the surface of ACs with only 20% loss of surface area. Gibson et al. [63] studied the polyamine-impregnated porous carbons and achieved 12 times higher CO2 capacity than bare porous carbon. Chitosan and triethylenetetramine have been successfully impregnated onto the surface of ACs and have shown 60 and 90% increased CO2 uptake at 298 K and 40 bars. In addition to amine functional groups, ammonia-modified ACs, at atmospheric pressure and a temperature range from (303 to 333) K, have been studied [64]. Authors report that an enthalpy of 70.5 kJ/mol was obtained compared to 25.5 kJ/mol for the pristine ACs, suggesting the possibility of chemisorption. Another report has also supported the improved adsorption capacity and selectivity by employing NH3 at high temperature and has considerably improved CO2 uptake from 2.9 mmol/g for the bare AC to 3.22 mmol/g for the modified one at 303 K and 1 bar.
Several studies have been dedicated to the application of amine-modified carbon nano tubes (CNTs) as solid sorbents for CO2 separation [65–69]. Industrial grade CNTs have been functionalized with tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) by Liu et al. [65], and the effects of amine loadings on the CO2 uptake, heat of adsorption, and adsorbent regenerability were investigated. TEPA-impregnated CNTs have shown an enhanced capacity of 3.09 mmol/g at 343 K. Similar studies were also reported using different amines such as (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) [70], polyethyleneimine (PEI) [67], and other amines (primary, secondary, tertiary, diamines, and tri-amines) [71].
Graphene is a planar sheet of carbon atoms extended in two dimensions, and was discovered in 2004 [72]. Graphite-based capture was recently introduced (after 2011) as a promising candidate for CO2 capture applications, and research is growing rapidly in this area [73–77]. A recent review by Najafabadi is available on the current status and research trends of using graphene and its derivatives as solid sorbents for CO2 capture [78]. Research in this area involves grafting various functional groups on graphene such as N-doped graphene composites (surface area = 1336 m2/g), as reported by Kemp et al. [79], which showed a reversible CO2 capacity of 2.7 mmol/g at 298 K and 1 atm as well as enhanced stability for repeated adsorption cycles. Borane-modified graphene was also reported by Oh et al. [80], obtaining a CO2 uptake of 1.82 mmol/g at 298 K and 1 atm. Some novel hybrid materials have also been introduced to obtain better improvements in the adsorption properties, including mesoporous graphene oxide (GO)-ZnO nanocomposite [81], mesoporous TiO2/graphene oxide nanocomposites [82], Mg–Al layered double hydroxide (LDH), graphene oxide [83], MOF-5 and aminated graphite oxide (AGO) [84], UiO-66/graphene oxide composites [85], and MIL-53(Al) and its hybrid composite with graphene nanoplates (GNP) [86].
A more recent class of porous materials was manufactured and named metal organic frameworks. They represent one of the promising adsorbents and have gained significant attention during recent years for gas separation applications [87, 88]. MOFs are composed of metal ions or clusters (nodes) bridged by organic ligands (connecters) to form various structures and networks. MOFs are well recognized for their extraordinary surface areas, ultrahigh porosity, and most importantly the flexibility to tune the porous structure as well as the surface functionality due to the presence of organic ligands that can easily be chemically modified [89, 90]. One main advantage of MOFs over other solid materials is the possibility to tailor the pore size and functionality by rational selection of the organic ligand, functional group, metal ion, and activation method.
Several review papers are available in the literature for gas separation using MOFs [91–96]; however, great progress has been achieved during the past four years (2012 onward). In order to address the limitations of MOFs and investigate new structures, novel functional groups, in addition to hybrid systems and technologies, more studies are needed to explore the mechanisms involved and to improve the uptake capacity in a humid environment. For these reasons, considerable effort has been observed during the past decade to address gas separation and adsorption using MOFs. Figure 2 shows the number of publications on CO2 capture and separation using MOFs during the past 15 years, which reflects the growing interest of MOFs as efficient solid sorbents.
Number of publications on CO2 capture using MOFs (based on Web of Science database)
CO2 capture performance of different MOFs will be comprehensively reviewed in terms of their capacity, selectivity, heat of reaction, and major challenges facing researchers, and some ideas to approach these challenges will also be provided. The next section is dedicated to review the most recent studies of CO2 capture and separation on MOFs, and we will mainly target the works published in the last four years.
As introduced earlier, capacity, selectivity, and heat of adsorption are considered the main criteria for the evaluation of MOFs for CO2 separation. CO2 uptake is a proportional function of pressure in the gas phase, where the low pressure corresponds to post-combustion applications. The gravimetric uptake of CO2 is indicative of the ability of MOFs to adsorb CO2 and, therefore, we have reported CO2 uptake along with MOF surface area, and other properties for MOFs published after 2012 which could be added to the published reviews that have listed these data in a table format. Table 1 represents the properties of MOFs at high-pressure applications, while Table 2 presents the low-pressure data.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tSurface Area (m2/g)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Common name | \n\t\t\tBET | \n\t\t\tLangmuir | \n\t\t\tCapacity (wt%) | \n\t\t\tPressure (bar) | \n\t\t\tTemp. (K) | \n\t\t\tSelectivity | \n\t\t\tQst (kJ/mol) | \n\t\t\tRef. | \n\t\t
UiO(bpdc) | \n\t\t\t2646 | \n\t\t\t2965 | \n\t\t\t72.5 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [97] | \n\t\t
ZJU-32 | \n\t\t\t3831 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 49 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [98] | \n\t\t
UPG-1 | \n\t\t\t410 | \n\t\t\t514 | \n\t\t\t11.9 | \n\t\t\t9.8 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t[99] | \n\t\t
Cu3(H2L2)(bipy)2.11H2O | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 6.4 | \n\t\t\t8.5 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [100] | \n\t\t
Cu3(H2L2)(etbipy)2.24H2O | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 4.7 | \n\t\t\t9.6 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [100] | \n\t\t
NU-111 | \n\t\t\t4932 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 61.8 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t23\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[101] | \n\t\t
HTS-MIL-101 | \n\t\t\t3482 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 52.8 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [102] | \n\t\t
DGC-MIL-101 | \n\t\t\t4198 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 59.8 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [102] | \n\t\t
UTSA-62a | \n\t\t\t2190 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 43.7 | \n\t\t\t55 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 16 | \n\t\t\t[103] | \n\t\t
ZIF-7 | \n\t\t\t312 | \n\t\t\t355 | \n\t\t\t20.9 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 33 | \n\t\t\t[104] | \n\t\t
{Ag3[Ag5(l3-3,5-Ph2tz)6](NO3)2}n | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 12.3 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t10.5 | \n\t\t\t19.1 | \n\t\t\t[105] | \n\t\t
{Ag3[Ag5(l3-3,5-tBu2tz)6](BF4)2}n | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 5.4 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t[105] | \n\t\t
Basolite® C 300 | \n\t\t\t1706.42 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 41.9 | \n\t\t\t224.99 | \n\t\t\t318 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 18 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
Basolite® F300 | \n\t\t\t1716.46 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 24.1 | \n\t\t\t224.99 | \n\t\t\t318 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 19 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
Basolite® A100 | \n\t\t\t1524.8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 26.9 | \n\t\t\t224.99 | \n\t\t\t318 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-8 | \n\t\t\t1599 | \n\t\t\t1801 | \n\t\t\t7.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 21.1 | \n\t\t\t[107] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-8-NO2 | \n\t\t\t832 | \n\t\t\t926 | \n\t\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 35.4 | \n\t\t\t[107] | \n\t\t
MIL-101(Cr) | \n\t\t\t2549 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 24.2 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [108] | \n\t\t
HKUST-1 | \n\t\t\t1326 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 26.3 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [108] | \n\t\t
DMOF | \n\t\t\t1980 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 38.1 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t12a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-DM1/2 | \n\t\t\t1500 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 27.5 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-Br | \n\t\t\t1320 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 24.3 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-NO2 | \n\t\t\t1310 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 32 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-TM1/2 | \n\t\t\t1210 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 23.9 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-TF | \n\t\t\t1210 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 16.2 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t9a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-Cl2 | \n\t\t\t1180 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 26.4 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-OH | \n\t\t\t1130 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 24.8 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-DM | \n\t\t\t1120 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 25.4 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t23a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-TM | \n\t\t\t1050 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 23.6 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t28a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-A | \n\t\t\t760 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 17.1 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\ta IAST selectivity | \n\t\t
Adsorption capacities at high pressure
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tSurface Area (m2/g)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Common name | \n\t\t\tBET | \n\t\t\tLangmuir | \n\t\t\tCapacity (wt%) | \n\t\t\tPressure (bar) | \n\t\t\tTemp. (K) | \n\t\t\tSelectivity | \n\t\t\tQst (kJ/mol) | \n\t\t\tRef. | \n\t\t
rht-MOF-pyr | \n\t\t\t2100 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 12.7 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 28 | \n\t\t\t[110] | \n\t\t
rht-MOF-1 | \n\t\t\t2100 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 11 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 29 | \n\t\t\t[110] | \n\t\t
JLU-Liu22 | \n\t\t\t1487 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 15.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 30 | \n\t\t\t[111] | \n\t\t
SIFSIX-3-Zn | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 8.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [112] | \n\t\t
SIFSIX-3-Cu | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 9.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [112] | \n\t\t
SIFSIX-3-Co | \n\t\t\t223 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 47 | \n\t\t\t[112] | \n\t\t
SIFSIX-3-Ni | \n\t\t\t368 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 51 | \n\t\t\t[112] | \n\t\t
{[H2N(CH3)2]4[Zn9O2(BTC)6(H2O)3].3DMA}cn\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t844 | \n\t\t\t1132 | \n\t\t\t10.9 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 29 | \n\t\t\t[113] | \n\t\t
{[NH2(CH3)2, Cd(BTC)].DMA}n\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t406 | \n\t\t\t539 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t34.7 | \n\t\t\t[113] | \n\t\t
Ni-DOBDC | \n\t\t\t798 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 18.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [114] | \n\t\t
Py-Ni-DOBDC | \n\t\t\t409 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 12 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [114] | \n\t\t
UiO(bpdc) | \n\t\t\t2646 | \n\t\t\t2965 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [97] | \n\t\t
ZJU-32 | \n\t\t\t3831 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 4.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [98] | \n\t\t
Cu-TDPAH | \n\t\t\t1762 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 18.4 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t200a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t33.8 | \n\t\t\t[115] | \n\t\t
Zn/Ni-ZIF-8-1000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 750 | \n\t\t\t9.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t30a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t61.2 | \n\t\t\t[116] | \n\t\t
ZIF-8-1000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 9.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t23.5a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t49.7 | \n\t\t\t[116] | \n\t\t
Zn(5-mtz)(2-eim).(guest) [ZTIF-1] | \n\t\t\t1430 | \n\t\t\t1981 | \n\t\t\t8.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t295 | \n\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t22.5 | \n\t\t\t[117] | \n\t\t
Zn(5-mtz)(2-pim).(guest) [ZTIF-2] | \n\t\t\t1287 | \n\t\t\t1461 | \n\t\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t295 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20 | \n\t\t\t[117] | \n\t\t
UTSA-49 | \n\t\t\t710.5 | \n\t\t\t1046.6 | \n\t\t\t13.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t95.8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | [118] | \n\t\t
ZJNU-40 | \n\t\t\t2209 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 16.4 | \n\t\t\t1.01 | \n\t\t\t296 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 18.4 | \n\t\t\t[119] | \n\t\t
UPG-1 | \n\t\t\t410 | \n\t\t\t514 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t[99] | \n\t\t
InOF-8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 6.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t295 | \n\t\t\t45.2 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | [120] | \n\t\t
Cu3(H2L1)(bipy)2.9H2O | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 2.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [100] | \n\t\t
Cu3(H2L2)(bipy)2.11H2O | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 2.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [100] | \n\t\t
Cu3(H2L2)(etbipy)2.24H2O | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 0.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [100] | \n\t\t
UiO-66(Zr100) | \n\t\t\t1390 | \n\t\t\t1644 | \n\t\t\t6.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 26 | \n\t\t\t[121] | \n\t\t
UiO-66(Ti32) | \n\t\t\t1418 | \n\t\t\t1703 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 28 | \n\t\t\t[121] | \n\t\t
UiO-66(Ti44) | \n\t\t\t1749 | \n\t\t\t2088 | \n\t\t\t7.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 34 | \n\t\t\t[121] | \n\t\t
UiO-66(Ti56) | \n\t\t\t1844 | \n\t\t\t2200 | \n\t\t\t8.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 37 | \n\t\t\t[121] | \n\t\t
NU-111 | \n\t\t\t4932 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 4.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 23 | \n\t\t\t[101] | \n\t\t
JLU-Liu1 | \n\t\t\t145 | \n\t\t\t221 | \n\t\t\t5.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 47.7 | \n\t\t\t[122] | \n\t\t
HTS-MIL-101 | \n\t\t\t3482 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 12.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [102] | \n\t\t
DGC-MIL-101 | \n\t\t\t4164 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 14.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [102] | \n\t\t
UNLPF-1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 13.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t273 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [123] | \n\t\t
UTSA-62a | \n\t\t\t2190 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 16 | \n\t\t\t[103] | \n\t\t
[Zn2(BME-bdc)x(DB-bdc)2_xdabco]n | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 21.7 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [124] | \n\t\t
Zn-DABCO | \n\t\t\t1870 | \n\t\t\t1902 | \n\t\t\t7.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 22.4 | \n\t\t\t[125] | \n\t\t
Ni-DABCO | \n\t\t\t2120 | \n\t\t\t2219 | \n\t\t\t8.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 25.8 | \n\t\t\t[125] | \n\t\t
Cu-DABCO | \n\t\t\t1616 | \n\t\t\t1678 | \n\t\t\t6.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 22.4 | \n\t\t\t[125] | \n\t\t
Co-DABCO | \n\t\t\t2022 | \n\t\t\t2095 | \n\t\t\t4.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 29.8 | \n\t\t\t[125] | \n\t\t
ZnAcBPDC | \n\t\t\t920 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 11.7 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t293 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [126] | \n\t\t
ZnBuBPDC | \n\t\t\t850 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7.6 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t\t293 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [126] | \n\t\t
Mg/DOBDC | \n\t\t\t1415.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 25 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 47 | \n\t\t\t[127] | \n\t\t
Co/DOBDC | \n\t\t\t1089.3 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 21.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 37 | \n\t\t\t[127] | \n\t\t
Ni/DOBDC | \n\t\t\t1017.5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 42 | \n\t\t\t[127] | \n\t\t
MIL-100(Cr) | \n\t\t\t1528.7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [127] | \n\t\t
ZIF-7 | \n\t\t\t312 | \n\t\t\t355 | \n\t\t\t9.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [104] | \n\t\t
{Ag3[Ag5(l3-3,5-Ph2tz)6](NO3)2}n | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t10.5 | \n\t\t\t19.1 | \n\t\t\t[105] | \n\t\t
{Ag3[Ag5(l3-3,5-tBu2tz)6](BF4)2}n | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t[105] | \n\t\t
CuBTTri | \n\t\t\t1700 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t293 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [128] | \n\t\t
pip-CuBTTri | \n\t\t\t380 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t293 | \n\t\t\t130a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t96.5 | \n\t\t\t[128] | \n\t\t
Basolite® C 300 | \n\t\t\t1706.42 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9.4 | \n\t\t\t0.95 | \n\t\t\t318 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 18 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
Basolite® F300 | \n\t\t\t1716.46 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 2.4 | \n\t\t\t0.95 | \n\t\t\t318 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 19 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
Basolite® A100 | \n\t\t\t1524.8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 4.4 | \n\t\t\t0.95 | \n\t\t\t318 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-8 | \n\t\t\t1599 | \n\t\t\t1801 | \n\t\t\t51.2 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 21.1 | \n\t\t\t[107] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-8-NO2 | \n\t\t\t832 | \n\t\t\t926 | \n\t\t\t31.3 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 35.4 | \n\t\t\t[107] | \n\t\t
CPM-5 | \n\t\t\t2187 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t16.1 | \n\t\t\t36.1 | \n\t\t\t[129] | \n\t\t
Ni-MOF-74 | \n\t\t\t1252 | \n\t\t\t1841 | \n\t\t\t19.4 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [130] | \n\t\t
Mg-MOF-74 | \n\t\t\t1416 | \n\t\t\t2085 | \n\t\t\t30.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [130] | \n\t\t
MIL-101(Cr) | \n\t\t\t2549 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [108] | \n\t\t
HKUST-1 | \n\t\t\t1326 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 13.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [108] | \n\t\t
[Cu(tba)2]n | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 7.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t293 | \n\t\t\t25a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t36.0 | \n\t\t\t[131] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-74-III-CH3 | \n\t\t\t2640 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [132] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-74-III -NH2 | \n\t\t\t2720 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.4 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [132] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-74-III- CH2NHBoc | \n\t\t\t2170 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [132] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-74-III-CH2NMeBoc | \n\t\t\t2220 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [132] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-74-III-CH2NH2 | \n\t\t\t2310 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [132] | \n\t\t
IRMOF-74-III-CH2NHMe | \n\t\t\t2250 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [132] | \n\t\t
DMOF | \n\t\t\t1980 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t12a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-DM1/2 | \n\t\t\t1500 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-Br | \n\t\t\t1320 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.4 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-NO2 | \n\t\t\t1310 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-TM1/2 | \n\t\t\t1210 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-TF | \n\t\t\t1210 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 3.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t9a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-Cl2 | \n\t\t\t1180 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t17a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-OH | \n\t\t\t1130 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-DM | \n\t\t\t1120 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t23a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-TM | \n\t\t\t1050 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 13.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t28a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
DMOF-A | \n\t\t\t760 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [109] | \n\t\t
CPM-33a | \n\t\t\t966 | \n\t\t\t1257 | \n\t\t\t12.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 22.5 | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
CPM-33b | \n\t\t\t808 | \n\t\t\t1119 | \n\t\t\t19.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 25 | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
Ni3OH(NH2bdc)3tpt | \n\t\t\t805 | \n\t\t\t1115 | \n\t\t\t14.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 21.5 | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
Ni3OH(1,4-ndc)3tpt | \n\t\t\t222 | \n\t\t\t310 | \n\t\t\t4.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 25.3 | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
Ni3OH(2,6-ndc)3tpt | \n\t\t\t1002 | \n\t\t\t1392 | \n\t\t\t7.9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 24.7 | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
Ni3OH(bpdc)3tpt | \n\t\t\t724 | \n\t\t\t1009 | \n\t\t\t5.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 18.7 | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
ZIF-7-S | \n\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 3.7 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [134] | \n\t\t
ZIF-7-D | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [134] | \n\t\t
ZIF-7-R | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8.7 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t303 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 34 | \n\t\t\t[134] | \n\t\t
HKUST-1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 2203 | \n\t\t\t12.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
Fe-MIL-100 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 2990 | \n\t\t\t6.6 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
Zn(pyrz)2(SiF6) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 10.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
Mg2(dobpdc) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1940 | \n\t\t\t23.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
Ni2(dobpdc) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1593 | \n\t\t\t21.2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
mmen-Mg2(dobpdc) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 15.8 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
mmen-Ni2(dobpdc) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 7.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
mmen-CuBTTri | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 11.3 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t313 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [135] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\ta IAST selectivity | \n\t\t
Adsorption capacities at low pressure
Several strategies have been adopted to improve the performance of MOFs in CO2 capture applications. The ability to precisely tune the MOF structures has led to versatile approaches that can be utilized to enhance CO2 uptake, selectivity, and the affinity toward CO2. These methods could be classified into effects of open metal sites, pre-synthetic modifications of the organic ligand, and post-synthetic functionalization schemes.
Open metal sites in MOFs are formed by the removal of a solvent molecule coordinated to the metal nodes by applying vacuum and/or heat after the synthesis of framework in a process called “activation.” The presence of open metal sites on the MOF framework has a great impact on the selectivity toward CO2 as well as on the binding energy between the adsorbed CO2 molecules and the surface of MOF sorbents. These coordinately open metal centers act as binding sites where CO2 molecules can attach and bind to the pore surface by the induction of dipole–quadrupole interactions. Allison et al. [136] have developed a systematic procedure to precisely understand the interactions between the CO2 molecule and the force field generated by the open metal sites in MOF-74. The developed method allows for accurate estimation of adsorption isotherms using computational approach which enables the evaluation of different hypothetical open metal sites. These observations confirm previous findings of Kong et al. on understanding CO2 dynamics in MOFs with open metal centers [137]. Among the MOF family, HKUST-1, M-MIL-100, M-MIL-101, and M-MOF-74 are the most widely studied frameworks with open metal sites (M represents the metal site). However, to precisely investigate the influence of the open metal sites, we need to isolate the effects of the nature of organic ligands, the synthesis route, and functional groups present in the framework. It was observed that utilizing light metal sites provides higher surface areas, and therefore improve CO2 uptake at low pressures for MOF-74 [138]. Several studies have reported the effects of metal centers using computational approach as reported for M-MOF-74 [138–140] where noble metals such as Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, and Pt are considered promising candidates for CO2 capture (see Figure 3).
Top: ΔE for CO2 adsorption (in kJ/mol) in M-MOF-74. Bottom: Magnitude of the adsorption energy of CO2 relative to H2O. A positive value in this plot means that CO2 binds more strongly than H2O (Adapted from [139]).
Casey et al. [141] studied the isostructural series of HKUST-1 for various metal centers (Mo, Ni, Zn, Fe, Cu, and Cr) to get insights into the adsorption mechanism and the force field created by different metal types. It was found that the presence of divalent metals such as Mg2+ significantly increased CO2 binding strength and resulted in higher selectivity toward CO2. In addition to the nature of the metal nodes, it was found that the activation method plays a vital role in determining CO2 uptake and affinity toward CO2 which was in agreement with Llewellyn et al. [142] for MIL-100 and MIL-101, where various activation methods resulted in different CO2 loadings and heat of adsorption.
In a recent study, Cabelo and coworkers [143] investigated the interaction between CO2 and the unsaturated Cr(III), V(III), and Sc(III) metal sites in MIL-100 framework using variable temperature infrared spectroscopy. The enthalpy of adsorption for Cr(III), V(III), and Sc(III) were amounted to be (−63, −54, and −48) kJ/mol, respectively, which are considered among the highest values for CO2 adsorption on MOFs with open metal centers to date. The synthesis and characterization of an M-DABCO series (M = Ni, Co, Cu, Zn) were described by Sumboon et al. [125] to systematically evaluate the effect of the metal identity on surface area, pore volume, and CO2 uptake. It was concluded that Ni-DABCO has shown the highest pore volume and specific surface area due to the high charge density present at the metal center. Comparison of the M-DABCO with activated carbons and MIL-100(Cr) revealed that the unsaturated cations possess exceptional CO2 uptake of 180 cm3/g at 1 bar and 298 K [as compared to 30 cm3/g for ACs and 60 cm3/g for MIL-100(Cr),144].
Organic ligands are the linkers that connect the metal nodes together and therefore determine the framework structure, pore volume, pore window, and surface area which are very crucial characteristics in CO2 separation process. Ligand functionalization is considered to be a powerful tool to improve the adsorption of CO2 on MOFs due to the wide range of functional groups and the ease of modifying the organic ligand through strong covalent interactions. In a recent computational work by Torrissi et al., the impacts of various functional groups attached to the ligand part were investigated by density functional theory (DFT) [145]. The incorporation of amine functional moieties to the organic ligands has witnessed much attention in recent years, due to the proven positive effect of the presence of open nitrogen sites on the MOF frameworks [146]. Keceli et al. [147] studied four biphenyl ligands modified with amide groups of different chain lengths. Varying the length of the alkylamide group has shown a great impact on the porosity, surface area, and CO2 capacity. It was also evident that the activation procedure has great influence on the surface area of the resulting material which is attributed to the different mechanisms of solvent removal from the MOF framework. Three amino-functionalized MOFs have been prepared from 2-aminoterephthalate (ABDC) and three different metals (Mg, Co, and Sr). Despite a low surface area (63, 71, and 2.5 for Mg, Co, and Sr, respectively) and a relatively low CO2 uptake (1.4 mmol/g at 1 bar and 298 K), the prepared MOFs had exceptional selectivity toward CO2 (396 was recorded for Mg-ABDC) and exhibited high heat of adsorption [148]. Shimizu and coworkers [149] used 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole ligands to design a 3D structure MOF with 782 m2/g surface area and 0.19 cm3/g pore volume that is capable to achieve CO2 uptake of 4.35 mmol/g at 1.2 bar and 273 K. Moreover, the as-synthesized MOF has shown enthalpy of adsorption of 40.8 kJ/mol at zero coverage which was comparable to the commercial zeolite NaX (48.2 kJ/mol). In a similar study, Xiong et al. [118] used triazole ligands to prepare a new framework called UTSA-49 by incorporating nitrogen atoms and methyl functional groups on 5-methyl-1H-tetrazole ligands which recorded 13.6 wt% CO2 uptake at 1 bar and 298 K and 27 kJ/mol enthalpy (Figure 4). These observations were in agreement with work reported by Gao et al. for the influence of triazolate linkers [150]. It is essential to understand the synergistic effect between the multiple functional groups on the pore surface and their size exclusion effects which are considered potential approaches to optimize the performance of functionalized MOFs. Table 3 summarizes CO2 capture properties of MOFs modified with different amino functional groups.
(a) Adsorption (solid) and desorption (open) isotherms of carbon dioxide (red circles), methane (blue squares), and nitrogen (green triangles) on UTSA-49a at 298 K. (b) Mixture adsorption isotherms and adsorption selectivity predicted by IAST of UTSA-49a for CO2 (50%) and CH4 (50%) at 298 K. (c) Mixture adsorption isotherms predicted by IAST of UTSA-49a for CO2 and N2 (10:90, 15:85, and 20:80) at 298 K. (d) Mixture selectivity predicted by IAST of UTSA-49a for CO2 and N2 (10:90, 15:85, and 20:80) at 298 K. Adapted from [118].
\n\t\t\t\tMOF name\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tType of functional group\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCO2 uptake (wt. %)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEnthalpy of adsorption (kJ/mol)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPressure\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTemperature\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSurface area (m2/g)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tRef.\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
ZIF-10 | \n\t\t\tIM | \n\t\t\t20.9 | \n\t\t\t14.9 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t[151] | \n\t\t
ZIF-68 | \n\t\t\t(bIM)(nIM) | \n\t\t\t41.3 | \n\t\t\t33.3 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t1220 | \n\t\t\t[151] | \n\t\t
ZIF-69 | \n\t\t\t(cbIM)(nIM) | \n\t\t\t38.1 | \n\t\t\t25.9 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t1070 | \n\t\t\t[151] | \n\t\t
ZIF-71 | \n\t\t\tdcIM | \n\t\t\t18.0 | \n\t\t\t19.4 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t[151] | \n\t\t
Cu2(L)(H2O)2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPyrazol | \n\t\t\t32 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t844.5 | \n\t\t\t[152] | \n\t\t
[Zn2(L)] | \n\t\t\tPyrazol | \n\t\t\t37.4 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t1075.4 | \n\t\t\t[152] | \n\t\t
[Cd2(L)] | \n\t\t\tPyrazol | \n\t\t\t24.6 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t571.7 | \n\t\t\t[152] | \n\t\t
[Co2(L)(H2O)6] | \n\t\t\tPyrazol | \n\t\t\t31.6 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t734.6 | \n\t\t\t[152] | \n\t\t
Zn4(bpta)2-1 | \n\t\t\tBipyridine pillar ligands | \n\t\t\t8.2 | \n\t\t\t34.82 | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t413 | \n\t\t\t[153] | \n\t\t
Zn4(bpta)2-1 | \n\t\t\tBipyridine pillar ligands | \n\t\t\t3.1 | \n\t\t\t27.69 | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t51 | \n\t\t\t[153] | \n\t\t
Cu2L (DMA)4 | \n\t\t\tAcrylamide | \n\t\t\t22.2 | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t296 | \n\t\t\t1433 | \n\t\t\t[154] | \n\t\t
Zn(ad)(ain) | \n\t\t\t2-Aminoisonicotinate and adeninate | \n\t\t\t9.2 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t399 | \n\t\t\t[155] | \n\t\t
bio-MOF-11 | \n\t\t\tAdenine | \n\t\t\t22.2 | \n\t\t\t33.1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t273 | \n\t\t\t1148 | \n\t\t\t[156] | \n\t\t
bio-MOF-12 | \n\t\t\tAdenine | \n\t\t\t16.2 | \n\t\t\t38.4 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t273 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t[156] | \n\t\t
bio-MOF-13 | \n\t\t\tAdenine | \n\t\t\t10.4 | \n\t\t\t40.5 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t273 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t[156] | \n\t\t
bio-MOF-14 | \n\t\t\tAdenine | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t273 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t[156] | \n\t\t
Cu(tba)2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTriazol | \n\t\t\t7.3 | \n\t\t\t36 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t293 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t[131] | \n\t\t
CO2 uptake for MOFs modified with amine containing ligands
Apart from amine groups, there are other functional moieties that are proven to be effective in enhancing the performance of MOFs in CO2 capture. Phosphonate and sulfonate organic ligands have gained tremendous attention recently due to their significant improvements in MOF stability toward water [157]. Several studies are reported based on the use of phosphonate and sulfonate ligands, for instance, the selective CO2/N2 separation over nitrogen-containing phosphonate MOFs was studied by Marco et al. [100], and the synthesis, stability, porosity of the phosphonate MOFs [158], and their major applications were reported for water stability studies [159–161]. The shielding effect exhibited by phosphonate groups were responsible for the improved stability under humid conditions up to 90% relative humidity at 353 K as observed for CALF-30 [161]. The enhanced water stability of these MOFs was attributed to the kinetic blocking effect which makes the framework completely hydrophobic [159].
MOFs containing nitrogen-donor building blocks were also widely investigated, particularly adenine group which was extensively used due to framework robustness, richness in nitrogen sites, and framework diversity [162]. Song et al. [163] reported the preparation of three new adenine-based MOFs by controlling the adenine coordination with Cd metal sites. This study has provided insight into the controlled synthesis of MOFs by controlling the structure building units (SBU) which can be utilized to extend the idea to include multiple building units within the same framework. Similar studies are also available based on adenine groups as building units, where the effect of the adenine functionalization on framework topology, porosity, and adsorption behavior was investigated [164]. The use of Zn-adeninate SBU led to the discovery of highly porous Bio-MOF-11 to 14 series [165] and Bio-MOF-100 [166] with exceptional surface area (4300 m2/g) and very large pore volume (4.3cm3/g); however, the framework stability of these materials still needs to be addressed as the material tends to lose its porosity under harsh activation environment. This issue has been tackled by Zhang et al. [167] to prepare more stable adenine-based PCN-530 structure. Lin et al. have observed high density of open nitrogen-donor sites on 1,3,5-tris(2H-tetrazol-5-yl)benzene (H3BTT) which was responsible for the enhanced CO2 capacity [146] through the improvement of the framework porosity and the utilization of nitrogen sites readily available to adsorb CO2. However, the richness of nitrogen atoms in the framework does not necessarily favor CO2 adsorption, as reported by Gao et al. [110] for the case of tetrazolate-based rth-MOF that has more exposed nitrogen sites as compared to pyrazolate-based rht-MOF and yet was showing less CO2 uptake attributed to the strong electric field observed on the pyrazolate-based rht-MOF.
Other ligand modifications are also reported in literature by deploying several types of functional groups such as hydroxyl groups (OH) on Zn(BDC) [168], (CH3)2, (OH), and (COOH) on MIL-53(Al) [145], NO2 on IRMOF-8 [107] as well as alkyl and nitro groups grafted on DUT-5 [169]. Based on the contribution by Yaghi’s group [170], several studies were dedicated to understand the effects of ligand extension on the pore size, surface area, and the sorption behavior of MOFs [98, 109, 133, 171–173]. Recently, zeolite-like MOFs denoted as ZTIFs have attracted great interest due to their unique characteristics for tuning the structure toward various applications [174, 175]. New frameworks (ZTIF-1 and ZTIF-2) were recently reported based on the incorporation of tetrazolates into Zn-Imidazolate structures [176], with similar structures. UTSA-49 was also reported by Chen and coworkers for the selective separation of CO2/N2 mixture [117].
Lately, the idea of mixed ligand approach for the synthesis of MOFs with tunable properties has gained much attention which allows for incorporating several functionalities within each ligand to target certain properties such as improving the stability and the capacity for CO2 simultaneously [177]. For instance, the water stability issue was tackled by Marco and coworkers [178] by utilizing two heterocyclic N-donor-mixed phosphonate-based organic ligands. The designed MOF has shown great water stability and achieved CO2 uptake of 77 cm3/g at low pressure and 195 K. By deploying the mixed-ligand approach, Liu et al. [179] have successfully prepared Co-based MOFs containing both benzenetricarboxylic- and triazole-based ligands by using a solvo-thermal synthesis technique. The synthesized MOFs displayed CO2 uptake of up to 15.2 wt. % at 1 bar and 295 K as well as remarkable selectivity toward nitrogen. A detailed investigation of mixed ligand approach in the design of MOFs is available in literature [180, 181]; however, further work is still needed to optimize the synthesis conditions and correlate the observed performance to the appropriate constituents on the organic ligands. Recent work by Yaghi et al. provided tools to quantitatively map different functional groups incorporated into the same MOF structure [182].
As mentioned previously, tuning the affinity of the framework functionalities toward CO2 is crucial for improving adsorptive capacities. The aim is to decorate the pore surface in order to have high adsorption selectivity and capacity and yet minimize the regeneration energy. In addition to the pre-synthetic modification of the organic linker, post-synthetic functionalization of MOFs (PSM) is considered a viable route to insert functionalities into the MOF structure after the formation of the basic framework. This approach can overcome the limitations observed in pre-synthetic functionalization, for instance precise control of the synthesis conditions is needed to preserve the functional groups during the solvo-thermal synthesis conditions. Note that some functional groups are not stable under synthesis conditions which require a narrow range of conditions to prepare the MOFs. Others, however, cannot be introduced to the synthesis mixture due to solubility issues, hindrance effects, and they might participate in the crystallization process and yield unwanted materials. Besides, inserting functional groups on the metal sites prior to the synthesis of the framework might intervene in the formation of the building units which can result in the deterioration of the crystal structure [183–185]. PSM is therefore considered an attractive pathway to tailor the properties of MOFs toward better CO2 capture performance.
In order to make use of high amine affinity toward CO2, several amine moieties were selected for the modification of various solid sorbents [186–189] including MOFs [190, 191]. Ethylene diamine (en) is considered the most commonly used type of amine for PSM of MOFs for CO2 capture application. In 2014, Lee et al. [192] reported grafting the diamine into the expanded MOF-74 or Mg(dopbdc) structure at amine loadings of 16.7 wt. % at room temperature which exhibited very high CO2 uptake of 13.7 wt% at 0.15 bar higher than the 12.1 wt. % capacity reported by McDonald et al. for N,N\'-dimethylethylenediamine (mmen) grafted on Mg(dopbdc) [173]. The isosteric heat of adsorption was recorded to be 49 to 51 kJ/mol indicating chemisorption of CO2 molecules which was further confirmed by the formation of carbamic acid probed by the in situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) experiments. The en grafted Mg(dopbdc) was further evaluated for the multicycle adsorption, and it has only lost 3% of its CO2 uptake after five cycles. Moreover, en-Mg(dopbdc) has also shown stable structure and capacity after exposure to different moisture contents, and therefore this material has a potential for large-scale CO2 capture (see Figure 5). NH2, CH2NH2, CH2NHMe along with other functional groups were recently grafted on IRMOF-74, and it was found that IRMOF-74-III-CH2NH2 displayed CO2 capacity of 3.2 mmol/g at 1 bar [132]. The sodalite-type structure Cu-BTTri was also grafted by en functional group [193] which showed chemisorption interaction with the adsorbed CO2 molecule as can be observed from the high isosteric heat of adsorption (90 kJ/mol). However, the en-Cu-BTTri has only shown improved capacity at low pressure while the unmodified MOF shows higher uptakes at high pressure which is attributed to the significant reduction in Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area from 1770 to 345 m2/g due to the pore blocking effect of the en group. In an attempt to address this issue, McDonald at al. functionalized mmen group on Cu-BTTri and preserved a BET surface area of 870 m2/g with 96 kJ/mol isosteric heat of adsorption, nitrogen selectivity of 327, and CO2 uptake of 9.5 wt.% under 0.15 bar CO2/0.75 bar N2 mixture at 25 °C. The negative impact of alkylamine functional groups on reducing the surface area was evident, and one approach to overcome this issue is to introduce ligand extension prior to the introduction of the amine group so as to increase the MOF porosity and avoid the pore-blocking problem during PSMs [132]. Also, a deep insight into the mechanism of CO2 adsorption on alkylamine-grafted MOFs is crucial to further understand the interactions for improved structural design and amine loadings [194]. Other amine functionalities such as piperazine were also grafted into Cu-BTTri [128] and exhibited 2.5 times higher CO2 uptake as compared to bare Cu-BTTri, while the heat of adsorption confirms the chemisorption interactions. The area reduction was also evident as it was reduced from 1700 m2/g to 380 m2/g (similar to ethylendiamin, (en)- Cu-BTTri [195]). Pyridine was also grafted on Ni-DOBDC to improve the water stability and increase the hydrophobicity of the material [196]. Experimental observations supported by simulations results confirmed the enhanced water stability for the Pyridine-Ni-DOBDC samples while maintaining the CO2 uptake at atmospheric conditions and low pressures. It was also concluded that the amine moiety was grafted on the unsaturated metal sites of the framework, which makes this approach desirable for amine functionalization. From a combined experimental and simulation study, it was found that pyridine modification of an MOF can reduce H2O adsorption while retaining considerable CO2 capacity at conditions of interest for flue gas separation. This indicates that post-synthesis modification of MOFs by coordinating hydrophobic ligands to unsaturated metal sites may be a powerful method to generate new sorbents for gas separation under humid conditions. Amine functionalization to target the water stability of MOFs will be further discussed in the next section.
Top: Adsorption isotherms of CO2 for 1-en at the indicated temperatures. Bottom: Adsorption–desorption cycling of CO2 for 1-en showing reversible uptake from (a) simulated air (0.39 mbar CO2 and 21% O2 balanced with N2) and from (b) simulated flue gas (0.15 bar CO2 balanced with N2). (c) time-dependent CO2 adsorption for porous materials (A = 1-en, B = mmen-Mg2(dobpdc), C = 1, D = Mg-MOF-74, E = Zeolite 13X, F = MOF-5). (d) CO2 adsorption ratio of 1-en in flue gas (after 6 min exposure to 100% RH at 21 °C) to 1-en in flue gas (Adapted from [192]).
It is evident from the previous discussion that amine impregnation into MOFs always sacrifices the surface area of the final product. Therefore, the choice of the amine that can improve the affinity toward CO2 and attain high surface area simultaneously is a trade-off issue. MIL-101 materials were reported to have the highest pore volume and surface area among MOFs to date (BET = 3125 m2/g and 1.63 cm3/g). Hence they allow the incorporation of amines with longer alkyl chains such as polyethyleneimine while at the same time maintaining relatively high surface area (1112.6 m2/g after 75 wt% amine loading). PEI-loaded MIL-101 prepared by Lin et al. [197] exhibited remarkably high CO2 uptake of 4.2 mmol/g at 0.15 bar and 298 K with exceptional CO2/N2 selectivity of 770 at 25 °C.
Optimization of amine loadings and distribution within the MOF structure is a detrimental factor for the impact of these functionalities on the performance in CO2 capture process. Precise control of the different factors during the grafting process is crucial to append these groups exactly on the unsaturated metal centers, while avoid blocking the pores and hindering access to the interior volume. Improving the PSM methods is considered one of the means to achieve the ideal grafting and amine distribution [191].
For more efficient utilization of MOFs sorbents, several hybrid systems based on MOFs with other solid sorbents have been investigated in the literature. The objective of having hybrid materials is to utilize the synergism between the two sorbents and therefore ultimately improve the overall performance in CO2 separation. Moreover, sorbents such as activated carbons, graphenes, and CNTs provide the added feature of high surface area and easily functionalized sites which contribute to the tuning of the final properties of the composite material. CNTs represent one of the effective candidates that can improve the properties of MOFs for gas adsorption applications. Zhu et al. [198] incorporated HKUST-1 in the interspace of CNTs. The designed composite exhibited superior selectivity and a CO2 saturation capacity of 7.83 mmol/g at 298 K, which was attributed to the high porosity and surface area. In a similar study, multiwall CNTs, well dispersed in MIL-101 (Cr), were successfully prepared and maintained the same framework and crystal structure as MIL-101. An increase of 60% in CO2 uptake was observed for the MWCNT-MIL-101 composite which was attributed to the increased porosity as a result of incorporating CNTs [199], as was confirmed by similar work on MWCNT-MIL-53(Cu) composite [200].
Graphene oxide composites with different MOFs are extensively reported in the literature such as HKUST-1 [201], MOF-5 [202], and Cu-BTC [203]. Graphite oxide (GO) is considered a stabilizing agent for MOFs under humid environment, and it has shown remarkable CO2 capacity of 3.3 mmol/g and great stability under simulated flue gas conditions for GO/Cu-BTC composite [203]. The synthesis of Cu-based MOFs composite with aminated graphite oxides (GO) was carried out and fully characterized by Zhao et al. [204]. The composite exhibited 50% enhanced porosity as compared to the parent MOF and displayed unique structure and pore sizes effective for size exclusion separation of CO2 from the flue gas. Silica aerogel (SA) was also investigated as a promising candidate for hybrid systems with ZIF-8 [205]. The detailed characterizations of the SA/ZIF-8 confirmed the presence of the two phases in the composite after sol–gel synthesis procedure with different ZIF-8 loadings and mild BET surface area [205].
Several composite materials have been reported for various applications; however, utilizing these hybrid systems in CO2 adsorption might be a promising route for improving the CO2 capture process. Ahmed et al. [206] published a review of information related to the synthesis and adsorption applications of MOF composite materials.
Ionic liquids as solvents for the absorption separation of CO2 from flue gas are discussed in Section 1.2 in order to overcome the limitations related to the poor dynamics of CO2 separation in ILs due to their high viscosity. MOFs can act as an ideal support material for the incorporation of ILs into their porous structure while preserving their unique properties. The concept of immobilization of ILs into solid sorbents has been reported for various applications. For instance, ILs immobilization on mesoporous silica was reported for the catalytic esterification reaction [207], ILs addition into polymer gels for ionic conductivity applications [208], ILs/Zeolite composites [209], in addition to several review papers available on this topic indicating the widespread use of this new approach over the past years [210, 211]. Computational investigation of the theoretical possibility of incorporating ILs into MOFs was studied by Jiang’s group for (BMIM)PF6 IL supported on IRMOF-1 for CO2 capture applications [212]. The confinement effects of the narrow pore on the ILs and the ionic interactions between [BMIM]+ favor the open pore while the anion, [PF6]−, was attached to the open metal sites, was observed in a simulation study. It was ascertained that CO2 was favorably attached to the [PF6]− anions sites. The study demonstrated that IL/MOF composites are a potential candidate for CO2 adsorption and have displayed significantly high CO2/N2 selectivity. To the best of our knowledge, the first report on an experimental attempt to immobilize ILs into MOF structures was published by Liu et al. [213] for the insertion of Bronsted acidic ILs (BAIL) into the pores of MIL-101 using post-synthetic approach with triethylene diamine (TEDA) or imidazole (IMIZ) as a solvent assisting during the functionalization process. Nitrogen adsorption isotherms of bare MIL-101, TEDA-BAIL/MIL-101, and all (IMIZ-BAIL/MIL-101) samples showed type-I isotherm indicating the microporous nature of the composite. BET surface area was 1873 m2/g for the bare MIL-101 which was slightly decreased to 1728 m2/g and 1148 m2/g for IMIZ-BAIL/MIL-101 and TEDA-BAIL/MIL-101, respectively. Following this leading report, Jhung’s group [214] successfully grafted up to 50 wt.% acidic chloroaluminate IL on MIL-101 which reduced the BET surface area of the bare MIL-101 by around 60%. The incorporation of ILs with basic nature which is favorable for CO2 adsorption was for the first time reported by Kitagawa et al. [215]. A detailed characterization and investigation of the phase behavior of the immobilized 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonylamide) denoted as EMI-TFSA ILs into ZIF-8 was presented in this study. A reduction of 29% in pore volume was measured in N2 adsorption isotherm experiments and computational calculations. The EMI-TFSA/ZIF-8 composite has shown distinctive ion conductivity at low temperature as reported in a second paper by the same group [216]. The prospect of IL/MOF composite for gas separation is still under computational investigation with no reported experimental studies of CO2 adsorption on these composites. Recently, Vincent-Luna et al. [15] investigated the effects of adding room temperature ILs (RTILs) into the pores of Cu-BTC structures. The adsorption of CO2, N2, CH4, and their mixtures were studied by utilizing various RTILs having the same cation 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium [EMIM]+ and different anions such as bis[(trifluoromethyl)-sulfonyl]imide [Tf2N]−, thiocyanate [SCN]−, nitrate [NO3]−, tetrafluoroborate [BF4]−, and hexafluorophosphate [PF6]−. The RTIL/Cu-BTC composite has shown enhanced CO2 uptakes at low pressures with high CO2/N2 selectivity due to the polarization driving force rendering these materials as a promising system for post-combustion CO2 capture. Another application of IL/MOF composite as a precursor for the preparation of nitrogen and boron–nitrogen (N- and BN-)-decorated porous carbons was recently reported by Aijaz et al. [217] as a novel synthesis strategy.
Another approach to utilize the combined synergistic advantages of MOF and IL composites is through a novel hybrid adsorption–absorption technology. This novel technology can provide an efficient approach to utilize the high capacity, selectivity, and low heat of adsorption of the solid sorbents along with the advantages of having a continuous flow process that allows for better heat integration and separation rates in contrast to the conventional batch process used in adsorption-only process. Mass transfer enhancement due to the dispersion of fine solids in liquid solvents was studied and insight into the mechanism and the analysis of different mass transfer resistances were described by Zhang and coworkers [218] which was in agreement with previous findings [219–221]. As far as enhancement of CO2 capture in slurry systems is concerned, a study dealing with AC particles dispersed in K2CO3 aqueous solution was reported by Sumin et al. [222] to investigate the influence of the hydrodynamics on the mass transfer improvements. In a similar work by Rosu et al. [223], AC particles were also found to improve the absorptive CO2 capture process. The unique characteristics of MOFs in CO2 adsorption and their recent applications in aqueous solution environment [224] have opened the door toward the possibility of immersing MOF particles in various physical and chemical solvents for CO2 separation application. This novel unit operation process can overcome the limitations reported for conventional adsorption on MOFs such as high pressure drop and the necessity for formulating the powders into different shapes and sizes which affects their structural stability and reduces the active surface area. Liu et al. [225] reported, for the first time, the preparation of ZIF-8/glycol and ZIF-8/glycol/2-methylimidazole slurries (Figure 6). CO2 uptake of 1.25 mmol/L was recorded for the slurry system with CO2/N2 selectivity of 394 at 1 bar, and most importantly a very low enthalpy of 29 kJ/mol. In a similar work by Lei et al. [226], ILs [EMIM, TF2N] and [OMIM, PF6] were used to prepare slurry systems with ZIF-8 and ZIF-7. CO2 adsorption in the slurry system has shown a promising performance with isosteric heat of adsorption less than 26 kJ/mol. Following these two studies, the solubility of CO2 in physical solvents such as methanol mixed with ZIF-8 was also investigated [227]. The study revealed that ZIF-8 can significantly improve the low pressure-CO2 uptake in physical solvents and can dramatically reduce the solvent losses by evaporation to the gas phase at the top of the absorber. Increasing ZIF-8 loadings has shown further enhancement of the CO2 capacity, as observed previously [225]; however, it is worth noting that a high solid loading in the slurry system was not recommended from process engineering point of view as it might cause some problems during the pumping of the slurry mixture and increases the solid losses in the multicycle separation process [225].
Top left: schematic of the slurry system. (a) Comparison of selectivity toward N2. (b) ab/adsorption enthalpy. (c) CO2 uptake at 303.15 K (Adapted from [225]).
For future studies on MOF-based slurry systems, there is basic selection of criteria that needs to be satisfied by both MOF and the liquid solution. The selection of the MOF possessing the appropriate pore size for the preparation of the slurry system is very important to guarantee that the size of the liquid is large enough and does not occupy the pores which leaves no space for CO2 to adsorb. Moreover, the structural stability of the MOF in the aqueous solution is essential so that it does not lose its porous framework nor its surface area. The selection of the liquid candidate is crucial, as it should not provide any extra mass transfer resistance for CO2 molecules. Further, experimental and computational investigations are still required to understand the separation mechanism in slurry mixtures and to have insight into the different types of interactions between the gas, liquid, and solid materials.
In conclusion, MOFs are considered the largest growing research area in CO2 capture, with great achievements and developments. Due to their versatile structures and possibilities for various functionalization approaches, the door is still open for further improvements and advancements of their performance under real flue gas conditions, and in large-scale applications. Although we have reported MOFs with distinguished properties and exceptional CO2 capacity, selectivity, and stability, there are still some concerns that need to be addressed before reaching commercial scale level. The lack of information about the performance of MOFs under real gas mixture conditions is one of the key issues to understand the actual working uptakes and identify any possible limitations. Further experimental testing of MOFs using, for example, a gas mixture containing all the impurities that might be present in an actual flue gas is needed high-throughput technique. Computational gas mixture studies can provide essential information in this regard; however, experimental investigation is still considered the most reliable approach. MOF stabilities in humid conditions, high temperature, and harsh mechanical stress situations must be given much attention. Several studies were performed to target MOF stability, and great achievements were recorded in this field [228, 229], as reviewed in references [160, 230]. Finally, in the following section, we focus on water stability studies as it is one of the main drawbacks of MOFs.
Water stability is a major challenge that has to be overcome before metal organic framework can be used in removing carbon dioxide from flue gas. The core structure of MOF reacts with water vapor content in the flue gas leading to severe distortion of the structure and even failure. As a consequence, the physical structure of MOF is changed, e.g., reduction of porosity and surface area, etc. that decreases the capacity and selectivity for CO2. Complete dehydration of flue gas increases the cost of separation. It is therefore essential for MOFs to exhibit stability in the presence of water up to certain extent [91].
Metal–ligand coordination bond, which is the most significant part of MOF, is hydrolyzed with water, resulting in the displacement of ligand bond; and as a consequence, the whole structure usually collapses [91]. The stability of MOF in the presence of water depends on the strength of metal ligand bond. pKa values of the ligand atom can be considered as the strength of this metal- ligand bond. Since the hydrolysis reaction between MOF and water molecule is governed by Gibbs free energy and activation energy of the reactant and product molecules, thermodynamics and kinetics factors have great influence on the water stability of MOF [160]. Insight into the molecular structure, more specifically the metal–ligand strength, the weakest part of MOF, and thermodynamics as well as kinetics study of hydrolysis reaction are very important to improve water stability. Several strategies based on these two important aspects have been taken into consideration.
Jasuja et al. [231] performed a study on the effects of functionalization of the organic ligand in a series of isostructural MOFs in the Zn(BDC-X)-(DABCO)0.5 family on water stability. In this experiment, they cyclically stabilized an unstable parent structure in humid conditions through the incorporation of tetramethyl-BDC ligand. The results of molecular simulation disclosed that the kinetic stability is improved due to the carboxylate oxygen in the DMOF-TM2 structure which acted as a shield to prevent hydrogen-bonding interactions and subsequent structural transformations. Hence, electrophilic zinc atoms in this structure became inaccessible to the nucleophilic oxygen atoms in water, resulting in prevention of the hydrolysis reactions for the displacement ligand. They also performed another study to evaluate the effect of strength of metal–ligand coordination bond and catenation in the framework on water stability [232]. According to their results, the non-interpenetrated MOFs constructed from a pillar ligand of higher pKa exhibited higher stability; however, interpenetrated MOFs constructed from a pillar ligand of lower pKa values exhibited less stability. The interpenetration in MOF with incorporation of ligands of relatively high basicity exhibited good water stability. By considering the results of previous experiment, they synthesized cobalt-, nickel-, copper-, and zinc-based, new pillared MOFs of similar topologies which exhibited good water stability [233]. The grafted methyl group on the benzene dicarboxlate (BDC) ligand introduced steric factors around the metal centers; consequently, water stability of MOF drastically improved. The basicity of BTTB-based MOFs synthesized with bipyridyl pillar ligands had lower basicity than DABCO; however, they exhibited better stability in the presence of humid condition.
Bae et al. [114] performed a study to modify Ni-DOBDC with pyridine molecules. The study showed that pyridine molecule made the normally hydrophilic internal surface more hydrophobic; as a result, water absorption was reduced, while substantial CO2 capture capacity was retained to a certain level. Fracaroli et al. [132] improved the interior of IRMOF-74-III by covalently functionalizing it with a primary amine, and used a MOF, IRMOF-74-IIICH2NH2, for the selective capture of CO2 in 65% relative humidity.
Zhang et al. [234] performed a study to modify the surface of the MOF hydrophilic to hydrophobic to improve water stability. They demonstrated a new strategy to modify hydrophobic polydimethysiloxane (PDMS) on the surface to significantly enhance their water resistance by a facile vapor deposition technique. In this study, they successfully coated three vulnerable MOFs according to the water stability (MOF-5, HKUST-1, and ZnBT), while the porosity, crystalline characteristics, and surface area were unchanged.
All these studies demonstrated that water stability of MOFs can be improved by incorporating specific factors (e.g., metal–ligand strength, thermodynamic and kinetic factors, etc.) which govern the structural stability of the framework.
Sociology of sport focuses on the research in the regularity of human social behavior, and sport is such a regular behavior, when applied. Sporting activities and exercising are significant factors for a person’s development and his/her integration in the society. Sport, in this way of meaning, is the phenomenon that influences the society. The positive effects of sport improve the quality of life of an individual and fulfill all the human needs on the five-stage pyramid of needs. When sport behavior will convert into practicing sport activities, then the sport will benefit the physical and psychological health, as it is known. We were interested in the topic of how sport can benefit the subjective dimensions of the quality of life. We focus on the dimension of the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and the dimension of the global satisfaction with life. We present a general subject area, quality of life, and we lead the context of the research to the topic of the research—subjective dimensions of the quality of life in dependence of gender and activity in sport and exercising. With the help of selected research papers from this field of study, we summarize the background knowledge about the research topic (subjective dimensions of the quality of life) and topic areas, which was created within the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction (physical health and physical activities, leisure time activities, school environment and school duties, emotions and feelings, taking care of yourself) and global satisfaction with life (satisfaction with life and subjective well-being), for understanding the research problem and offering the readers the introduction to this topic. We know about the lack and insufficient amount of the research papers upon this topic, and we want that our study widens the existing knowledge and brings the results from the small country in the middle of the Europe—the Slovak Republic. We used the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction questionnaire not for psychiatric patients, as it used to be common, but for the intact school sport active and sport inactive adolescent boys and girls.
The purpose of this chapter was to broaden the knowledge in this area of research. And the following research questions arose:
What effect do sporting activity and exercising have on the perception of the selected areas of quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction (physical health and physical activity, leisure time activities, school environment and school duties, feelings) as part of the subjective dimension of the quality of life in adolescent girls and boys?
What effect do sporting activity and exercising have on the perception of the global satisfaction with life in adolescent girls and boys?
The beginning of adolescence is associated with the first signs of sexual maturity until complete maturation. Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence is also associated with complete mental and physical development, which varies for everyone. An adolescent can recognize and can decide if he/she wants to participate in some kinds of sports. Adolescents possess well-developed physical and motor capabilities. The movements of the adolescents are well coordinated, harmonious, and graceful, and they are at the top of their physical performance. They are in a developed cognitive, social, and emotional state. With adolescence increasing the levels of independence, adolescents are capable of taking responsibility for themselves and presenting the solution of ideas as the results of critical thinking. Some may finish their maturation before 18 years of age, but others may not. The statutory maturity is in 18 years of age, but this does not mean that the individual has reached maturity even mentally.
The research about the organization of the adolescents in some forms of sporting activity in the Slovak Republic [1] presented the sample, which consists of 5300 secondary school students of which 2154 were boys and 3146 were girls. A total of 597 male students are said to be organized in some form of exercising or sporting activity (27.7%), and the rest of 1557 male students were not organized in any form of exercising or sporting activity (72.3%) except the school subject physical and sport education. Among female students there were 459 (14.6%) organized, and 2687 (85.4%) were not organized in any extracurricular form of exercising or sporting activity. This research of [1] shows that the organization of male students in some form of exercising activity in Bratislava reached 38%, and 62% male students (n = 1990) were not organized. Among female secondary school students from Bratislava (n = 2646), 21% were organized in some form of exercising or sporting activity, and 79% were not organized.
In this research, which we write on these pages, we realized the questionnaire research in Slovak secondary school, mostly from the capital city Bratislava. The questionnaire for this research content consists of several sample introduction questions (4) and then 50 items from quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction questionnaire (Q-LES-Q) and 5 items from satisfaction with life scale (SWLS). The findings revealed that making and playing sports, realizing sporting activities, and exercising bring benefits to the subjective dimensions of quality of life—the dimension of the global satisfaction with life and the dimension of the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, where physical health and physical activities, leisure time activities, social relations, feelings, school environment and school duties, and taking care of yourself were considered. In the introduction part, we present the background of the selected areas of quality of life from the literature review, and then we described the school system in Slovak Republic that concerns physical and sport education, which is for somebody only one possible sporting activity or exercising in a week.
The importance of this research is that we present our research ideas and opinions and we find out new information about life enjoyment and satisfaction and global satisfaction with life among sport active and sport inactive male and female high school students. We feel the shortage of such kind of research, and we present the findings from Slovakia, which can be useful for future scholarly works.
Quality of life is a social indicator, which affects the whole life of a man. The importance of this field of study is given with the establishment of the global organization International Society for Quality of Life Studies in 1995, with the mission to promote and encourage research in the field of quality of life (QOL), happiness, and well-being studies. Quality of life is the field of study of sociology, and how sport can influence the quality of life is part of the study for sport sociology. Quality of life is a valued societal outcome, and its growing recognition is for the subjective dimensions of the quality of life. An intensive progress of research on quality of life can be observed, not only in health-related issues but in other very specific areas of the research, and sport involvement and participation can be those issues.
There are many definitions and conceptualization of the quality of life (QOL). “Quality of life is multidimensional and influenced by personal and environmental factors and their interaction, and has the same components for all people, and is enhanced by self-determination, resources, purpose in life and a sense of belonging” [2]. The quality of life of an individual depends on many factors. In several explanations of quality of life, we found the emphasis on satisfaction with life [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. According to this understanding, one who is satisfied with his/her life lives better quality of life. The higher the quality of life, the higher is the life satisfaction of the person. The study of [9] has given a theory, which suggests that happiness is primarily a product of the positive assessments of life situations and favorable comparisons of these life situations with those of others and in the past. The concept of quality of life is used in all areas of human existence and all fields of knowledge, including the sport sciences. The quality of life is an open concept, and it changes with the society development.
Three rounds of proposals, comments, and drafts were conducted, to adopt 14 criteria for evaluating quality of life by the policy makers. The criteria for evaluating quality of life indexes for use in public policy are presented [10]. It is worth mentioning the seventh index, which talks that “the domains in aggregate must encompass the totality of life experience.” The ninth index presents the requirement that “each domain must have the potential to be measured in both objective and subjective dimension.” And the 14th index presents that “the subjective dimension of each domains has both a cognitive and affective component and are measured by the question concerning satisfaction.”
Main debates at the core of quality of life definitions are presented [11]. Definitions varied a lot, but they found some consensus within the literature reviews. There are two main approaches to quality of life: objective and subjective. Both subjective and objective information [12] are necessary to assess when considering the quality of life (QOL) even if subjective and objective data are distinct types of information. The authors [13] reported correlation coefficients ranging from 0.04 to 0.57 between objective and subjective indicators suggesting to, although associated, measure different aspects of quality of life. It depends on researchers which perspective (domains, dimensions, aspects, indicators) he/she considers in his/her research and from which point of view he/she looks at the investigated problem. When he/she writes a study only from one side of the problem, it does not mean that he/she does not accept the other side of the problem. The question is also on how many domains can the quality of life concept be divided. The [14] produces a multidimensional profile of scores across 6 domains and 24 sub-domains of quality of life. The main six domains can be listed as physical domain, environmental domain, domain of social relationships, psychological domain, domain for level of independence, and spiritual domain. Based on 16 reviewed publications [15], 19 domains are presented, with the most referenced domain, interpersonal relations (15 times), and the least referenced domain, civic responsibility (once). In the same study [15], core quality of life domains are presented: emotional well-being, interpersonal relations, material well-being, personal development, physical well-being, self-determination, social inclusion, and rights. And accordingly, among all core quality of life domains, indicators and descriptors are presented too. The Eurostat quality of life framework focuses on quality of life and [16] presented the following dimensions: material living conditions (income, wealth, and consumption), education, natural and living environment, productive and valued activities (including work), health, leisure and social interactions (inclusion, exclusion), overall experience of life, governance and basic rights, and economic and physical insecurity. All supposed domains are very close each to other and may be the same, because they are presented with synonyms.
The authors [17] subsequently propose a new definition in which quality of life is defined as “the gap between what a person is capable of doing and being, and what they would like to do and be; in essence it is the gap between capability reality and expectations.” Quality of life is enhanced when the distance between the individual’s attained and desired goals is less [18]. For [19], a person’s well-being can be assessed in terms of his/her capability to achieve personally and socially valued functioning. Quality of life has become the crucial determination of the life cycle [11]. The quality of life is perceived differently in a different life stage of age. The quality of life is taken as the degree of satisfaction in life. The term quality of life [20] is a manifestation of self-realization within the framework of contemporary civilizational development. Quality of life from the psychological side is, according to [21], “an expression of the feeling of life happiness.”
The concept of quality of life records the growing interest in the recent time. It questions what quality of life is. For some scholars it is the measure of subjective well-being; for some others, it is the indicator of physical health. The statement of [7] is that quality of life takes under the umbrella a variety of concepts such as life conditions, health status, lifestyle, happiness, or behavior. The quality of life, as [4] said, reflects the harmonious satisfaction of personal goals and desires. The subjective side of quality of life has important dimensions of happiness and life satisfaction. Someone gives the equal mark between quality of life and life satisfaction.
The quality of life should be measured in physical function, mental status, and ability to engage in normative social interaction, wrote [22].
The quality of life presents several dimensions of physical, psychological, social, and cultural identifications. Quality of life is a complex, multifaceted construct that requires multiple approaches from different theoretical angles [23]. The attributes of quality of life acquired increased importance in research of psychologists, sociologists, educators, physicians, mental coaches, architects, environmentalists, and many others. Authors [24] integrated the multidisciplinary fields of quality of life and viewed quality of life as a multidimensional rather than unidimensional concept. The model of quality of life integrates objective and subjective indicators of several life domains and individual values of that [25]. An overall understanding of subjective well-being requires knowledge of how objective conditions can influence the individual’s evaluation of the people’s lives, values, experience, and wisdom. The consideration of [7] thought about the quality of life as a subjective evaluation of one’s personal life and satisfaction with life. Quality of life seems to be subjective and that it can only be understood from an individual perspective. It would have been easier if researchers could have agreed that the quality of life is taken into consideration and refers only to subjective well-being, said [8]. Strong formulation of [26] is the request of a comprehensive definition with the acknowledgement of the strengths of each position and the agreement that any general definition must include both dimensions.
If quality of life had to comprehend whole human life, then both objective and subjective dimensions must surely be included. Objective dimension refers to resources of included objective external life conditions, and subjective dimension refers to individual’s subjective assessment of life. The significance of objective or subjective evaluation of life domain is in relationship to the value that an individual gives to it. The individual with relatively the same objective domains of quality of life can report the different subjective perceptions of quality of life.
A team of authors [6] suggest their own definition of quality of life. “Quality of life is the extent to which objective human needs are fulfilled in relation to personal or group perceptions of subjective well-being. Subjective well-being is assessed by responses to questions about happiness, life satisfaction, utility, or welfare, and the relation between specific human needs and perceived satisfaction is influenced by mental capacity, cultural context, information, education, temperament. In addition, the relation between the fulfilment of human needs and overall subjective well-being is affected by the weights that individuals, groups, and cultures give to fulfilling each of the human needs relative to the others.”
The definition stated by the World Health Organization [14] said that the “quality of life is an individuals’ perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is a broad ranging concept affected in a complex way by the person’s physical health, psychological state, personal beliefs, level of independence, social relationships, and their relationship to salient features of their environment.” In the social area of researching the quality of life, the quality of life takes the increasingly acknowledged place for measurement as a valid and appropriate indicator of social needs and possible interventions for the individuals and the groups when needed.
Although the quality of life is the socioeconomic concept, it has been given increasing importance to the individual subjective side of quality of life. Authors [27] present evidence suggesting that subjective dimension of quality of life is a cherished societal goal worthy of attention and has utility as a predictor of important life outcomes such as health and longevity, social relationships, and positive work outcomes. Quality of life is the term, which is analyzed in the literature as two major dimensions—objective and subjective dimension [28]. Objective dimension of quality of life focuses on external, quantifiable conditions of life, such as housing, economic situation of a person or a family, access to medical resources, family income level, living environment, climate and subjective approaches, and focus on individual internal evaluations of life conditions (degree of problems, satisfaction, and happiness) [29].
We agree with this statement, and these will be the content of our research in this chapter, in which we focus how sport can affect the subjective dimensions of quality of life.
We have recorded that there is a lack of the research unifying people involved in sport, physical activity, exercise with the measurements of their enjoyment, life satisfaction, and the quality of life.
The [30] defines sport as “a game, competition, or activity needing physical effort and skill that is played or done according to the rules, for enjoyment and/or as a job, or all types of physical activity that people do to keep healthy or for enjoyment. Reasons for engagement in sport differ by participants in it. It should to be health, pleasure, competition, challenge, weight management, motor performance, skills acquiring, motor ability and capability and some societal motives, and/or financial reward.”
Movement determines life, develops physical fitness, but also has a positive impact on the psychological well-being of a man and hence the quality of his/her life. Sport as an important part of quality of life can bring people the feeling of self-fulfillment. There are few social influences in the world that can equal sports. Sport can be a unifying or sharing power, which reflects development of society, and, in the case where there will be changes in society development, there will be changes in sport too. Sport is an indispensable and universal element of life improvement. The growth of leisure time will offer the occasions for spending time with exercise and sport to secure the positive health.
Sport and exercise are important contributors to the quality of life for everyone. Exercise can be associated with a wide variety of benefits related to the quality of life [31]. In another research of [32], they set the idea that the exercise can influence the participants’ quality of life in desirable and undesirable ways: enhanced physical functioning, subjective well-being, exercise enjoyment and peak moments, exercise taxonomy, diverse personal meaning, stress management, opportunities for socialization, delaying the aging process, and enhancement of self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Sporting activities play a crucial role in subjective well-being. Sporting activities provide occasion to meet values and needs of an individual. The thoughts of [11] noted that, if they accept that exercise is a key part of sport and that psychological well-being is a key part of quality of life, then it can be argued that sport has a role to play in the concept of quality of life, and they highlight the lack of research on the benefits of sport and exercise to the quality of life and well-being.
Physical functioning is a main component of the quality of life. Physical functioning is the essence of all daily human activities. Movement is the life. Sport can be performed collectively or individually. Sport can be performed regularly or irregularly. Sport can be performed with or without club membership (professionally or recreationally). Performance and top elite sports are rule-defined activities that are acquired and learned in the training process led by a trainer, coach, or instructor (an authorized person), conducted in competitions and organized on a voluntary basis. Sport for all—recreational or amateur sport—is a recreational activity carried out by various forms of physical exercise, and other movement activities of interest can be sometimes be also as a competition. Sport is the phenomenon of sociocultural life. Sport affects all the social areas, and sport has grown into a phenomenon in the business too, and that is why we can say that it creates the sport sector [33].
In various parts of the world, the authors have shown significantly higher life satisfaction in people participating in physical and sporting activities than in people who did not practice physical and sporting activities [in Turkey and in Germany [34]; in Turkey [35]; in Slovakia [36, 37]; in Sweden [38]; in Taiwan [39]; in America [40, 41]; in Poland [42]; in Spain [43]].
In the research of [44], the quality of life of sporting individuals was investigated. They investigated quantitative and qualitative analysis of overall quality of life according to gender and sport practiced (individual or team sport) for the 16 life domains. The intrinsic value of exercising and sporting activities presents the relation to quality of life and good health.
The importance of subjectivity in the definition of what quality of life is emerges as a key aspect [45]. The personal and subjective dimension of quality of life could be the basis for a more understanding of person’s evaluation of quality of life. For the person it is related to the extent of which the life aims are reached.
For us, each person is individuality and each is different in what he/she considers important and what he/she considers to be an influence on its subjective quality of life. In our opinion the subjective quality of life is the individual’s perception followed by the assessment of things, situations, relations, and all the positive, neutral, and negative matters that affect a person’s life. Subjective well-being is an appreciation of these matters in a positive way when expectations are fulfilled or achievements are better than expectations. The measurable domains of subjective quality of life are directly proportional to life satisfaction, and when the level of satisfaction is in a positive manner, then it is presented in the happiness of a person. Bear in the mind is needed when thinking about the weight of the importance of life domains in accordance with the person’s own values and standards. The personal perception of life values differs a lot among people. Some positive subjective experiences of well-being could be assessed as neutral or even negative for another one person. It depends mainly on personality dispositions, recognition of the inner state of emotions, self-perception of emotions, and then their display in the external world. The aspects of the model of emotion continuance are perception, regulation, and expression of emotions. The emotions play a crucial role in the life of all of us. It is how people feel and how they can function in the family and society; in terms of emotions, a man evaluates his/her life and transforms them into living through subjective well-being.
The subjective meaning of good living is a person’s own experience of his/her positive feelings, and [46] spoke about perceptual aspects of quality of life. The report of [47] presents the subjective well-being as a broad category of phenomena that includes people’s emotional responses, domain satisfactions, global judgment of life satisfaction, and the personality considered as one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of subjective well-being.
Given the concern for improving subjective dimension of quality of life, many researchers turn the attention to the benefits of physical activity. The research of quality of life with the physical activity are evident in many investigations [48, 49, 32, 36, 37, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Sports are the happiest experience of active leisure category reported in the research of [54], where 828 students were participating. Relative declines in physical activity were found to be associated with low life satisfaction among 4025 persons in the study of [40].
Our opinion is that satisfaction in individual areas of life is also closely related to overall person’s satisfaction. The quality of life is the result of the interaction of social, health, economic, and environmental conditions relating to personal and social development. Although quality of life (life satisfaction) may be satisfactory in one area, it may be insufficient in other areas. The components of quality of life change over time. The quality of life is also influenced by subjective well-being, which is strongly dependent on the actual emotional state and can fluctuate rapidly.
Sport has positive effects on psychological and physical characteristics of a man. Sport, exercise, and physical activity are central to health and serve as the prevention to illness. Over the past 40–50 years, the young people have become increasingly less physically active, and this behavior can cause some irreversible outcomes. The evidences brought with the Institute of Medicine [55] show that regular physical activity promotes growth and development and has multiple benefits for physical, mental, and psychosocial health. Motion is a valuable activity for all people not only for young people. Everyone has the opportunity to take chances and face the challenges to move and perform some kinds of exercising and sporting activities. Exercising and making and playing sports will guarantee the lifelong benefits, which will be given to their lives and will be converted to higher quality of life and life satisfaction.
Enjoyment is defined as an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity for its own sake and is associated with a positive feeling state [56]. Participation in sporting activity depends also from the feelings of enjoyment. A man lives for emotions and, we can say, for positive emotions, which a man searches more. A man exists to be happy, and the purpose of life, for somebody, is to find this happiness with the means of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
By presenting happiness a man considers various factors of his/her life situations and conditions and the feelings from these situations and conditions in comparison and accordance with prior expectations. Happiness according to the consideration of [57] is defined as the moment-to-moment people’s feelings and does not always tell how people evaluate their lives or how they function in the world. However, they admit the positive feelings like happiness can lead to better overall well-being. Finding the opportunities to be happy is also one kind of way of increasing people’s potential in finding well-being. The author [58] explains the term life enjoyment as a mental happiness from life and the success in it. We support the concept of [54] that enjoyment is pleasure, affect, attitude, intrinsic motivation, and flow. The author [59] considers the quality of life satisfaction as an evaluation of the life with individuals. The parts of life satisfaction are the satisfaction in these areas, for example, family, peers, friends, and mental and physical health.
People who are happy also tend to be satisfied with their lives [26]. If a person experiences his/her life as good and desirable [60], it is assumed to be so. In this approach, factors such as feelings of joy, pleasure, and life satisfaction are paramount. Such measures, while subjective, are a useful complement to objective data to compare the quality of life.
The quality of life satisfaction can be defined by the assessment of the life by individuals or by a one-sided, extensive human satisfaction ratio. Life satisfaction is related to the parts of the life. Parts of the life satisfaction compound the global life satisfaction. Everyone has their own criteria, and they create the quality of life enjoyment for themselves, but everyone looks at the standards of others, which can also affect oneself. For adolescents the quality of life is joined with solving and mastering the problems that life brings.
Physical activity and physical health are hand in hand to better one’s life. Health is one of the most important factors affecting an individual’s quality of life. In good health, one feels comfortable and well, and at the same time, nothing restrains him/her from doing what he/she wants and what is important for him/her. But health cannot be understood only from a physical point of view but also from a mental and social point of view. For a healthy life, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended 30 min of moderate physical activity each day [61]. When people highlight the good physical and mental health, they are more likely to highlight also their overall well-being. Improvement in health has an immediate influence on an individual’s quality of life. Young people are mostly satisfied with their health.
Regular physical activity boosts the health. In the article of [62], the literature review of the benefits of physical activity is evaluated. In the summary of studies, there is compelling evidence that regular physical activity and a high fitness level are associated with reduced risk of premature death from any cause and from cardiovascular disease among asymptomatic men and women. The people who have the highest level of physical activity and fitness are at lowest risk of premature death. The health-related quality of life (HRQOL) was developed by the Center for Disease Control, Health Care, and Aging Branch [63].
The importance of physical activity is for the primary prevention of type 2 diabetes. Exercise interventions for patients with diabetes are beneficial in improving glucose homeostasis. Physical activity can be helping in the fight with the cancer and osteoporosis. Physical activity need not to be vigorously intense. Every increase in activity adds some benefit to physical health. People of both genders and of all ages benefited from regular physical activity. Most people do not engage in regular sporting activities and exercising despite the indisputable effect of these activities on physical and psychological health. Exercising and making and playing sports for every stage of life are the important strategies for preventing diseases.
To make exercising and sporting activities as a habit, it is needed to build the knowledge and the practices of exercising and sporting activities in the school environment, because these activities can bring positive attitude to school-aged population. This habit can last for an entire life, and exercising and sporting activities will be the activities on a daily basis, because physical activity is recognized as a very important factor in a person’s health.
In order to devote our time to own physical activities, exercise, and sport, it is necessary to have time for these, unless in the case that someone has sport, exercising, and physical activities as a regular job. Time that is devoted to the activities based solely on somebody’s own interest decision (I want to do it now) is the leisure time. The leisure time is the time when a person does not perform activities under the pressure of obligations. It is the time that is understood to be the time range that remains for relatively free use after the fulfillment of obligations. The concept of leisure time is to be understood also as a space for self-improvement of the individual and its possibility to fulfill own interests and needs, which can reflect the individual’s value system. Sometimes it is defined as a time that remains after school duties and work and nonwork duties; household duties, which must be fulfilled as a member of the family; and satisfaction of the basic biological needs (sleeping, eating). The leisure time should be fulfilled with the leisure time activities, which bring to a person pleasant experience and satisfaction. We can see the leisure time as a time space, with which we can freely dispose of and for an individual it could mean the freedom of decision. It is also a time in which one can freely realize whatever he/she wants, independently of any duty and without subconscious pressure of doing some work and duties. Having the free choices for engagement in leisure time activities, the happiness comes and rises. The research on this matter presented [64] and confirmed that perceived freedom of choice has a major impact on happiness.
Leisure time is a very valuable asset of the nation, and therefore it is important to pay attention to it and create conditions for its active and meaningful fulfillment. To know how to spend the leisure time matters to the families, the school management and the teachers, the social service sector, and the policy makers. Nowadays, it is important that one develops harmoniously, both physically and mentally. Parents, teachers, coaches, and other educators play an important role in this. They all are responsible for leading young people how to spend the leisure time and give the examples. They can provide the time to experience the opportunities and possibilities of spending leisure time with positive activities, which enrich the person. Many times, a child is raised in a family where sport and movement are strongly supported. This is also the reason why the child is more willing to devote the time to exercising and sporting activities.
Leisure time activities are different, as evidenced by the list of more than 250 different forms of leisure time activities published by the World Leisure and Recreation Association (WLRA). A very good idea is when a man decides that his/her leisure time activities will be fulfilled with the sporting activities and exercising, but the most often excuse of not doing these activities is that a man has not enough time.
Attending the school is compulsory for all children who reached 6 years of age and lasts for 10 long years. Children in this age period spend more time in the school environment than in any other places and must fulfill some school requirements, beginning with the homework and then learning knowledge and preparing all for the next day school duties. In the school and after the school time, there are duties that pupils must manage. Someone is excited when going to school, but not all. School activities are rates below average scores in happiness, while social, active, and passive leisure activities are rated above average of personal happiness [54]. The school helps the students improve academically, socially, and individually. Students are happy in school [65] when they are as a team member to the classroom and school activities, when they are appreciated, and when they succeed and had good social relations. They are unhappy when there are exams in school, homework and home projects, syllabi, teachers, pressure, violence, and punishment [ibid]. School is a place, where school climate, with all the staff and pupils, has a considerable mutual influence on the physical and psychological well-being and the quality of life of children, adolescents, and teachers too.
Emotions and feelings influence the behavior. Emotions and feelings should be oriented in a useful manner of behavior. Emotions are important aspects of sporting activities. The emotions occur before, during, or after sporting activities. When these emotions are positive, a man can be keener to realize the activities. Rather than the intensity, the frequency of positive feelings is more important for happiness. It can be said that what a man likes can be made with greater engagement, enjoyment, and satisfaction. If we assume that experience of joy and happiness can improve life, then we can say that sporting activity improves life, because sport brings joy, happiness, and life satisfaction and brings positive feelings to a man. Emotions are also a possible factor of exercising and sporting activities. Exercise reduces stress and increases the feeling of happiness. Measuring feelings is a very subjective matter, which provides an individual evaluation of one’s own feelings, education, income, personal fulfillment, family, and other social conditions.
It is important to take care of yourself, because it can make the social life easier and can ensure confidence, social relationships, and happier and healthier life. Taking care of yourself means also the interest of your own physical appearance and personal hygiene, to have better life feelings; to manage the needed matters outside of the home, without the help of somebody else; to be able to cope with the occurring problems in your life; and to have good feelings because you can manage it all. Taking care of yourself means also regular exercising, whether it can be a daily walk, jogging, home exercising or going to a gym, or regular participation in organized kinds of sports as an athlete. The time of taking care of yourself covers also the time for relaxing (maybe even time to be lazy for a while), time for sleeping, and time with family and friends, because taking care of yourself is important for your own satisfaction of life and well-being.
Global satisfaction with life has its part in subjective well-being and subjective quality of life of people. Measurement of the life satisfaction among adolescents is needed. The comparison with adults can bring some new information to social research.
What is subjective well-being? For one it is only the feeling of positive evaluation of life. For another there are many areas, which influence the life. Areas, which most influence well-being, are in accordance of [66] as follows: physical well-being, economic well-being, social well-being, personal development and development of activities, emotional well-being, psychological well-being, satisfaction with life, specific areas in life and satisfaction within, participation in activities, and participation at work. How man perceives own well-being or lack of well-being accordingly to this he/she evaluates his/her quality of life.
The findings of [48] supported the statement that physical activity can have long-term effects on well-being. Satisfaction with life represents the cognitive dimension of subjective well-being and captures a global sense of well-being from the perspective of the respondent [3, 5]. Subjective well-being is popularly often called happiness. Happiness or subjective well-being is often measured as a part of life satisfaction. In evaluating happiness, it is important to remember that the appreciation and assessment depend on the time of evaluation. If it is evaluated immediately after the experienced situation or after a longer time only as a recall from the memory, there can be some differences in evaluations. The subjective well-being is composed of several separable although somewhat related variables [5]. Measuring national well-being and quality of life [67] in the United Kingdom provides results that younger people (mainly aged 16–24 years) were more likely to report higher ratings of satisfaction with their health and higher ratings of physical activity engagement. Especially the young people in the age range 16–19 years (adolescents) reported a higher level of life satisfaction (9–10 out of 10) than those aged 20–24.
In accordance to [68], well-being is divided into two aspects; these are life satisfaction and personal development. In the year 2015, [69] presented the comparison about the overall quality of life around the world and found out that Northern European nations are at the top of many well-being indicators and many African nations are near the bottom. Life satisfaction is the result of a judgmental process of an individual who assesses the quality of his/her life according to his/her own criteria. In the ideas of [7], the overall satisfaction with life is an indicator of quality of life, because one indicates how satisfied one is with one’s life. Subjective well-being comprises people’s longer-term levels of pleasant affect, lack of unpleasant affect, and life satisfaction [4]. The report of [70] noticed that satisfaction is an area of psychic phenomena that is classified into the subjective experience sphere of a man. An individual is satisfied when he/she can achieve predetermined goals. The relation between life domain satisfaction and overall life satisfaction, values, and internal/external perceived control has been explored by [71] at the sample of Spanish adolescents. Individuals having internal perceived control are more likely to report they are satisfied with their overall life.
A large sample of individuals in 21 nations was studied with authors [72] who found that high life satisfaction was associated with not smoking, physical exercise, a healthier diet, and using sun protection, fruit intake, and fat avoidance. The revision of several types of reviewed evidence indicates that higher subjective well-being (such as life satisfaction, absence of negative emotions, optimism, and positive emotions) [73] causes better health and longevity. The study of [74] revealed that participants who were more physically active, than those who were less active, experienced higher levels of mental well-being and were generally more satisfied with their lives. Their findings indicated that participants with a healthy body mass index enjoyed higher levels of life satisfaction than those classified as overweight or obese and showed no significant differences between the gender and age groups. They presented that physical activity strengthens the association with life satisfaction and mental well-being [ibid].
The satisfaction with life is evaluated higher also in physically active disabled people [75, 76] than physically inactive disabled people.
Sport participation may be associated with improved life satisfaction and self-rated health for male and female students from the middle school [41], and the females may view exercise and physical activity as more important contributors to health and well-being as compared to males in the same age of 7 and 8 grades of middle school. Sport, exercise, and physical activity can improve mental health and psychosocial competences and improve mood, happiness, social relations, and other aspects of well-being.
“Global satisfaction with life can be considered to be an indicator of quality of life, because one indicates how satisfied one is with one’s life as a whole” [7]. When one manages to realize his/her own plans [36], a person is satisfied. This means that the level of satisfaction is closely related to the personal understanding of quality of life. Global satisfaction with life measures how people evaluate their life as a whole rather than their current feelings. Life satisfaction is in the article of [77] characterized as the cognitive component of subjective well-being, and the author stated that it plays an important role in a healthy successful youth development as an indicator, a predictor, a mediator/moderator, and an outcome. Whereas high life satisfaction is related to good adaptation and optimal mental health, low life satisfaction is associated with psychological, social, and behavioral problems among youth [ibid].
Sport as a physical activity has its place in the life of school pupils, pupils in the child and adolescent age. Adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood. The body changes are rapid and surprising. To adapt to these changes, the body needs movement. Along with the rapid changes that occur in body proportions, especially the increase in body height and body weight, the physical performance and fitness capability are the issues that increase too.
Sport as an exercising activity is provided by the school in a compulsory subject physical education in kindergarten and from the primary school as a subject physical and sport education, in which its most important mission is to create a relationship to regular physical activity as an essential foundation of a healthy lifestyle. In the year 2008 when the curricular transformation was made, the subject physical education was given the new name, physical and sport education, because sport as a social phenomenon should be a part of educational systems. Theoretical knowledge and practical experience from an amount of traditional and nontraditional sporting activities should be presented and learned in school; then the members of our society should know about them and can use and transfer them to leisure time activities while strengthening the health, compensating the workload, and enjoying the life with the social required and accepted activities. There are more than 55 traditional and nontraditional sporting activities written in curriculum for secondary school that can be selected by the qualified teachers and learned from them during the schooling. The pupils are involved in a year-round sporting competition between classes in the same year of study and classes between different years of study and between local schools in the town, and they can go forward to the school’s European championship or school’s world championship.
Physical education is a compulsory subject within the educational area “health and movement” from the beginning in the kindergarten International Standard Classification of Education 0 (ISCED 0). The goal of the health and movement educational area is to provide basic health-related information and through appropriate physical exercises lead the child to acquire and improve motor skills and develop motor abilities. The educational area is focused on movement as a means of strengthening health and promoting proper psychosomatic and psychomotor development of preschool children. The child should be motivated to exercise and use it in everyday life without feeling tired or exhausted. An important part of this area is also basic hygiene habits and self-care activities. Physical activities are involved in everyday activities of schooling the kindergarten children.
From the school year 1960/1961 until the end of the school year 1983/1984 had been the schooling at the primary school nine years. From the school year 1984/1985 until the end of school year 1996/1997 had been the schooling at the primary school eight years. Since the school year 1997/1998, primary schools once again have comprised nine grades. These schools consist of two levels, the first level (first–fourth grade) and the second level (fifth–ninth grade), which are usually differentiated according to the interests and skills of students. Students are accepted in the first grade after reaching the sixth year of age. The compulsory education lasts for 10 years. After their graduation from primary schools, students must apply to a secondary school and finish the 10 year compulsory schooling. This means that at least one year must be completed at the selected secondary school.
In the primary education (ISCED 1 and ISCED 2) [78], the educational area health and movement provides pupils with the opportunity to express themselves and acquire basic movement skills that can be used in leisure time activities. The area focuses on basic information related to a healthy way of living, caring for own health, and physical activity. The focus of physical and sport education in primary education is predominantly on physical, functional, and movement enhancement, thus contributing to the strengthening of health, fitness orientation, and motor performance in two 45 min compulsory lessons weekly. Physical and sport education provides elementary theoretical and practical education in the field of movement, exercise, and sport. Physical and sport education significantly contributes to the psychological, social, and moral development of pupils, contributes to the formation of a positive relationship to physical activities, and fulfills a significant compensatory function in the educational process at school.
Physical and sport education uses a wide range of physical means that contribute to the psychological, social and moral development of pupils, with the emphasis on the development of both gross and fine motor skills, and contribute to the formation of a positive relationship to physical activity too, and fulfils a significant compensation function in the process of education. Through movement—movement exercises, games, and competitions—it positively affects the pupils’ motor development. Emphasis is placed on the pupils’ individual dispositions, which should be considered in content planning and pupil assessment. It is important to motivate pupils to achieve individual improvements in their motor performance while respecting their own individual preconditions. With its focus, physical education has an exceptional and specific position within the education of pupils of the younger school age. A characteristic feature of the educational area health and movement is the knowledge and practical experience leading to the development of motor skills, improving the pupil’s motor performance and acquiring the basics of sports and their use with the prospect of their application in the structure of their own movement regime.
The most important mission is to establish a relationship to regular physical activity as an essential foundation for a healthy lifestyle. The educational area combines knowledge, habits, and skills related to health, healthy lifestyle, and physical and sporting activities not only during schooling but also their use in adulthood. The basic knowledge of the importance of physical and sporting activities for health, disease prevention, proper diet, and sport activities and its evaluation and physical activity means are divided into four modules of education in school: health and its disorders, healthy lifestyle, fitness and motor performance, and sporting activities of movement regime. Pupils finishing study at primary school should have a clear concept of the importance of physical and sport education in strengthening active health; they should know the effect of exercising on the body. They should express their interest in physical activities independently, have a corresponding level of motor abilities in accordance with their motor preconditions, and have acquired physical activities from which they can create movement programs for their own needs.
The secondary education is currently offered within these educational groups: in grammar schools and secondary specialized schools. After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, grammar schools were transformed into a modern type of secondary schools offering general education, which prepares students especially to study at universities and higher forms of education. Subject to the current School Act, the mission of secondary specialized schools is to prepare industrial and technical employees at a secondary educational level for the needs of the labor market and practical life and at the same time, also for their subsequent university or further education. Secondary specialized schools educate specialists for individual industries, such as the construction, transportation, agriculture, food industry, services, economics, financial sector, culture, state administration, and other areas of social life. Secondary specialized schools thus provide education at the third educational level (ISCED 3) for the school-leaving examination but also at the fourth educational level (ISCED 4)—higher vocational education received during further studies leading to a certificate or diploma.
In the secondary education (ISCED 3) [78], the educational area health and movement creates a space of realization and awareness of the need for lifelong care of pupils for their health. The pupils recognize the quality of movement as an important part of his/her general development, and they can choose the movement in terms of occurrence of the needs (for enjoyment, for improving physical fitness, for compensation to work or school duties load). The complex subject and key competences obtained in schooling, with acquired sport skills, should ultimately become part of his/her lifestyle and attitude to life philosophy. Pupils should understand health as a subjective and objective value category; take responsibility for their health; acquire knowledge and skills related to care for their body, active movement regime, movement literacy, personal sport performance, and healthy lifestyle; and learn that prevention is a major tool for health protection.
Physical and sport education is a compulsory subject in both primary and secondary schools. There are two physical and sport education lessons each week. Swimming courses, skiing, snowboard courses, and courses for protecting the life and health are also the basic parts of physical and sport education. One aspect of the school physical education and sport delivery system in Slovakia, which has been in the past years envied by some other countries, is the comprehensive program of extracurricular activity, traditionally serviced by physical and sport education teacher on a voluntary basis. In addition to the compulsory physical and sport education lessons, pupils may attend non-compulsory lessons after school—extracurricular sporting activity.
A total of 345 adolescents (151 boys and 194 girls) in the decimal age ranging from 15.38 to 19.60 years (whole sample age mean was 17.13 ± 0.92; boys 17.14 ± 0.98; girls 17.12 ± 0.87) were included in the research sample. A total of 196 were labeled as sport active (sample age was 17.10 ± 0.95) and 149 as sport inactive (sample age was 17.16 ± 0.87). Sport active boys were 105 (with age 17.13 ± 1.00); sport inactive boys were 46 (with age 17.16 ± 0.92); sport active girls were 91 (with age 17.07 ± 0.88); and sport inactive girls were 103 (with age 17.16 ± 0.86). Sport active respondents were those who exercised regularly, at least twice a week (at least 120 min) of extracurricular physical activity, and sport inactive respondents were those who exercised less than 2 extracurricular hours in a week. They all attended two compulsory physical and sport education lessons in school weekly. Four main items were included in the questionnaire to gain the additional data about the research sample.
A questionnaire survey was conducted during the physical and sport education lessons. We used questionnaires quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction questionnaire and satisfaction with life scale. The procedures of the research were in accordance with the ethical standards of the ethics committee and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000.
Student’s t-test, Mann-Whitney U Test, and Kruskal-Wallis H test were taken into consideration in finding statistical differences according to test of normality. Pearson’s correlation was run, and we calculated Hedges’ g and Cohen’s d for calculating effect size.
We used the statistical program IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 17 for Windows; SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Significance was considered at p < 0.05.
The importance of preselected domains of subjective quality of life (quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and global satisfaction with life) was investigated individually. The levels of satisfaction with each of these domains were assessed. We hypothesized that the mean values of the domains would differ as a function of gender (boys and girls) and gender and sporting activity (sport active boys, sport inactive boys, sport active girls, and sport inactive girls).
The quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction questionnaire (Q-LES-Q) is a self-reported measure designed by [79] to obtain sensitive measures of the degree of enjoyment and satisfaction in various areas of daily functioning. The Q-LES-Q is a multidimensional measure of life satisfaction also for healthy people [80].
From the original questionnaire, we selected 50 items from 93-item self-reported measure asking about satisfaction on items over the past week from the areas physical health and physical activity, leisure time activities, social relations, feelings, taking care of yourself, and school environment and school duties, and we put them into one domain—quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction. That is why we present the mean of the scores from selected areas rather than the total scores for each area as a summary score. The higher the score is, the greater the satisfaction indicated for these selected areas.
Respondents indicate on a five-point scale how much of the time they have agreed or disagreed with regard to the statement presented in questionnaire during the past week. The five-point scale ranges from 1 not at all or never, 2 rarely, 3 sometimes, 4 often or most of the time to 5 frequently or all of the time.
To measure the global life satisfaction, [81] developed and validated the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS). This scale is used worldwide and has shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. The SWLS is suitable for use with different age groups. The SWLS can assess the respondent’s life and the positive side of the individual’s experience rather than focusing on unpleasant emotions. The SWLS has potential as a cross-cultural index of life satisfaction. SWLS is a five-item scale designed to measure global cognitive judgements of one’s life satisfaction (not a measure of either positive or negative effect). Respondents indicate how much they agree or disagree with each of the five items using a 7-point scale that ranges from 1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 slightly disagree, 4 neither agree nor disagree, 5 slightly agree, 6 agree to 7 strongly agree, with higher scores representing greater life satisfaction. The highest amount of points in global satisfaction with life is 35 (Table 1).
Summed score | The mean score | Statement | SWLS category |
---|---|---|---|
31–35 | 6.00–7.00 | Extremely satisfied | Satisfied |
26–30 | 5.00–5.99 | Satisfied | |
21–25 | 4.01–4.99 | Slightly satisfied | |
20 | 4.00 | Neutral | Neutral attitude |
15–19 | 3.00–3.99 | Slightly dissatisfied | Dissatisfied |
10–14 | 2.00–2.99 | Dissatisfied | |
5–9 | 1.00–1.99 | Extremely dissatisfied |
The points of global satisfaction with life, which constitute seven benchmark statements and three SWLS categories in satisfaction.
The satisfaction with life scale (SWLS) was developed to assess satisfaction with the respondent’s life. It assesses an individual’s conscious evaluative judgment of his or her life by using his/her own criteria [82]. Reviews of research using the SWLS suggest that it is sensitive enough to detect changes in life satisfaction over time.
The five items are:
In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
The conditions of my life are excellent.
I am satisfied with my life.
So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life.
If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
By measuring the different aspects of people’s lives differentiated according to sport, exercise and physical activity participation, we can gather and find information as the evidences, which can be used to improve the circumstances of living active and valuable life, when they need it. Then we can tailor suitable leisure time sporting activities for those who want it and most need it, because of the desire to have a better life. Because we know that the sporting activities bring indisputable benefits to the life of people.
In this study that we are presenting here, we examined some important issues.
The aim of the research was to extend the knowledge about the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and about global satisfaction with life of secondary school pupils in terms of their level of extracurricular physical activity, to compare the results among different areas of the domain of quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and the items of global satisfaction with life, and to find out the differences between the areas and items of the domains among sport active and sport inactive boys and girls.
Investigation of quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in selected areas (Table 2)—physical health and activity, leisure time activities, social relations, emotions and feelings, taking care of yourself, and school environment and school duties between girls and boys—revealed more areas where the boys indicated higher scores, which means they have more often been or felt in positive statements (physical health and activities, leisure activities, emotions and feelings, taking care of yourself) than girls have been or felt in.
Gender | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys (n = 151) | Girls (n = 194) | Total (n = 345) | ||||
Mean | Std. deviation | Mean | Std. deviation | Mean | Std. deviation | |
Physical health and activity | 3.57 | 0.59 | 3.23 | 0.64 | 3.38 | 0.64 |
Leisure time activities | 3.98 | 0.57 | 3.60 | 0.76 | 3.77 | 0.71 |
Social relations | 3.78 | 0.55 | 3.79 | 0.57 | 3.79 | 0.56 |
Emotions and feelings | 3.71 | 0.74 | 3.14 | 0.77 | 3.40 | 0.81 |
Taking care of yourself | 4.02 | 0.67 | 3.72 | 0.68 | 3.85 | 0.69 |
School | 2.79 | 0.54 | 2.97 | 0.47 | 2.89 | 0.51 |
Quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction | 3.64 | 0.49 | 3.41 | 0.48 | 3.51 | 0.50 |
Quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and its areas of research in adolescent boys and girls.
The girls more often felt better in the statements from the school area and social relation area.
We found statistical significance p < 0.001 for boys in comparison of the responses between boys and girls in the areas: physical health and activity, leisure time activities, and feelings. We found statistical significance p = 0.002 in the area taking care of yourself (in favor of boys). And we found statistical significance p = 0.040 for girls in the area school environment and school duties. There was no statistical significance in the area social relations in comparison between girls and boys.
The domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction is valued statistically and significantly better in boys than in girls (p < 0.001). The mean 3.51 for the whole sample of adolescents presented 70.2% quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction from all the possible time of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
Table 3 shows the highest score attributed to some statements (items) from the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in boys and girls. Neither the score nor the order is the same to each other between boys and girls.
Boys’ score | Statements | Girls’ score | Statements |
---|---|---|---|
4.37 | Joking, laughing with other people | 4.40 | Be interested about own appearance and hygiene |
4.30 | Frequency of hobby’s joy | 4.38 | Looking forward to getting together |
4.27 | Looking forward to getting together | 4.30 | Joking, laughing with other people |
4.26 | Ability to take care of yourself | 4.26 | Enjoyed talking with friends |
4.23 | Keeping interest in hobbies | 4.08 | Looking forward in advance for hobbies |
The highest score attributed to some statements (items) from the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in boys and girls.
The statement that reached the lowest score in both girls (2.23) and boys (1.98) was the frequency of joy when being in the school.
Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to compare four groups of research sample: sport active and sport inactive boys and sport active and sport inactive girls. We found statistical significance p < 0.001 in the areas physical health and activity, leisure time activities, emotions and feelings, taking care of yourself, and the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction. The significance p = 0.018 was detected in the area school environment and school duties. No statistical significance was found in the area social relations. Sport active boys have the highest score in all areas except school environment and school duties and social relations. In comparison of the area social relations, sport active boys are at the same level as the sport inactive girls (both 3.82) (Table 4). The highest score in the area school (school environment and school duties) have the sport inactive girls and the sport inactive boys (both 3.04) (Table 4). The area taking care of yourself is valued at most in three groups, sport active boys, sport inactive boys, and sport active girls, in comparison to other investigated areas.
Sport active boys (n = 105) | Sport inactive boys (n = 46) | Sport active girls (n = 91) | Sport inactive girls (n = 103) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | |
Physical health and activity | 3.61 | 0.59 | 3.42 | 0.58 | 3.30 | 0.65 | 3.17 | 0.63 |
Leisure time activities | 4.09 | 0.52 | 3.74 | 0.60 | 3.77 | 0.79 | 3.45 | 0.70 |
Social relations | 3.82 | 0.54 | 3.69 | 0.58 | 3.75 | 0.64 | 3.82 | 0.51 |
Emotions and feelings | 3.84 | 0.74 | 3.42 | 0.67 | 3.15 | 0.75 | 3.13 | 0.78 |
Taking care of yourself | 4.14 | 0.67 | 3.77 | 0.61 | 3.79 | 0.54 | 3.65 | 0.79 |
School | 2.69 | 0.57 | 3.04 | 0.37 | 2.88 | 0.44 | 3.04 | 0.48 |
Quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction | 3.69 | 0.51 | 3.51 | 0.42 | 3.45 | 0.48 | 3.37 | 0.48 |
Quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and its areas of research among adolescent sport active and sport inactive boys and girls.
When we compared results of the sport active boys to the results of the sport inactive boys from the Table 4 we found statistical significance for sport active boys in the areas: leisure time activities U = 1623.50, p = 0.001, taking care of yourself U = 548.50, p = 0.004, and emotions and feelings U = 562.00, p = 0.005. The area school environment and school duties was significant for sport inactive boys in comparison to sport active boys (U = 237.50, p = 0.027). No statistical differences were in the areas physical health and activity and social relations. Sport active boys are statistically and significantly more satisfied with the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction than sport inactive boys (U = 1868.50, p = 0.027).
When we compared sport active girls and sport inactive girls, the statistical significance was found only in the area leisure time activities (U = 3279.00, p < 0.001). No statistical difference was found in domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
In comparison of sport active boys and sport active girls, statistical significances were found for boys in the areas physical health and activity (U = 3387.00, p < 0.001), emotions and feelings (U = 783.50, p < 0.001), taking care of yourself (U = 982.50, p < 0.001), and leisure time activities (U = 3706, p = 0.007). No statistical significances were found in the areas social relations and school environment and school duties. The domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction reached statistical significance for sport active boys (U = 3604.50, p = 0.003).
Significant differences between sport inactive boys and sport inactive girls were found in the areas of physical health and activity (U = 1864.00, p = 0.038) and leisure time activities (U = 1747.50, p = 0.010), and the statistical significance is in favor of sport inactive boys. The domain quality of life enjoyment did not reach statistical significance in comparison of sport inactive boys and sport inactive girls.
Table 5 shows the highest score attributed to some statements from the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in sport active boys and sport inactive boys. Neither the score nor the order is the same to each other between sport active boys and sport inactive boys.
Sport active boys’ score | Statement | Sport inactive boys’ score | Statement |
---|---|---|---|
4.43 | Enjoying the leisure activities | 4.39 | Joking, laughing with other people |
4.36 | Joking, laughing with other people | 4.22 | Looking forward to getting together |
4.33 | Keeping interest in hobbies | 4.21 | Ability to take care of yourself |
4.29 | Looking forward to getting together | 4.12 | Satisfaction with the schoolmate’s communication |
4.28 | Ability to take care of yourself | 4.09 | Enjoying talking with friends |
The highest score attributed to some statements from the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in sport active boys and sport inactive boys.
Table 6 shows the highest score attributed to some statements (items) from the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in sport active girls and sport inactive girls. Neither the score nor the order is the same to each other between sport active girls and sport inactive girls.
Sport active girls’ score | Statement | Sport inactive girls’ score | Statement |
---|---|---|---|
4.41 | Looking forward to getting together | 4.45 | Joking, laughing with other people |
4.36 | Be interested about own appearance and hygiene | 4.44 | Be interested about own appearance and hygiene |
4.23 | Enjoying talking with friends | 4.35 | Looking forward to getting together |
4.20 | Enjoying the leisure activities | 4.29 | Enjoying talking with friends |
4.20 | Looking forward in advance for hobbies | 3.98 | Ability to take care of yourself |
The highest score attributed to some statements from the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction in sport active girls and sport inactive girls.
The statement that reached the lowest score in all four compared groups—sport active boys (1.89), sport inactive boys (2.24), sport active girls (2.03), and sport inactive girls (2.39)—was the frequency of joy when being in the school.
Pearson’s correlation was run to assess the relationship between domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and the selected areas of the domain in 345 adolescents.
There was a strong positive correlation between:
Emotions and feelings and quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, r= 0.902, p < 0.001, with the emotions and feelings explaining 81% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
Taking care of yourself and quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, r = 0.808, p < 0.001, with taking care of yourself explaining 65% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
Physical health and activity and quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, r = 0.766, p < 0.001, with the physical health and activity explaining 59% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
Social relations and quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, r = 0.721, p < 0.001, with the social relations explaining 52% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
Leisure time activities and quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, r = 0.690, p < 0.001, with the leisure time activities explaining 48% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
School environment and school duties and quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, r = 0.541, p < 0.001, with the school environment and school duties explaining 29% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
Investigation of the domain of satisfaction with life in the five given questions in boys and girls revealed that the most scored item was “The conditions of my life are excellent” (for both girls 5.41 and boys 5.51) with no statistical significance in comparison.
The next items (Table 7) with significant differences between boys and girls were:
Gender | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys (n = 151) | Girls (n = 194) | Total (n = 345) | ||||
Mean | Std. deviation | Mean | Std. deviation | Mean | Std. deviation | |
In most ways my life is close to my ideal | 4.71 | 1.42 | 4.23 | 1.45 | 4.44 | 1.45 |
The conditions of my life are excellent | 5.51 | 1.29 | 5.41 | 1.44 | 5.46 | 1.38 |
I am satisfied with my life | 4.88 | 1.56 | 4.49 | 1.61 | 4.66 | 1.60 |
So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life | 4.56 | 1.46 | 4.09 | 1.55 | 4.29 | 1.53 |
If I could live my life over I would change almost nothing in my life | 3.82 | 1.99 | 3.44 | 1.94 | 3.61 | 1.97 |
SWLS mean of five items | 4.70 | 1.21 | 4.33 | 1.18 | 4.49 | 1.21 |
Satisfaction with life and its items of research in adolescent boys and girls.
“I am satisfied with my life” (for both girls 4.49 and boys 4.88) with statistical significance in comparison t(2.276) = 326.96, p = 0.023. Boys, from the research sample, were significantly more satisfied with their life than girls.
“In most ways my life is close to my ideal” (for both girls 4.23 and boys 4.71) with statistical significance in comparison t(3.109) = 327.21, p = 0.002. Boys, from the research sample, had in most ways their life significantly closer to their ideal life than girls.
“So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life” (for both girls 4.09 and boys 4.56) with statistical significance in comparison t(2.877) = 331.10, p = 0.004. Boys, from the research sample, significantly have gotten more important things they wanted in their life than girls.
There was no significant difference in the item “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing in my life” between the score for the item in boys (3.82) and girls (3.44).
Comparing the mean of the domain satisfaction with life among the boys and the girls, we found out that boys were significantly more satisfied with their life than girls (t(2.801) = 319.71, p = 0.005). The boys are satisfied with their life at 67.14%, girls at 61.86%, and adolescents (both girls and boys together) at 64.14% from the possible highest measured score of satisfaction with life (7 points are 100%).
Pearson’s correlation was used to assess the relationship between domain global satisfaction with life and the selected items of the domain in 345 adolescents.
There was a strong positive correlation between:
I am satisfied with my life and global satisfaction with life, r = 0.839, p < 0.001, with the statement “I am satisfied with my life” explaining 70% of the variation in global satisfaction with life.
In most ways my life is close to my ideal and global satisfaction with life, r = 0.818, p < 0.001, with the statement “In most ways my life is close to my ideal” explaining 67% of the variation in global satisfaction with life.
If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing in my life and global satisfaction with life, r = 0.751, p < 0.001, with the statement “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing in my life” explaining 56% of the variation in global satisfaction with life.
So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life and global satisfaction with life, r = 0.730, p < 0.001, with the statement “So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life” explaining 53% of the variation in global satisfaction with life.
The conditions of my life are excellent and global satisfaction with life, r = 0.656, p < 0.001, with the statement “The conditions of my life are excellent” explaining 43% of the variation in global satisfaction with life.
The global satisfaction with life (Table 8) presented that boys, girls, and adolescents are in the category as slightly satisfied within the domain satisfaction with the life.
Gender | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys (n = 151) | Girls (n = 194) | Total (n = 345) | ||||
Mean | Std. deviation | Mean | Std. deviation | Mean | Std. deviation | |
Global satisfaction with life | 23.48 | 6.03 | 21.66 | 5.92 | 22.46 | 6.02 |
Category of global satisfaction with life | Slightly satisfied | Slightly satisfied | Slightly satisfied |
Global satisfaction with life in adolescent boys and girls.
Table 9 shows the mean and standard deviation of the items of global satisfaction with life and SWLS mean of the five items in sport active boys and sport active and sport inactive girls.
Sport active boys (n = 105) | Sport inactive boys (n = 46) | Sport active girls (n = 91) | Sport inactive girls (n = 103) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | |
In most ways my life is close to my ideal | 4.89 | 1.34 | 4.30 | 1.49 | 4.41 | 1.48 | 4.07 | 1.42 |
The conditions of my life are excellent | 5.64 | 1.24 | 5.22 | 1.37 | 5.53 | 1.43 | 5.31 | 1.45 |
I am satisfied with my life | 5.16 | 1.49 | 4.24 | 1.54 | 4.67 | 1.63 | 4.33 | 1.59 |
So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life | 4.73 | 1.51 | 4.15 | 1.26 | 4.35 | 1.64 | 3.85 | 1.44 |
If I could live my life over I would change almost nothing in my life | 4.17 | 1.96 | 3.03 | 1.83 | 3.78 | 1.97 | 3.15 | 1.87 |
SWLS mean of five items | 4.92 | 1.18 | 4.19 | 1.12 | 4.55 | 1.18 | 4.14 | 1.16 |
Satisfaction with life and its items of research in adolescent sport active and sport inactive boys and girls.
Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to find out the statistical significance of differences in comparison of four selected groups from the sample (sport active boys, sport inactive boys, sport active girls, and sport inactive girls). We found out in all items the significant differences in comparison of these groups (p < 0.001) except one “The conditions of my life are excellent.” All compared groups perceived this item at a very similar level of strength of agreement (5.22–5.64 from the seven-point scale), and we did not find out statistical differences in crisscross comparison.
We search for the answer how much one group differs from another, so we used the calculation of effect size. The Hedges’ g for calculating effect size with the different sample sizes (sport active boys and sport inactive boys) when comparing SWLS mean of the five items (from Table 9) revealed the number 0.63, and it means medium effect. Cohen’s d was calculated for the girls’ groups (sport active and sport inactive for comparison), because the sample size is more than 50 girls. And we found out the effect size 0.35, and this is a small effect. Sport active boys differ more to sport inactive boys than sport active girls differ to sport inactive girls in global satisfaction with life.
No statistical significance was found out in comparison of two independent groups (Table 9):
Between sport active boys and sport inactive boys in the item: “The conditions of my life are excellent”
Between sport active girls and sport inactive girls in the items: “The conditions of my life are excellent”; “In most ways my life is close to my ideal”; and “I am satisfied with my life”
Between sport active boys and sport active girls in the items: “The conditions of my life are excellent”; “So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life”; and “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing in my life”
Between sport inactive boys and sport inactive girls in all five items and the global satisfaction with life presented as SWLS mean of five items
Statistical significance was found out in comparison of two independent groups (Table 9):
Between sport active boys and sport inactive boys in the items: “In most ways my life is close to my ideal” (U = 1849.00, p = 0.018); “I am satisfied with my life” (U = 1596.00, p = 0.001); “So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life” (U = 1806.00, p = 0.012); and “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing in my life” (U = 1601.50, p = 0.001). And in the global satisfaction with life presented in Table 9 as SWLS mean of five items (U = 1536.00, p < 0.001)
Between sport active girls and sport inactive girls in the items: “So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life” (U = 3767.50, p = 0.016) and “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing in my life” U = 3806.50, p = 0.022). And in the global satisfaction with life presented in Table 9 as SWLS mean of five items (U = 3818.50, p = 0.026)
Between sport active boys and sport active girls in the items: “In most ways my life is close to my ideal” (U = 3839.50, p = 0.015) and “I am satisfied with my life” (U = 3948.00, p = 0.032). And in the global satisfaction with life presented in Table 9 as SWLS mean of five items (U = 3851.50, p = 0.019)
The order of the items of satisfaction with life in sport active boys and girls in dependence on the score is the same for sport active boys and sport active girls (Table 10).
Sport active boys | The order of the items of satisfaction with life in sport active boys and girls in dependence on the score | Sport active girls |
---|---|---|
5.64 | 1. The conditions of my life are excellent | 5.53 |
5.16 | 2. I am satisfied with my life | 4.67 |
4.89 | 3. In most ways my life is close to my ideal | 4.41 |
4.73 | 4. So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life | 4.35 |
4.17 | 5. If I could live my life over I would change almost nothing in my life | 3.78 |
The order of the items of satisfaction with life in sport active boys and girls in dependence on the score.
The order of the items of satisfaction with life in sport inactive boys and girls in dependence on the score is the same for sport inactive boys and sport inactive girls (Table 11).
Sport inactive boys | The order of the items of satisfaction with life in sport inactive boys and girls in dependence on the score | Sport inactive girls |
---|---|---|
5.22 | 1. The conditions of my life are excellent | 5.31 |
4.30 | 2. In most ways my life is close to my ideal | 4.33 |
4.24 | 3. I am satisfied with my life | 4.07 |
4.15 | 4. So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life | 3.85 |
3.03 | 5. If I could live my life over I would change almost nothing in my life | 3.15 |
The order of the items of satisfaction with life in sport inactive boys and girls in dependence on the score.
All selected groups evaluated the domain global satisfaction with their life (from the mean of the total sum) as slightly satisfied (Table 12).
Sport active boys (n = 105) | Sport inactive boys (n = 46) | Sport active girls (n = 91) | Sport inactive girl (n = 103) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | |
Global satisfaction with life | 24.59 | 5.88 | 20.94 | 5.61 | 22.74 | 5.89 | 20.71 | 5.81 |
Category of global satisfaction with life | Slightly satisfied | Slightly satisfied | Slightly satisfied | Slightly satisfied |
Global satisfaction with life in adolescent sport active and sport inactive boys and girls.
Table 13 presents the detailed percentage of sport active and sport inactive boys and girls classified according to the statements of satisfaction degree (from extremely satisfied to extremely dissatisfied). Sport active boys scored the highest percentage of extreme satisfaction, followed by sport active girls, sport inactive girls, and sport inactive boys.
Summed score | Statement | Sport active boys (n = 105) (%) | Sport inactive boys (n = 46) (%) | Sport active girls (n = 91) (%) | Sport inactive girls (n = 103) (%) | Total (n = 345) (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
31–35 | Extremely satisfied | 17.15 | 2.17 | 8.79 | 2.91 | 8.70 |
26–30 | Satisfied | 28.57 | 21.74 | 28.57 | 19.41 | 24.93 |
21–25 | Slightly satisfied | 33.33 | 28.26 | 27.47 | 34.96 | 31.59 |
20 | Neutral | 5.71 | 13.04 | 5.49 | 4.85 | 6.38 |
15–19 | Slightly dissatisfied | 9.52 | 17.39 | 20.88 | 23.30 | 17.68 |
10–14 | Dissatisfied | 3.81 | 17.39 | 7.69 | 11.66 | 8.99 |
5–9 | Extremely dissatisfied | 1.91 | 0 | 1.10 | 2.91 | 1.74 |
The percentage (%) of sport active and sport inactive boys and girls in seven SWLS benchmarks of statements.
Sport inactive girls scored the highest percentage of extreme dissatisfaction followed by sport active boys and sport active girls, and no one among the sport inactive boys scored the points from 5 to 9, which mean extreme dissatisfaction in the global satisfaction with life.
The sample of sport active boys consists of 79.05% sport active boys who were satisfied, 15.24% who were dissatisfied, and 5.71% who presented neutral attitude to global satisfaction with life.
The sample of sport inactive boys consists of 52.17% sport inactive boys who were satisfied, 34.78% who were dissatisfied, and 13.04% who presented neutral attitude to global satisfaction with life.
The sample of sport active girls consists of 64.83% sport active girls who were satisfied, 29.67% who were dissatisfied, and 5.49% who presented neutral attitude to global satisfaction with life.
The sample of sport inactive girls consists of 57.28% sport inactive girls who were satisfied, 37.87% who were dissatisfied, and 4.85% who presented neutral attitude to global satisfaction with life.
We created three SWLS category (satisfied, neutral, and dissatisfied) from the seven benchmarks of statements (see in methods of Table 1). We put together all the statements with word satisfied (extremely satisfied, satisfied, slightly satisfied – statements with the points 21–35) in one criterion and all the boys and girls, who reached the points in this range, we classified as satisfied. Neutral statement (with the points 20) remains neutral. All the statements with the word dissatisfied (extremely dissatisfied, dissatisfied, slightly dissatisfied – statements with the points 5–19) we put together in one criterion and all the boys and girls who reached the points in this range, we classified as dissatisfied.
In Table 14, we present how many sport active boys and sport inactive boys from the entire sample of boys (n = 151) answered dissatisfied, neutral attitude, and satisfied. In Table 15, we present the same for sport active girls and sport inactive girls (n = 194).
Sport active and sport inactive boys (n = 151) and the SWLS category: satisfied, neutral attitude, dissatisfied | Frequency (n) | Percent (%) |
---|---|---|
Sport active boy satisfied | 84 | 55.63 |
Sport inactive boy satisfied | 24 | 15.89 |
Sport inactive boy dissatisfied | 16 | 10.60 |
Sport active boy dissatisfied | 15 | 9.94 |
Sport active boy neutral attitude | 6 | 3.97 |
Sport inactive boy neutral attitude | 6 | 3.97 |
Total | 151 | 100 |
The frequency (n) and the percentage (%) of sport active and sport inactive boys in SWLS categories.
Sport active and sport inactive girls and the SWLS category: satisfied, neutral attitude, dissatisfied | Frequency (n) | Percent (%) |
---|---|---|
Sport inactive girl satisfied | 60 | 30.93 |
Sport active girl satisfied | 59 | 30.41 |
Sport inactive girl dissatisfied | 38 | 19.58 |
Sport active girl dissatisfied | 27 | 13.92 |
Sport active girl neutral attitude | 5 | 2.58 |
Sport inactive girl neutral attitude | 5 | 2.58 |
Total | 194 | 100 |
The frequency (n) and the percentage (%) of sport active and sport inactive girls in SWLS categories.
The largest number of satisfied boys was sport active boys. They were 39.74% more satisfied than sport inactive boys. Slightly more dissatisfied (0.66%) were sport inactive boys than sport active boys. Sport active and sport inactive boys had the same number in terms of neutral attitude to global satisfaction with life.
Sport inactive girls took the first place in satisfaction with life (Table 15). They were slightly more satisfied than sport active girls (0.52%). More dissatisfied were sport inactive girls (5.66%) than sport active girls. Sport active and sport inactive girls had the same number in terms of neutral attitude to global satisfaction with life.
Pearson’s correlation was run to assess the relationship between domain global satisfaction with life and the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and its areas in 345 adolescents.
There was a strong positive correlation between:
Emotions and feelings and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.739, p < 0.001, with emotions and feelings—explaining 55% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
The domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.657, p < 0.001, with the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction explaining 43% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
Taking care of yourself and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.680, p < 0.001, with taking care of yourself—explaining 46% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
Physical health and activity and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.543, p < 0.001, with the physical health and activity explaining 30% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
Social relations and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.463, p < 0.001, with the social relations explaining 21% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
Leisure time activities and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.423, p < 0.001, with the leisure time activities explaining 18% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
School environment and school duties and the domain global satisfaction with life, r = 0.259, p < 0.001, with the school environment and school duties explaining 7% of the variation in the domain global satisfaction with life.
This study examined the domain quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction with its areas and the domain global satisfaction with life with its items in sport active and sport inactive adolescent boys and girls. It is very important to measure the subjective dimensions of the quality of children’s lives. Children and youth are the future of all nations. There are more than 3.2 billion of the world population under 24 years of age (about 42%; 26% children in the age 0–14 and 16% children and youth in the age 15–24) [83].
Emotional well-being in [57] publication shows the overall balance between frequency of experienced positive and negative emotions, with higher scores presented for positive emotions. Positive emotions are felt more often than negative ones. Exercising brings positive emotions, provides serious benefits in mental health, and leads to a happier life. Exercise releases endorphins, and because of them the feelings of happiness occur. There is growing recognition in society presented by [27] that measures of subjective well-being directly index evaluations and feelings associated with the quality of life, and we have confirmed this in our research with the correlation coefficient, which shows that the emotions and feelings explained 81% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
The specific aspects of adolescents’ health-related quality of life were acknowledged by [84], such as physical maturation and body image, peer relationships, intimacy and sexuality, and autonomy. We considered health as a universal value, independent of the sociocultural context. Health is one of the most important aspects of the quality of life and to some extent affects other aspects. Slovakia, according to the United Nations, is one of the advanced countries of the world, but the overall health of the Slovak population has hardly improved in the last decades. The health of the Slovak population is not only a reflection of the level and quality of national health services but also, and above all, the responsibility of citizens for their health. Health is one of the most important manifested values, but it is surprising how little attendance devotes man to both prevention and treatment of diseases.
Young people in Slovakia presented the main motives for being active with sport—the positive health. It is very encouraging information for the researchers in the field of sport sciences. We found out in our research that the physical health and activity explained 59% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction, and taking care of yourself explained 65% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction. A total of 160 high school students (80 of them were sport active and 80 were sport inactive) were the research sample for the investigation of subjective quality of life (SQUALA) [85] in the research of [37]. This research has confirmed that health clearly dominates all high school students, whether they are sport active or not. The mean for the valued score for sport active was 4.72 of the five-point scale and for sport inactive was 4.61. People in Singapore attached great importance to being healthy and having a happy family life, and they were very satisfied with the various domains of life [86]. The former study of 175,850 adults [87] was based on the recommended guideline of 30 min of moderate exercise daily on most days of the week, or 20 min of intense exercise on at least 3 days of the week revealed that if somebody exercises, according to the recommended guidelines, he/she will have twice as many days when he/she feels physically and mentally healthy compared to a person who does not exercise.
If there are good social relations in the framework of participating in sporting activities, then it is easier for the individuals to stay with some regular sporting activity if supported by their families and other acquaintances. Our research concluded that with the social relations, 52% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction are explained.
The results of [88] investigation is increased level of life satisfaction in the group with higher level of leisure participation. The results of [39] also showed that significant differences existed between college rank and leisure participation, as well as between gender and leisure participation. Results of [54] showed that those participants who reported higher leisure time physical activity levels also reported a significantly higher life satisfaction (M = 41.9, SD = 35.0) relative to participants with lower levels (M = 37.6, SD = 34.2, t(1532) = −2.36, p < 0.01). There were no statistical differences in the perception of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and leisure time physical activity (t(1532) = −1.03, p = 0.30), although active people had higher scores. Both HRQOL and life satisfaction scores were higher in individuals who were participating in Recreovía (p < 0.001). Higher life satisfaction scores were found in the group with higher leisure time physical activities, while HRQOL showed no differences. Better psychological well-being indices were found in the Recreovía group. The results of this study supported other research on the relationship of leisure participation and leisure satisfaction to other facets of life. In our research we found out that with the leisure time activities, we can explain 48% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
School activities rated below average scores in happiness in the research of [54]. In our research there was a statement that reached the lowest score in all four compared groups—sport active boys (1.89), sport inactive boys (2.24), sport active girls (2.03), and sport inactive girls (2.39); and it was the frequency of joy when being in the school. With the school environment and school duties, we can explain 29% of the variation in quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction.
The results of [52] did not show differences between groups of adolescents with various sporting levels of sport performance in the level of quality of life, respectively, its individual areas. The research of [36] found out that significantly reduced life satisfaction was detected for the university students who reported not participating in physical activity. The previous findings [36] suggest physical activity participation is associated with improved life satisfaction for university students. Those students who were more active in physical activity reported higher levels (p < 0.05) of satisfaction with life as a whole. In the next research of [37], statistically significant differences were not found in the evaluation of selected quality of life factors (health, leisure time, family, and standard of living) between sport active and sport inactive high school students. Health was evaluated as the most important factor of quality of life. Very important was the factor family, and the factors standard of living and leisure time were evaluated at the middle high of importance. The conclusions of the research [89] present that the group of judo participants (n = 90) had significantly higher well-being and life satisfaction scores than normative sample. The investigation of the relationship between involvement in physical activity (sports) and satisfaction with life among 100 ball game participants [90] indicated that there was a significant influence (p < 0.05) on satisfaction with life in ball game participants. The findings from the study of [91] showed that the participants in football sample, in particular girls, reported a higher level of moderate-to-vigorous leisure time physical activity than those in the reference sample and they also rated their life satisfaction and subjective health more favorable than reference sample.
The participation in sporting activity as a variable of higher level of psychological well-being is consistent with the authors [92, 93]. High school learners from the South Africa perceived that increasing exercising and sporting activities in sport participation resulted in significantly positive responses of physical health, mental health, happiness, and well-being [94].
The implication of the study [77] is that life satisfaction and positive affect mitigate the negative effects of stressful life events and work against the development of psychological and behavioral problems among youth. And we gave evidence to this; on these pages research presented that exercising and sporting activities should be such a positive affect for positive youth development. The article of [94] talks about the factors, including individual differences in physical and psychosocial development, which can contribute to the way in which adolescents experience the impact of sport participation. Participation in exercising or sporting activities on any level can be enjoyed by all adolescents and can bring the results as in [95, 96].
A total of 1671 Danish adolescents were taken in investigation on physical activity and several psychosocial questions [97]. The most important motives for physical activity for them were improvement of health, to get in good shape, to have fun, and to make new friends. High intensity of physical activity was associated with high social class, strong social interaction in peer group, easy contact with parents and friends, physical exercise among parents and best friends, good health, and high degree of life satisfaction.
Preliminary findings suggest physical activity and sport participation are associated with improved life satisfaction and self-rated health for middle school students [40]. In addition, although some gender differences were observed, consistent findings for sport participation suggest sport participation may carry multiple social, mental, and physical benefits for youth [ibid].
It was found in the investigation of [86] that there were no significant relationships found between life satisfaction and demographic characteristics. The subjective quality of life domain measures correlated most strongly with general life satisfaction—correlation ranged from 0.16 to 0.65 in the study of [98]. Generally speaking, the findings of [35] study indicated that physical activity has an effect on positive physical self-concept and life satisfaction. The study of [99] revealed relationships between perceived life dissatisfaction and noninvolvement in physical activity. Little research of [41] with 245 students was surveyed about physical activity and life satisfaction. Analysis documented significantly reduced life satisfaction for females who reported not engaging in vigorous physical activity during the past 7 days and for both males and females who reported not playing team sports. Of the demographic variables examined [100], only age was significantly associated with the quality of life scores. Satisfaction with life in Portuguese adolescents was 18 points, and this score is less than the findings in our research for Slovak adolescents (22.46). Life satisfaction acts as a protective factor against risky behavior and mood disorders [101]. The researchers, teachers, and parents should understand the adolescents’ view of quality of life, where the adolescents emphasize the importance of social relations and psychosocial health to promote and sustain their quality of life [102]. The data obtained in the research [103] indicate that those who engage in physical sporting activity always have higher psychological well-being levels (p < 0.001), experience more positive emotions (p < 0.001) and fewer negative ones (p < 0.001), and feel more satisfied with their lives (p < 0.001), than those who do not. Linear relationship between greater sport participation and happiness were observed in the results of [104]. The results of the [95] study presented an overall prediction of higher health-related quality of life with greater physical activity.
Good thoughts are expressed by [105] that when the professional sport is no longer the future of male and female secondary school students, then organized exercising or sporting activity provides them the benefits that can last for the rest of their lives and hopes that such organized activities will lead to adoption of an active lifestyle in the adulthood. Participation in organized sports provides an opportunity for young people to increase their physical activity and develop physical and social skills. And the study of [103] presented the data, which identified that physical activity can be taken as a variable associated with higher well-being scores and the recommended regular basis for exercising should be at least four times a week.
Positive associations between happiness and engagement in sporting activities are indicated in [5, 9, 27, 54, 104, 106]. Happiness as an equal to subjective well-being can be measured in terms of life satisfaction. It can be concerned with the presence of positive experience and feelings and the absence of negative experience and feelings. Slovak people rank in happiness in 38th place among 156 world countries [107, 108] with 6.192 points from a 10-point scale and with the loss of 1.577 points in comparison to the first country, which was Finland, in World Happiness Report 2019, and rank lower than the OECD average of 6.5. In comparison to the year 2008, 0.933 points of improvement can be found. The Slovak Republic ranks 32nd place among 148 nations and 1 special administrative region of China, Hong Kong, in the overall Prosperity Index rankings [109]. In the Prosperity Pillar rankings, Slovakia performs best on education (access to education, quality of education, and human capital) and safety and security (national security and personal security), where it took 26th place. The Quality of Life Index by Country [110] revealed that the Slovak Republic with 153.10 points is on the 31st place in quality of life when concerning purchasing power index, safety index, healthcare index, cost of living index, property price to income ratio (which is the worse rated from selected factors in Slovakia), traffic commute time index, pollution index, and climate index (which is best rated from selected factors in Slovakia). The model of [9] proposes that “happiness is a concept relative to individuals, their unique needs and resources and to the culture and environment in which they function as social beings,” and we agree with them.
A new strategy should take place in the life of all people—creating a physical activity, exercise and sporting habits as a need for life (like needs of eating and sleeping), because the technologies and the current way of working do not secure enough movement for work of human body organs for healthy life and for the subjective quality of life. Starting and continuing with the appropriate compulsory and extracurricular physical and sporting activities during the whole school system should to use physical and sporting activities to become the habits of exercising and should last for the whole life long because of the premise: when you are used to exercise and adapted for doing it as a young person, it is easier to continue with it during adulthood. Or even when there was a break by doing sporting activities, it is easier to start with them again, when you have been used to do it in a previous time. The body can remember the movement and can be prepared to start again. The members of the human race only speak about healthy lifestyle but have to take the initiative steps for doing something for it.
The research was focused on two main dimensions of the quality of life—the life enjoyment and satisfaction and global satisfaction with life.
The researched areas of the dimension of the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction presented statistical differences between boys and girls (p1), sport active and sport inactive adolescents (p2), and sport active and sport inactive boys and girls (p3) (physical health and activities p1 < 0.001, p2 = 0.001, p3 < 0.001; leisure time activities p1 < 0.001, p2 < 0.001, p3 < 0.001; emotions and feelings p1 < 0.001, p2 = 0.011, p3 < 0.001; taking care of yourself p1 = 0.002, p2 = 0.004, p3 < 0.001). The only one negative statistical difference was found in the area of school environment and school duties, where sport inactive adolescents (p = 0.004) and sport inactive boys and girls (p = 0.018) valued higher the feelings of the domain life enjoyment and satisfaction from seven items of this area (school environment and school duties). No statistical differences were found in the area of school environment and school duties in comparison between boys and girls (p = 0.086) although the girls reached higher values. No statistical differences were found in the area of social relations in comparison between boys and girls (p = 0.726), sport active and sport inactive adolescents (p = 0.470), and among sport active and sport inactive boys and girls (p = 0.58). The dimension quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction was statistically and significantly better valued by the boys than girls (p < 0.001) and by sport active boys than sport inactive boys (p = 0.027). No statistical difference was found between sport active girls and sport inactive girls (p = 0.200).
In the dimension of global satisfaction with life, we found statistical differences in all compared samples—boys were more satisfied than girls (p = 0.004), and sport active adolescents were more satisfied than sport inactive adolescents (p < 0.001)—and comparison among sport active and sport inactive boys and girls results in the statistical difference p < 0.001.
The dimension of quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction (in the area of physical health and activities, leisure time activities, feelings, taking care of yourself, school enjoyment and school environment, social relations) was statistically significantly better valued by sport active adolescents than sport inactive adolescents (p = 0.002).
These findings serve to extend the knowledge in sport sociology. The research included 55 items differentiated in 7 areas, which were taken in 2 subjective dimensions of quality of life and gave evidence that sport activity positively influenced the perception of dimension of quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction and the dimension of global satisfaction with life among adolescents. Sport as a social phenomenon examines and discusses the positive impact on individuals or social group, and here we discussed the positive impact of sport, exercise, and physical activities on subjective dimensions of the quality of life in sport active and sport inactive adolescent girls and boys, which can serve as an important precondition for making and playing sports and for exercising in general. Exercising and sporting activities serve a positive experience for all, children, adolescents, adults, and seniors too, and should encourage all.
For the limitation of the study, we considered the sample size, because we did not calculate the expected sample size before beginning the study. We worked only with the sample with which we could realize interview. If we have had the access to a representative sample, then maybe we would have more precise results and we could generalize the results to a larger population. We will continue with this research, and we try to gain more respondents also from other parts of the Slovak Republic, not only from the capital city. The second limitation of the study is the selection of 50 items from the entire 93-item self-reported measure. Maybe for the school practice, also a short form with the 16 items would be appropriate. The third limitation of the study is self-reported data, because we gather the responses at the momentary time, when the person, in any mood, perceives the question and answers the question in a subjective manner. To overcome this, some introductory and motivational parts should be provided by the research leader before respondents start fulfilling the questionnaire. The fourth limitation could be that we did not determine the kind of sport. Maybe we would find several new information and which kind of sport has the greatest effect on the subjective dimensions of the quality of life. This approach would require the larger sample size. The fifth limitation could be the selection of the research papers in the introduction and in the discussion because of our individual interest in some papers and not in others paper. We will try to make the larger scope of the next research, because this research is also limited in pages for publishing.
Our results provide the evidence that sport and exercising positively affect the subjective dimensions of the quality of life more in boys than in girls. The motivation for sport participation should be gender-focused, and the promotion of the higher volume of time should girls devote to sporting activity to acquire better experiencing of subjective dimensions of the quality of life.
This work was supported by the grant VEGA 1/0726/17, the project entitled sports motivational profile for different groups of population and the influence of various sport activity to improve the subjective dimension of quality of life.
There were no conflicts of interest.
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
",metaTitle:"List of Institutions by Country",metaDescription:"If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. However, if your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"open-access-funding-institutions-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Book Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Book Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"16"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10704",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias - Translational Approach from Pathophysiology to Advanced Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0e5d67464d929fda6d8c83ec20c4138a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Endre Zima",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10704.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"201263",title:"Dr.",name:"Endre",surname:"Zima",slug:"endre-zima",fullName:"Endre Zima"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10705",title:"Healthcare Access",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8e9561a91e5f7771932aa5d49c3b687",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Amit Agrawal and Dr. Srinivas Kosgi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10705.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"100142",title:"Prof.",name:"Amit",surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amit-agrawal",fullName:"Amit Agrawal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10706",title:"Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1a5246f0b6ba4f0e9ad1fbfa4134c598",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Manal Mohammad Baddour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10706.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174598",title:"Dr.",name:"Manal Mohammad",surname:"Baddour",slug:"manal-mohammad-baddour",fullName:"Manal Mohammad Baddour"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10707",title:"Primary Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bdb1aeb61b1eb116c1bdb09d25593686",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10707.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10708",title:"Topics in Regional Anesthesia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10709",title:"Heart Valve Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cb3479fd272d968ee7eee95ae09ea9db",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10710",title:"Recent Advances in the Treatment of Orofacial Clefts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ec438b5e4be44dc63870c1ace6a56ed2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Roberto Tovani Palone",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10710.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"221178",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Roberto",surname:"Tovani Palone",slug:"marcos-roberto-tovani-palone",fullName:"Marcos Roberto Tovani Palone"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10711",title:"Arthroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"afa83f11ba2442e7612f5b8c6aa3c659",slug:null,bookSignature:"M.D. Carlos Suarez-Ahedo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10711.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235976",title:"M.D.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Suarez-Ahedo",slug:"carlos-suarez-ahedo",fullName:"Carlos Suarez-Ahedo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10712",title:"Thrombectomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"853e71d74c3dd5007277d3770e639d47",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10712.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:51},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1410",title:"Viticulture",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture",parent:{title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:122,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8054",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b9b3b3d887ed9e7c0ad09cb07edf2b",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata and Iris Loira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8054.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6077",title:"Grapes and Wines",subtitle:"Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61fe601d66e441800c8ed9503f86280f",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",bookSignature:"António Manuel Jordão and Fernanda Cosme",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6077.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186821",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"M. Jordão",slug:"antonio-m.-jordao",fullName:"António M. Jordão"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58633",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72800",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"59216",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73132",title:"Potential for Use of the Residues of the Wine Industry in Human Nutrition and as Agricultural Input",slug:"potential-for-use-of-the-residues-of-the-wine-industry-in-human-nutrition-and-as-agricultural-input",totalDownloads:945,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Renato Vasconcelos Botelho, Gabriela Datsch Bennemann,\nYohandra Reyes Torres and Alessandro Jefferson Sato",authors:[{id:"64335",title:"Prof.",name:"Renato",middleName:"Vasconcelos",surname:"Botelho",slug:"renato-botelho",fullName:"Renato Botelho"},{id:"208714",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Datsch Bennemann",slug:"gabriela-datsch-bennemann",fullName:"Gabriela Datsch Bennemann"},{id:"208715",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohandra",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes Torres",slug:"yohandra-reyes-torres",fullName:"Yohandra Reyes Torres"},{id:"208716",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Jefferson",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"alessandro-jefferson-sato",fullName:"Alessandro Jefferson Sato"}]},{id:"57946",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71627",title:"Microbiological, Physical, and Chemical Procedures to Elaborate High-Quality SO2-Free Wines",slug:"microbiological-physical-and-chemical-procedures-to-elaborate-high-quality-so2-free-wines",totalDownloads:1088,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego, Miquel Puxeu, Laura Martín, Enric Nart, Claudio\nHidalgo and Imma Andorrà",authors:[{id:"207221",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer-Gallego",slug:"raul-ferrer-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego"},{id:"208597",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Puxeu",slug:"miquel-puxeu",fullName:"Miquel Puxeu"},{id:"208598",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"laura-martin",fullName:"Laura Martín"},{id:"208599",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Nart",slug:"enric-nart",fullName:"Enric Nart"},{id:"208600",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"claudio-hidalgo",fullName:"Claudio Hidalgo"},{id:"208601",title:"Dr.",name:"Imma",middleName:null,surname:"Andorrà",slug:"imma-andorra",fullName:"Imma Andorrà"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58638",title:"Occurrence and Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Wine",slug:"occurrence-and-analysis-of-sulfur-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"57041",title:"Fingerprints of Anthocyanins and Flavonols in Wild Grapes (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi)",slug:"fingerprints-of-anthocyanins-and-flavonols-in-wild-grapes-vitis-vinifera-l-ssp-sylvestris-gmelin-heg",totalDownloads:924,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Eugenio Revilla, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia, Alberto Bellido, David\nCarrasco, Anna Puig and Leonor Ruiz-Garcia",authors:[{id:"154744",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Adela",middleName:null,surname:"Arroyo-Garcia",slug:"rosa-adela-arroyo-garcia",fullName:"Rosa Adela Arroyo-Garcia"},{id:"207857",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugenio",middleName:null,surname:"Revilla",slug:"eugenio-revilla",fullName:"Eugenio Revilla"},{id:"207926",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bellido",slug:"alberto-bellido",fullName:"Alberto Bellido"},{id:"207927",title:"Dr.",name:"Davis",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco",slug:"davis-carrasco",fullName:"Davis Carrasco"},{id:"207928",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Puig",slug:"anna-puig",fullName:"Anna Puig"},{id:"207929",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonor",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz",slug:"leonor-ruiz",fullName:"Leonor Ruiz"}]},{id:"58633",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:1326,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"67039",title:"The Microvine: A Versatile Plant Model to Boost Grapevine Studies in Physiology and Genetics",slug:"the-microvine-a-versatile-plant-model-to-boost-grapevine-studies-in-physiology-and-genetics",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Anne Pellegrino, Charles Romieu, Markus Rienth and Laurent Torregrosa",authors:[{id:"284414",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurent",middleName:null,surname:"Torregrosa",slug:"laurent-torregrosa",fullName:"Laurent Torregrosa"},{id:"285872",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Romieu",slug:"charles-romieu",fullName:"Charles Romieu"},{id:"285873",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Pellegrino",slug:"anne-pellegrino",fullName:"Anne Pellegrino"},{id:"298280",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Rienth",slug:"markus-rienth",fullName:"Markus Rienth"}]},{id:"59187",title:"Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTDs): Impact on Table Grapes and Wine Vineyards in Chile",slug:"grapevine-trunk-diseases-gtds-impact-on-table-grapes-and-wine-vineyards-in-chile",totalDownloads:930,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Ximena Besoain",authors:[{id:"207574",title:"Prof.",name:"Ximena",middleName:null,surname:"Besoain",slug:"ximena-besoain",fullName:"Ximena Besoain"}]},{id:"58458",title:"Water Balance Indices for Tropical Wine Grapes",slug:"water-balance-indices-for-tropical-wine-grapes",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Antônio Heriberto de Castro Teixeira, Jorge Tonietto and Janice F.\nLeivas",authors:[{id:"212840",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"antonio-teixeira",fullName:"Antônio Teixeira"},{id:"212843",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Tonietto",slug:"jorge-tonietto",fullName:"Jorge Tonietto"},{id:"213180",title:"Dr.",name:"Janice",middleName:null,surname:"Leivas",slug:"janice-leivas",fullName:"Janice Leivas"}]},{id:"67760",title:"Production and Marketing of Low-Alcohol Wine",slug:"production-and-marketing-of-low-alcohol-wine",totalDownloads:735,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Tamara Bucher, Kristine Deroover and Creina Stockley",authors:[{id:"289140",title:"Dr.",name:"Creina",middleName:null,surname:"Stockley",slug:"creina-stockley",fullName:"Creina Stockley"},{id:"289141",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Bucher",slug:"tamara-bucher",fullName:"Tamara Bucher"},{id:"289142",title:"Ms.",name:"Kristine",middleName:null,surname:"Deroover",slug:"kristine-deroover",fullName:"Kristine Deroover"}]},{id:"57206",title:"Viticulture in Warmer Climates: Mitigating Environmental Stress in Douro Region, Portugal",slug:"viticulture-in-warmer-climates-mitigating-environmental-stress-in-douro-region-portugal",totalDownloads:1967,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Manuel Oliveira",authors:[{id:"181227",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:"T.",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"manuel-oliveira",fullName:"Manuel Oliveira"}]},{id:"58589",title:"Convenience of Applying of Viticulture Technique as a Function of the Water Status of the Vine-Stock",slug:"convenience-of-applying-of-viticulture-technique-as-a-function-of-the-water-status-of-the-vine-stock",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Ester Gamero, Francisco Espinosa, Daniel Moreno, David Uriarte,\nMaría Henar Prieto, Inmaculada Garrido and María Esperanza\nValdés",authors:[{id:"209994",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Espinosa",slug:"francisco-espinosa",fullName:"Francisco Espinosa"},{id:"222512",title:"Dr.",name:"Esperanza",middleName:null,surname:"Valdés",slug:"esperanza-valdes",fullName:"Esperanza Valdés"},{id:"222515",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Uriarte",slug:"david-uriarte",fullName:"David Uriarte"},{id:"222516",title:"Dr.",name:"Inmaculada",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"inmaculada-garrido",fullName:"Inmaculada Garrido"},{id:"222518",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Gamero",slug:"esther-gamero",fullName:"Esther Gamero"},{id:"222519",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria-Henar",middleName:null,surname:"Prieto",slug:"maria-henar-prieto",fullName:"Maria-Henar Prieto"},{id:"222520",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",slug:"david-moreno",fullName:"David Moreno"}]},{id:"67444",title:"Somatic Variation and Cultivar Innovation in Grapevine",slug:"somatic-variation-and-cultivar-innovation-in-grapevine",totalDownloads:487,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano, Carolina Royo, Nuria Mauri, Javier Ibáñez and José Miguel Martínez Zapater",authors:[{id:"287215",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez Zapater",slug:"jose-miguel-martinez-zapater",fullName:"Jose Miguel Martinez Zapater"},{id:"287226",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Ibáñez",slug:"javier-ibanez",fullName:"Javier Ibáñez"},{id:"300441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Carbonell-Bejerano",slug:"pablo-carbonell-bejerano",fullName:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano"},{id:"300442",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Royo",slug:"carolina-royo",fullName:"Carolina Royo"},{id:"300444",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Mauri",slug:"nuria-mauri",fullName:"Nuria Mauri"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"book.detail",path:"/books/voice-and-swallowing-disorders",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"voice-and-swallowing-disorders"},fullPath:"/books/voice-and-swallowing-disorders",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()