More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
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\r\n\tThe text “Peatland Ecosystems” aims to be the vanguard wetland resource for articulating the achievements of protection and restoration of peatlands, understanding their nutrient pathways, documenting their vital ecosystem services and for instituting insightful research and mitigating climate change across the globe. Peatlands are Histosols and their unique physical and chemical pathways that interact to support wetland habitats. Peatlands reside in almost every nation and collectively constitute 3% of the global land surface. Damaged peatlands contribute approximately 10% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the land use sector. Additionally, wetlands support an intense array of microorganism that purify water resources. Peatlands act to minimize the risk of flooding and drought, reduce the risk of saltwater intrusion and provide for a diverse biodiversity. Currently, many nations have enacted regulatory protocols to safeguard these resources and to protect them from further degradation.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with an accurate and completely modern understanding of peatland ecosystems, their diversity across contrasting landscapes, their ability to be managed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, and their compatibility with human communities to safely provide pristine and sustainable water resources.
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1. Introduction
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral infection [1] which is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The disease appears in cloven-footed animals. Symptoms of the disease are abrupt manifestation of sores on the mouth, nose, feet, etc. [2]. These symptoms can appear within 2–3 days postexposure and can take up to 7–10 days. FMDV belongs to genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae and has seven species. In the year 2001, about 57 zones were previously influenced by dangerous FMD at the detection of FMDV for the first time in Britain. Later on about 43 animals were encountered with FMD just in a day. So estimate regarding the onset of FMD among animals may be biased [3].
For the prevention and elimination of FMDV, two methods could be adopted, that is, massacre and immunization [4]. The virus can last for an extended period of time especially in cool environment and neutral pH.
The foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) belongs to genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae [5]. FMDV has seven diverse serotypes O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3, and Asia-1. Serotype O is the most familiar in the world among all the serotypes. More than 60 strains are found among these serotypes. These serotypes differ with each other in different topographic areas. Serotype O was accountable for that Asian epidemic which occurred in the year 1990 and influenced all over the world [1]. FMDV is a single-stranded RNA virus. It contains a protein coat comprising of four capsid proteins designated as VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4 [4].
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) affects cloven-footed animals. The disease is very fast-growing and transmissible which usually affects pigs, cattle, goats, and sheep. The symptoms include vesicles/blisters on the hoofs, mouth, nose, feet, teats, etc. Ultimately these blisters result in skin erosions. Animals become unable to take food and thus become weak. Other symptoms include salivation, decrease in milk production, and weight loss. This viral problem occurs around the whole globe. FMDV epidemic occurred in different countries of the world like Europe, the United States, and Canada. In the year 1967, FMDV epidemic resulted in mortality of 400,000 pigs in the United Kingdom. Epidemic of FMDV in the United Kingdom causes death of about 70,000 pigs, cattle, and sheep in 70 areas [2].
Foot and mouth disease is a very dangerous communicable disease. It has affected different domestic animals in different areas with very lethal symptoms. Its breakthrough is especially notable in the United Kingdom. In the year 2001, about 57 zones were previously influenced by dangerous FMD at the detection of FMDV for the first time in Britain. Later on about 43 animals were encountered by this FMD just in a day. So estimate regarding the onset of foot and mouth disease among animals may be biased [3].
2. Plants for treatment of FMDV
Different plants were evaluated to prevent or eradicate FMDV. An experiment evaluated two parts of ginseng plant, stem and leaves, regarding susceptibility of mice to immunization to vaccine against serotype Asia-1 of FMDV. Ginseng along with its oil was also used to assess collective outcome regarding immunization against FMDV. This research showed that considerable high titer of various antibodies resulted when ginseng along with oil is given in combination. Important antibodies which were evaluated included IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, and IgG3.
In a study forty two plants were used to prepare 47 ethanolic extracts which were evaluated for their antiviral potential against KPS/005/2545 strain of type “O” FMDV. BHK-21 cell line was used in the experimental study. The virus was used at the rate of 106.37 TCID50. Transgenic plant (Arabidopsis thaliana) was used to synthesize VP1 with 135–160 amino acid residues. These antigens were found to provide immunization against viral disease [6]. Some plants showed significant antiviral activity against FMDV which included Morinda elliptica and Morinda citrifolia. Other plants failed to exhibit antiviral activity against FMDV [7]. This indicates that plants have antiviral potential and they can be used as antiviral agents against FMDV.
In another reported study, it was mentioned that FMD is a transmissible ailment of animals. Effective control of this disease needs sensitive, specific, and quick diagnostic tools at each tier of control strategy. Various pen-side tests, namely, lateral flow, RT-LAMP, immunostrip tests, and so forth, were also developed for the detection of the virus in field condition [8].
FMDV is transmissible, and to maintain protection against this virus, a study was conducted on guinea pigs and rabbits. The study suggested that immunization of animals with synthetic peptide 141–160 produces neutralizing antibodies that provide protection against FMDV [9]. Similarly, different synthetic peptide residues 141–158 and 200–213 of VP1 were synthesized from 01 Kaufbeuren strain of FMDV. These peptides were proved to provide protection against FMDV via acting on VP1 carboxyl terminal [10].
In the 1930s, the first vaccine was developed against FMDV. The vaccine was developed from live FMDV with formalin in combination with aluminum hydroxide gel. Treatment of animals with this vaccine reduced the outbreak of viral disease [11]. Later on, vaccines have been developed based on the virus capsid structure. These vaccines were synthesized from purified or recombinant DNA techniques, derived or chemically synthesized VP1 peptides, inoculation with DNA expressing VP1 epitopes or interleukin, and plant expressing VP1 [12]. Moreover, a vaccine was developed by deleting RGD receptor site on VP1, which resisted virus binding to the cell [13]. Similarly, a live attenuated vaccine was prepared that lack the L-coding in A-type A12 virus. The vaccine resulted in replication of cells but decreased the virulent factor of disease in cattle [14]. On the other hand, a swine inoculated with wild-type A12 in combination with oil led to neutralization of FMDV [15].
Different studies have been reported on targeted immunogens that lack infectious nucleic acid. In a reported study, mice were inoculated with active virus 3Cpro in empty capsules. This vaccine produced neutralizing response by producing antibodies [16]. Another study showed improved FMDV antibody response after coadministration of viral capsid along with porcine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [17].
Meanwhile some studies illustrated the recombinant and replication of vaccinia virus containing capsid-coding region of FMDV C1Oberbayern or C3Argentina85 [18]. To prevent the outbreak, Ad5-vectored vaccine was prepared that reduced viral growth. Furthermore, porcine interferon omegas 7 and 8 have also been reported to reduce FMDV in vitro production in swine kidney cells [19, 20].
Nowadays the control and treatment of FMDV have become a worldwide economic problem and a challenge for the society. It not only affects the animals, but humans who eat these animals are also affected. Currently, there is no any particular treatment existing regarding the cure of FMDV. The conventional method involved the use of antibiotics, flunixin, meglumine, and mild disinfectants for treating infected animals. Traditionally for washing the lesions of infected animals, natural soda ash solution, honey, and finger millet flour are used [21].
Vaccination of animals is the first-line treatment for the control of the virus. However, vaccines take several days to elicit its response, and sometimes, a booster dose is required with repeated vaccination. There is no vaccine available which meets the ideal conditions like broad antigenic spectrum, high efficacy, low risk of FMDV release, and low production cost. Inactivated (traditional) and live attenuated (conventional) vaccines are used normally. Inactivated vaccines contain one or more cell culture-derived inactivated virus mixed with the suitable excipients. Inactivated vaccines may be categorized into standard or higher potency vaccines. Standard vaccines provide broad-spectrum coverage against the virus strains, while high-potency vaccine has rapid onset of action and wider range of protection. Live attenuated vaccines are not recommended for use as it reverts the chance of infection and also prevents the recognition of infection in vaccinated animals [22].
Azadirachta indica (AI), known commonly as neem, belongs to family Meliaceae and has possessed antiviral activity against different viruses [23, 24]. There is a study that reported the use of different concentrations (200, 100, 50, 25, 12, 6, and 1 μg/ml) of aqueous and ethanolic leaves extract of Azadirachta indica for evaluating antiviral activity against FMDV in farming animals on BHK-21 (baby hamster kidney) cell culture. Aqueous extract of the said plant showed considerable anti-FMDV activity between the concentration ranges of 12.5–50 and 50–100 μg/ml, whereas ethanolic leaves extract demonstrated strong antiviral activity at concentrations between 6 and 25 μg/ml. Antiviral activity was evaluated by examining cytopathic effects and determining cell survival percentages [25].
Moringa oleifera, local name is Sonjna, belongs to family Moringaceae and is an effective antiviral agent used against Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), HIV/AIDS, and hepatitis B virus [26]. The anti-FMDV activity of ethanolic leaves extract of Moringa oleifera was evaluated at different concentrations, respectively (200, 100, 50, 25, 12, 6, and 1 μg/ml), on BHK-21 cell culture. Ethanolic leaf extracts of plant showed potent anti-FMDV activity between the concentration ranges of 12–100 and 50–300 μg/ml. However, in another study ethanol leaf extracts of plant showed significant antiviral activity at the concentration ranges from 1 up to 100 μg/ml with 50% cell survival rate [27].
Alhagi maurorum is a member of family Fabaceae, known by local name camel thorn and camelthorn-bush. The successful in vitro anti-FMDV activity of ethanolic, methanolic, and aqueous-acetic acid extracts of A. maurorum was reported at different stages of viral replication cycle, with the main compound found to be 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, diisooctyl ester. Reduction in cytopathic effects (CPEs) and tissue culture infective dose (TCID50) values help in the evaluation of antiviral activity of FMDV on Razi bovine kidney (RBK) cells [28].
The Withania somnifera (WS), or Ashwagandha locally known as “Indian winter cherry” or “Indian ginseng,” belongs to the family Solanaceae. Ashwagandha is a well-known South African herb used in the treatment of herpes simplex virus [29] and infectious bursal disease [30]. In literature in vitro activity of aqueous extract of Ashwagandha roots and leaves was reported against FMDV of livestock on BHK-21 cell line. Ashwagandha roots and leaves demonstrated effective anti-FMDV activity. The antiviral activity of the plant was confirmed by observing reduction in cytopathic effects when treated with Ashwagandha root and leaf extracts [31].
In literature in vivo anti-FMDV activity of Chinese herbal kombucha is reported against FMDV of swine on baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cells. Chinese herbal kombucha is a combination of different herbal plants, i.e., Radix Glycyrrhizae, Momordica grosvenorii, Dendranthema morifolium, and Camellia sinensis. Study showed that Chinese herbal kombucha inhibited the replication of FMDV analyzed by using real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (Q-RT-PCR) technique [32].
The ethanolic extract of Spirulina platensis demonstrated the presence of antiviral activity against different isolates of FMDV in baby hamster kidney (BHK) cell culture and in baby mice. The results of this study showed that at 50 μg/ml, S. platensis extract revealed 28.5, 31, and 35.7% reductions in FMDV titers type A, SAT-2, and O, respectively. At the same dose, 50% inhibition in FMDV was observed in infected baby mice [33].
Glycyrrhiza uralensis or Chinese liquorice is used to treat enterovirus 71 (EV71) and Coxsackie virus A16 (CVA16) of FMD. The essential antiviral component in plant is found to be glycyrrhizic acid, as the antiviral activity is directly dependent on the concentration of glycyrrhizic acid. At 1000 μg/ml concentration of plant extract, 1.0 log reduction in EV71 replication and 1.5 log reduction in CVA16 replication were observed. However, at concentration of 200 μg/ml, 1.7 and 2.2 log inhibition in EV71 and CVA16 replication is examined, respectively. Cytopathic effects were observed for determining antiviral activity [34].
Ocimum tenuiflorum (tulsi) of family Lamiaceae and Curcuma longa (turmeric) of family Zingiberaceae also possess potential antiviral activity for FMD. Aqueous extracts of both plants showed effective in vitro antiviral activity against FMDV of livestock on BHK-21 cell line at 1:2 and 1:1 dilutions [31].
Various plant crude extracts were studied for their in vitro antiviral activity against bovine FMDV on BHK-21. The immature fruit extract of Morinda elliptica L. showed FMDV inhibition at concentration of 0.39 μg/μl with TCID50 value of 1 × 103.65. The Morinda citrifolia L. extract also showed FMDV inhibition at 0.19 μg/μl, and TCID50 value was reported to be 1 × 103.35. Extract from leaves and stem of Amaranthus viridis L. has lowest FMDV inhibition at 0.024 μg/μl concentration (1 × 102.44 TCID50). Extracts obtained from the rhizomes of Boesenbergia rotunda L., flowers of Carthamus tinctorius, and fruits of Citrus reticulata and Elaeocarpus hygrophilus showed inhibition of FMDV at concentration of 0.012 μg/μl of all extracts with 1 × 102.14 TCID50 [7].
3. Conclusion
Recently there is no particular treatment available for the treatment of FMDV, and the limitations and disadvantages in the use of vaccines divert the focus of researchers toward natural sources like plant extracts which possess potential antiviral activity. The various research works documented in the literature demonstrated various plant extracts with antiviral potency against FMDV.
4. Future prospects
The successful in vivo and in vitro anti-FMDV activities of plant extracts showed that they have the potential to be used to control the virus growth inside the body and also help in managing the lesions associated with these infections. In plant extracts, different chemical constituents are present which could be further isolated and effectively used in the development of powerful and potent antiviral drug against FMDV.
\n',keywords:"FMDV, treatment, plant extracts",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67293.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67293.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67293",totalDownloads:508,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 4th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 4th 2019",datePrePublished:"June 12th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral infection which is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The disease appears in cloven-footed animals. Symptoms of the disease are abrupt manifestation of sores on the mouth, nose, feet, etc. Nowadays the control and treatment of FMDVare becoming a worldwide economic problem and challenge for the society. Currently, there is no particular treatment available for FMDV, as well as the limitations and disadvantages in the use of vaccines divert the focus of researchers toward natural sources like plant extracts which possess potential antiviral activity. Various researches documented in the literature demonstrated various plant extracts with antiviral potency against FMDV. In the current chapter, we discussed about FMDV and its possible treatment with plant extracts.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67293",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67293",book:{slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals"},signatures:"Ishrat Younus, Sidra Maqbool, Sarah Jameel Khan, Humera Sarwar, Shagufta Nesar, Rida Fatima, Sidra Siddique and Moona Baig",authors:[{id:"243372",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishart",middleName:null,surname:"Younus",fullName:"Ishart Younus",slug:"ishart-younus",email:"ishratyounas@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Plants for treatment of FMDV",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Future prospects",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Aftosa F. Foot and Mouth Disease. Ames, Iowa: College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University; 2007'},{id:"B2",body:'Kirk JH. Review of Clinical Signs of Foreign Animal Diseases Which a Mixed Veterinary Practitioner Might Encounter on a Dairy. Veterinary Medicine Extension University of California. CA: Davis Veterinary Medical Teaching and Research Center Tulare; 1992'},{id:"B3",body:'Gibbens JC, Wilesmith JW. Temporal and geographical distribution of cases of foot and mouth diseases during the early weeks of the 2001 epidemic in great Britian. The Veterinary Record. 2002;2002:151-212'},{id:"B4",body:'Davies G. Foot and mouth disease. Research in Veterinary Science. 2002;73(3):195-199'},{id:"B5",body:'ICTV. 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Medicinal Chemistry. 2016;6:578-582'},{id:"B27",body:'Younus I, Siddiq A, Assad T, Baddar S, Jameel S, Ashraf M. Screening antiviral activity of Moringa oleifera L. leaves against foot and mouth disease virus. Global Veterinaria. 2015;15(4):409-413'},{id:"B28",body:'Shakiba Y, Rezatofighi SE, Seyyednejad SM, RoayaeiArdakani M. Inhibition of foot-and-mouth disease virus replication by hydro-alcoholic and aqueous-acetic acid extracts of Alhagi maurorum. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2018;14(1):85-96'},{id:"B29",body:'Kambizi L, Goosen BM, Taylor MB, Afolayan AJ. Anti-viral effects of aqueous extracts of Aloe ferox and Withania somnifera on herpes simplex virus type 1 in cell culture. South African Journal of Science. 2007;103:359-360'},{id:"B30",body:'Pant M, Ambwani T, Umapathi V. Antiviral activity of Ashwagandha extract on infectious bursal disease virus replication. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 2012;5(5):2750-2751'},{id:"B31",body:'Deshpande TM, Chaphalkar SR. Antiviral activity of plant extracts against FMDV in vitro a preliminary report. International Journal of Institutional Pharmacy and Life Sciences. 2013;3(4):1-18'},{id:"B32",body:'Fu N, Wu J, Lv L, He J, Jiang S. Anti-foot-and-mouth disease virus effects of Chinese herbal kombucha in vivo. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2015;46(4):1245-1255'},{id:"B33",body:'Daoud HM, Soliman EM. Evaluation of Spirulina platensis extract as natural antivirus against foot and mouth disease virus strains (A, O, SAT2). Veterinary World. 2015;8(10):1260'},{id:"B34",body:'Wang J, Chen X, Wang W, Zhang Y, Yang Z, Jin Y, et al. Glycyrrhizic acid as the antiviral component of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. against coxsackie virus A16 and enterovirus 71 of hand foot and mouth disease. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2013;147(1):114-121'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ishrat Younus",address:"ishratyounas@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, Pakistan
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Karachi, Pakistan
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1. Introduction
The influence of climatic variables during the vineyard growing seasons on wine quality is well known because they influence the grapevine growth and then the berry composition. For wine grape crops, plant phenology, wine quality, and yield are very dependent on climate at regional, local and microclimatic scales [1, 2, 3, 4]. For any of these spatial scales, considerations of grape site selection, cultural practices, and water management are important, which are very important issues for potential adaptations to different climate scenarios; however, large-scale climate has been the focus for assessing the climate change impacts [5, 6, 7, 8].
The optimal vineyard response to air temperature (Ta) ranges between 20 and 35°C [9]. According to Fraga et al. [3], a 10°C basal temperature (Tb) is needed for the growing season onset. However, high thermal conditions contribute to increase sugar content in grapes, resulting in large alcohol concentration and low acidity in wines, rising pH [2, 10, 11, 12]. There are also important secondary thermal effects, such as increase of pest and disease risks, like downy and powdery mildew, especially under rainy conditions [4, 13, 14].
Rising thermal conditions (Ta > 30°C) should increase suspended solid concentrations, but high Brix levels may be attributed to large evapotranspiration (ET) rates [15]. According to Webb et al. [16], high Ta during the harvest period may reduce berry quality due to increasing ET. These issues make the rational water management an important issue for controlling water deficiencies and excesses, and the need of vineyard water requirements (WR) quantification [12, 17, 18].
Taking into account the water balance, on the one hand, warming conditions can directly affect the vineyard WR, which, together with low precipitation (P) amounts, promote high levels of aridity and water demand. On the other hand, high soil moisture throughout the growing season may cause excessive vigor, increased risks of pest and diseases, and other problems related to wine quality and to the balance of its chemical components [4, 9, 19, 20, 21]. All these thermohydrological effects during the vineyard growing seasons on wine quality and production show the importance of water accounting to delimitate areas and seasons with suitable climatic aptitude for winemaking processes.
A large number of climate models have been used worldwide to classify winemaking regions by using different methodologies. For aptitude delimitation, aiming at grape and wine production, one can apply bioclimatic indices based on the thermohydrological requirements. The multicriteria climatic classification (MCC) system proposed by Tonietto and Carbonneau [22] has been used under temperate climate conditions in Europe [23] and in South America [24, 25]. However, the method has worked well considering a single, 6-month growing season per year under temperate climate conditions.
Over the last years, the Brazilian semiarid region has appeared among the main tropical wine-producing areas in the country, typically growing under irrigation conditions and trained mainly in vertical shoot-positioning systems. With proper irrigation and cultural management practices, the farmers can produce grapes and carry out winemaking at any time of the year, allowing a potential average of between two and three vineyard-growing cycles per year, in accordance with and depending on each variety. The Ta rising with a consequent increase in ET rates and aridity in this region will affect both the wine grape quality and vineyard water requirements.
The coupled effect of increasing water consumption and decreasing precipitation, together with land use change, makes it important to elaborate and upscale indices for subsidizing winemaking adaptations and water productivity improvements. Vineyard water variables have been quantified in this region by point measurements [26, 27] but to upscale these punctual results, tools such as remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) can be used. For the vineyard climatic suitability determination, one can apply water balance indices by using GIS and long-term weather data [4, 18, 21, 28]. For the vineyard water balance indices used in this chapter, distinctions are important between reference (ET0) and actual (ET) evapotranspiration. ET0 is the water flux from a reference surface, not a shortage of water, which may be considered as a hypothetical grass surface with specific characteristics, while ET is the real water flux occurring from the surfaces in a specific situation involving all environmental conditions [29].
This chapter aims to elaborate on and apply water balance indices to be scaled up by using a GIS in the wine grape growing regions of Petrolina and Juazeiro counties, located respectively in the semiarid regions of Pernambuco (PE) and Bahia (BA) states, simulating different pruning dates along the year. These indices were delimitated and analyzed, generating criteria for a rational expansion of irrigated and rain-fed vineyards with higher probability of success for tropical wine elaboration. The results generate criteria for a rational expansion of irrigated and rain-fed vineyards with higher probability of success for the Brazilian tropical wine elaboration, under the actual scenario of rising water competition by irrigated agriculture and nonagricultural sectors.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study region and data set
A net of agrometeorological stations was used throughout interpolation processes in a GIS environment. The stations are spread in the Petrolina (PE) and Juazeiro (BA) counties, with seven of them inside irrigated farms and the other seven in the natural vegetation, called “Caatinga.” The gridded weather data well characterize the horizontal thermohydrological contrast between these mixed agroecosystems (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Petrolina and Juazeiro counties, respectively in Pernambuco (PE) and Bahia (BA) states, in the Brazilian Northeast, together with the agrometeorological stations used for the interpolation processes.
According to Teixeira [19], in the Brazilian Northeast semiarid region, disturbed currents from the South, North, East, and West influence the climatology. Excluding the places of high altitude, all areas present long-term annual Ta higher than 24°C, with the average maximum of 33°C and the average minimum of 19°C. The warmest months are October and November when the Sun is close to the zenith position with low cloud cover, and the coldest ones are June and July at winter solstice in the Southern hemisphere. The thermal homogeneity strongly contrasts with the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the rainfall regime, with the rainy period from November to April (90% of the annual total), the period January to April representing 68% of the annual rainfall. The weather variables in the current study involved a 10-year period (2003–2012). Monthly data were used to calculate the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) by the Penman-Monteith method [29].
2.2. Modeling vineyard water balance indices
Previous Bowen ratio energy balance data from Teixeira et al. [26] for the cv. Syrah in the Brazilian semiarid region were used. Figure 2 shows the details of the field experiment carried out in Petrolina (PE), Northeast of Brazil.
Figure 2.
Measurements of gradients of air temperature, vapor pressure and wind speed; incident and reflected shortwave; net radiation; acquisition data system; and soil moisture in Bowen ratio system of wine grape.
The energy balance equation for the wine grape can be expressed by means of bulk energy and heat fluxes:
Rn−λE−H−G=0E1
where Rn is the net radiation, λE is the latent heat flux, H is the sensible heat flux, and G is the soil heat flux.
The vineyard λE was obtained by a partitioning parameter:
λE=Rn−G1+βE2
where β is the Bowen ratio:
β=γΔTΔeE3
and γ (kPa °C−1) is the psychrometric constant, ΔT(°C) the temperature gradient measured by dry thermocouples, and ∆e (kPa) is the water vapor pressure gradient measured by the difference between dry and wet thermocouples over the height interval above the vineyard canopy surface.
Actual evapotranspiration (ET) was derived from the latent heat of vaporization (λ), density of water, and λE. The field experiment was close (3 km) to Bebedouro station (Figure 1), which ET0 data allowed the acquirement of the crop coefficient (Kc) along the crop stages [29]:
Kc=ETET0E4
Considering a base temperature (Tb) of 10°C, Kc was related with the accumulated degree days DDac [30]:
Kc=aDDac2+bDDac+cE5
where a = −2 × 10−7, b = 4 × 10−4 and c = 0.54 are the regression coefficients (R2 > 0.70).
Further, Kc was used to obtain the ET under potential conditions, which in turn considered the vineyard water requirements (WR), using the cv. Syrah as a reference wine grape in the study region. WR for a growing season (GS) was acquired by simulating different pruning date and considering a 4-month mean GS duration under the Brazilian semiarid conditions:
WRGS=KcEGST0GSE6
Five Kc values were taken into account, being DDac zero at the start of a GS, while the other DDac values were calculated, along the GS, with the average Ta for the subsequent months. The five-Kc averaged values and the total ET0 for a GS (ET0GS) were considered for acquiring WRGS.
Another indicator, the water balance difference (WBd), was applied to quantify the magnitude of excess or deficiencies of water in the vineyards on large scales for a GS, where PGS is the total growing season precipitation:
WBdGS=PGS−WRGSE7
Neglecting the water storage in the root zones in the vineyard water balance, difficult to consider in large-scale analyses, positive WBd values are a quantification of vineyard water excess, while the negative ones are related to the vineyard water deficiencies.
The WRGS together with PGS values allowed the development and application of the water balance ratio (WBr) indicator:
WBrGS=PGSWRGSE8
WBr takes into account the thermohydrological conditions, and it is a measure of the water availability in the vineyard root zone. When it is around 1.00, imply the feasibility for rain-fed wine grape, while those much higher should indicate moisture excess problems, independently of the absence or not of irrigation. Low WBr values mean possibility of natural water deficiencies and the degree of irrigation needs according to the pruning dates.
3. Results and discussion
Figure 3 shows the TGS maps, for different wine grape pruning dates along the year, considering a mean 4-month GS, and the 10-year period from 2003 to 2012.
Figure 3.
Spatial averages of mean air temperature values for a 4-month wine grape-growing season (TGS), and a 10-year period (2003–2012), simulating different pruning dates, in the Petrolina (PE) and Juazeiro (BA) counties, Northeast Brazil. The mean pixel values and standard deviations are also indicated.
The coldest and the hottest growing seasons (GS) are those for pruning dates between April and July and from September to December, respectively. Considering the standard deviation (SD) values, there are low thermal spatial variations, due to the proximity of the counties to the equator. The lowest air temperatures for a growing season (TGS) occur at the winter solstice time in the Southern hemisphere, while the highest ones are when the Sun is around the zenith position over the Brazilian tropical wine grape growing region. For pruning done during the coldest periods, several pixels present TGS values lower than 24°C, while one can see all the areas with TGS higher than 26°C, for pruning in the hottest months.
There are no thermal limitations for wine grape crop in the Brazilian semiarid region, with pruning dates in the middle of the year. On the one hand, for all pruning periods, TGS pixels are below 30°C, which conditions around or above this value should increase suspended solid concentrations [15]. On the other hand, TGS values are not below the threshold of 10°C, which could introduce a dormancy stage in temperate climates [3]. The TGS values in the study area are between 23°C and 28°C, inside the optimum thermal range pointed by Gouveia et al. [9].
However, when the pruning is done from September to December, many areas with TGS above 27°C often occur and could affect negatively the wine quality. These latter conditions will contribute to high sugar content in grapes but wines with increasing levels of alcohol, low acidity, and large pH values. These effects together will promote a wine unbalance with instability for the phenolic and aromatic composition [2, 3, 10, 11, 12].
Figure 4 shows the PGS maps, for different wine grape pruning dates along the year, considering a mean 4-month GS, and the 10-year period from 2003 to 2012.
Figure 4.
Spatial averages of total precipitation for a 4-month wine grape-growing season (PGS), and a 10-year period (2003–2012), simulating different pruning dates, in the Petrolina (PE) and Juazeiro (BA) counties, Northeast Brazil. The mean pixel values and standard deviations are also indicated.
The pruning dates with the highest PGS are those from December to February, with several pixel values larger than 300 mm GS−1 in the Petrolina County. During this period, the largest moisture spatial variation is also verified according to the SD values. The lowest PGS are for pruning between May and July. High pixel values occur in the northwestern side of Petrolina (PE), while the lowest ones occur in the southwestern area of Juazeiro (BA).
Taking into account all pruning dates, the rainfall amounts in Petrolina (PE) are 61% larger than in Juazeiro (BA). Thus, in the first county, there are more possibilities of matching the vineyard water requirements with rainfall together with supplementary irrigations, whenever irrigation water is available. However, as a first guess, risks of pest and diseases and other problems related to wine quality and to the balance between its chemical components are higher for pruning done from December to February [4, 9, 19, 20, 21].
Considering the cv. Syrah as reference for wine grapes in the growing regions of Petrolina (PE) and Juazeiro (BA), and the long-term weather conditions (2003–2012), the WRGS spatial values for a 4-month mean GS are presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Spatial averages of the water requirements for a 4-month wine grape-growing season (WRGS), and 10-year period (2003–2012), simulating different pruning dates, in the Petrolina (PE) and Juazeiro (BA) counties, Northeast Brazil. The mean pixel values and standard deviations are also indicated.
The pruning dates with the highest WRGS are from August to October, with average pixel values larger than 420 mm GS−1, when, according to the SD values, there are also the highest spatial variations. Pruning done from March to May will promote the lowest water consumptions, with mean WRGS below 350 mm GS−1, and the smallest SD values, below 25 mm in March and April. Large WRGS occur in the northwestern side of Petrolina (PE), what might correspond to good grape yield and wine quality if water is available together with techniques to avoid natural water excesses in the root zones [4, 12]. However, special attention should be given under water scarcity conditions, when there is ample room for water productivity improvements in situations of lower atmospheric demands [21].
Taking into account all pruning dates along a year, the water demands in the Petrolina (PE) county are 10% larger, when comparing with those for Juazeiro (BA) one. Daily average WR values in the study region were between 2.7 and 3.6 mm day−1, being similar to the ET rates found throughout field experiments in different wine grapes growing regions of the world [27, 30, 31], bringing confidence to the upscaling techniques applied in the current case study.
Table 1 resumes the averages and SD values of the vineyard water balance indices for each 4-month pruning date per county, for the wine grape, cv. Syrah considering the period of weather data from 2003 to 2012 in the growing region of Petrolina – Pet (PE) e Juazeiro – Jua (BA), in the semiarid region of Northeast Brazil.
Pruning date
TGS (°C)
PGS (mm GS−1)
WRGS (mm GS−1)
Pet
Jua
Pet
Jua
Pet
Jua
January
26.7 ± 0.1
26.8 ± 0.3
396 ± 65
253 ± 52
398 ± 23
362 ± 20
February
26.2 ± 0.1
26.3 ± 0.3
329 ± 57
209 ± 47
372 ± 22
337 ± 18
March
25.6 ± 0.1
25.6 ± 0.3
224 ± 47
139 ± 35
342 ± 19
313 ± 18
April
25.0 ± 0.1
24.9 ± 0.3
130 ± 28
78 ± 22
340 ± 19
310 ± 19
May
24.6 ± 0.2
24.4 ± 0.3
58 ± 14
32 ± 11
361 ± 22
327 ± 20
June
24.8 ± 0.2
24.5 ± 0.3
40 ± 10
17 ± 7
399 ± 25
360 ± 22
July
25.5 ± 0.2
25.3 ± 0.3
44 ± 8
18 ± 7
439 ± 28
396 ± 24
August
26.5 ± 0.2
26.3 ± 0.3
65 ± 11
37 ± 7
461 ± 29
416 ± 24
September
27.3 ± 0.2
27.2 ± 0.3
105 ± 17
62 ± 12
461 ± 29
417 ± 23
October
27.7 ± 0.1
27.7 ± 0.3
191 ± 28
121 ± 21
448 ± 27
404 ± 22
November
27.6 ± 0.1
27.6 ± 0.3
292 ± 40
189 ± 33
441 ± 26
396 ± 22
December
27.2 ± 0.1
27.3 ± 0.3
365 ± 57
233 ± 45
420 ± 24
368 ± 21
Mean
26.1 ± 0.1
26.2 ± 0.3
187 ± 32
116 ± 25
407 ± 24
367 ± 21
Table 1.
Mean values and standard deviations (SD) of the vineyard water balance indices for the wine grape, cv. Syrah, considering a 4-month average growing season (GS) and a 10-year period (2003–2012), in the Petrolina—Pet (PE) and Juazeiro—Jua (BA) counties, Northeast Brazil.
Air temperature (TGS); Precipitation (PGS); and Water requirements (WRGS).
No significant differences arise among the TGS mean values from Petrolina (PE) and those from Juazeiro (BA) with average for all pruning periods of 26°C GS−1 for both counties; however, the second one presents larger spatial thermal variation, according to the SD values.
In case of PGS, the values for Juazeiro (BA) are lower those for Petrolina (PE), indicating higher possibility of rainfall water use by the vineyards in the second county. As the vineyard thermal conditions between them did not differ so much, the WRGS values for Juazeiro (BA) were, in average, 90% of those for Petrolina (PE). These differences could be attributed to the effect of relative humidity (RH) in the ET0 calculations, as lower PGS reduce RH in Juazeiro (BA) when comparing with Petrolina (PE).
Keeping in mind that the wine quality depends on both thermal and water conditions, these conditions were analyzed throughout the mean pixel values and standard deviations (SD) of WBd and WBr for a 4-month average growing season and according to the pruning dates considering the 10-year period of weather data (2003–2012) (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Mean pixel values and standard deviations (SD) for the water balance indices, considering a 10-year period (2003–2012) and an average 4-month wine grape-growing season, cv. Syrah according to the simulated pruning dates, in the Petrolina—Pet (PE) and Juazeiro—Jua (BA) counties, Northeast Brazil: (a) water balance difference (WBd) and (b) water balance ratio (WBr).
According to Figure 6a, there are no positive WBd mean values, meaning that considering the whole area and the average conditions; in general, there is absence of vineyard water excesses for any pruning dates. Disregarding the water storage in the root zones in the vineyard water balance, the pruning periods with the highest water deficiencies (the most negative WBd) are from June to September, when both counties presented average WBd pixel values lower than −340 mm GS−1 and also the lowest SD, around 23 mm GS−1. The less negative WBd values obtained for pruning dates are from December to February, when the average was above −150 mm GS−1. These last thermohydrological conditions indicated the feasibility of rain-fed wine grape with supplementary irrigation. Natural water deficiency in Petrolina is 87% of that for Juazeiro, with better chances of success for rain-fed wine grapes, once rainfall-water storage techniques are applied.
As, in average, PGS in Petrolina is 61% higher than that for Juazeiro, but WRGS is only 11% larger (Table 1), the differences regarding rainfall amounts will affect more the water balance than the different evapotranspiration rates between the counties. Similarly to the WBd index, pruning dates from December to February present the highest WBr, with averages ranging from 0.60 to 1.00, meaning that rainfall amounts met from 60 to 100% of the vineyard water demands during these pruning periods; however, SD values for both of them are around 0.10 (Figure 6b).
Although rainy conditions having the beneficial aspect of natural water availability, increasing soil moisture may reduce the ripening capacity of grapes, and the difficulty of water stress management is unfavorable for the organoleptic wine quality. In this sense, care should be also taken for improving drainage for both irrigated and rain-fed vineyards during the periods of high WBr.
The natural climate dryness conditions occur when the pruning is done from May to August. Under these circumstances, the WBr values are around 0.10 with almost no spatial variation, favoring more the irrigated vineyards. These conditions avoid plant diseases, root respiration problems, and direct damage to the berries promoted by excess of precipitation, favoring the quality of must and wine [3, 4, 9, 12, 20, 21].
4. Conclusions
Water balance indices are successfully developed and applied, allowing the large-scale analyses of the thermohydrological conditions for wine grape production under the semiarid conditions of the Brazilian Northeast, considering different pruning dates along the year.
On the one hand, under irrigation conditions, the best wine grape pruning dates in the Brazilian Northeast are from May to August, with the thermohydrological conditions favoring a better tropical wine quality. On the other hand, the most problematic pruning periods for irrigated crops are from December to February because the joint effects of higher air temperatures and precipitations. Considering the possibility of rainfed crops, this last period should be considered in situations with the possibility of supplementary irrigation applying rainfall water storage techniques.
The spatial delimitations carried out in the current research, joined with other environmental characteristics, are important for the success of the commercial tropical wine production expansion, considering also the sustainability of the activity in the Brazilian semiarid region, where the land use and climate changes are happening together with water competition during the last decades.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development – CNPq (Processe 404229/2013-1), for the financial support to a project. The research deals with agricultural water productivity in hydrological basins with land use changes in Brazil.
\n',keywords:"evapotranspiration, crop coefficient, vineyard adaptation, water resources, Vitis vinifera",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58458.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58458.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58458",totalDownloads:737,totalViews:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2017",dateReviewed:"November 27th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"February 28th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Over the last few decades, the Brazilian semiarid region has appeared as one of the main tropical wine production areas in the country. The aim of this research was the elaboration and application of water balance indices to upscale them in the wine grape growing regions of the Petrolina and Juazeiro counties in the states of Pernambuco (PE) and Bahia (BA), respectively, simulating different pruning dates along the year. Previous energy balance measurements were used for relating the crop coefficient (Kc) with the accumulated degree-days (DDac). The model was applied to upscale the water balance indices during the growing seasons (GS). It was concluded that if irrigation water is available, the best pruning periods are for GS from May to July because of better natural thermal and moisture conditions. Much care should be taken for pruning done in other periods of the year, with regard to the effect of increasing thermal conditions on wine quality. The classifications and delimitations done, joined with other environmental characteristics, are important for a rational planning of the commercial tropical wine production expansion, mainly in the actual situations of climate and land use changes together with rising water competition along the years in the Brazilian semiarid region.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58458",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58458",signatures:"Antônio Heriberto de Castro Teixeira, Jorge Tonietto and Janice F.\nLeivas",book:{id:"6077",title:"Grapes and Wines",subtitle:"Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",publishedDate:"February 28th 2018",bookSignature:"António Manuel Jordão and Fernanda Cosme",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6077.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186821",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"M. Jordão",slug:"antonio-m.-jordao",fullName:"António M. Jordão"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"212840",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Antônio Teixeira",slug:"antonio-teixeira",email:"heriberto.teixeira@embrapa.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"212843",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Tonietto",fullName:"Jorge Tonietto",slug:"jorge-tonietto",email:"jorge.tonietto@embrapa.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"213180",title:"Dr.",name:"Janice",middleName:null,surname:"Leivas",fullName:"Janice Leivas",slug:"janice-leivas",email:"janice.leivas@embrapa.br",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Study region and data set",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Modeling vineyard water balance indices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Jones GV, Webb LB. Climate change, viticulture, and wine: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Wine Research. 2010;21:03-106. DOI: 10.1080/09571264.2010.530091'},{id:"B2",body:'Fraga H, Malheiro AC, Moutinho-Pereira J, Santos JA. An overview of climate change impacts on European viticulture. Food and Energy Security. 2012;1:94-110. DOI: 10.1002/fes3.14'},{id:"B3",body:'Fraga H, Malheiro AC, Moutinho-Pereira J, Santos JÁ. Climate factors driving wine production in Portuguese Minho region. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2014;185:26-36. DOI: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2013.11.003'},{id:"B4",body:'Lorenzo MN, Ramos AM, Brands S. Present and future climate conditions for winegrowing in Spain. Regional Environmental Change. 2016;16:617-627. DOI: 10.1007/s10113-015-0883-1'},{id:"B5",body:'Malheiro AC, Santos JA, Fraga H, Pinto JG. Climate change scenarios applied to viticultural zoning in Europe. Climate Research. 2010;43:163-177. DOI: 10.3354/cr00918'},{id:"B6",body:'Neethling E, Petitjean T, Quénol H, Barbeau G. Assessing local climate vulnerability and winegrowers\' adaptive processes in the context of climate change. Mitigation Adaptation Strategy for Global Change. 2017;22:777-803. DOI: 10.1007/s11027-015-9698-0'},{id:"B7",body:'Dunn MR, Lindesay JA, Howden M. Spatial and temporal scales of future climate information for climate change adaptation in viticulture: A case study of user needs in the Australian winegrape sector. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 2015;21:226-239. DOI: 10.1111/ajgw.12138'},{id:"B8",body:'Tóth JP, Végvári Z. Future of winegrape growing regions in Europe. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 2016;22:64-72. DOI: 10.1111/ajgw.12303, 10.1111/ajgw.12138'},{id:"B9",body:'Golveia C, Liberato MLR, DaCamara CC, Trigo RM, Ramos AM. Modelling past and future wine production in the Portuguese Douro Valley. Climate Research. 2011;48:349-362. DOI: 10.3354/cr01006'},{id:"B10",body:'Tarara JM, Lee J, Spayd SE, Scajel CF. Berry temperature and solar radiation alter acylation, proportion, and concentration of anthocyanin in merlot grapes. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 2008;59:235-247. DOI: 10.5344/ajev.2016.15106. ISSN 0002-9254'},{id:"B11",body:'Orduña RM. Climate change associated effects on grape and wine quality and production. Food Research International. 2010;43:1844-1845. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2010.05.001'},{id:"B12",body:'Maxwell JT, Ficklin DL, Harley GL, Jones GV. Projecting future winegrape yields using a combination of Vitis vinifera L. growth rings and soil moisture simulations, northern California, UAS. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 2016;22:73-80. DOI: 10.1111/ajgw.12138'},{id:"B13",body:'Centeno A, Baeza P, Lissarrague JR. Relationship between soil and plant water status in wine grapes under various water deficits regimes. HortTechnology. 2010;20:585-593. ISSN: 1063-0918'},{id:"B14",body:'Caffarra A, Rinaldi MF, Eccel E, Rossi V, Pertot I. Modelling the impact of climate change on the interaction between grapevine and its pests and pathogens: European grapevine moth and powdery mildew. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environments. 2012;148:89-101. DOI: 10.1016/j.agee.2011.11.017'},{id:"B15",body:'Keller M. Managing grapevines to optimize fruit development in a challenging environment: A climate change primer for viticulturists. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 2010;16:56-69. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-0238.2009.00077.x'},{id:"B16",body:'Webb LB, Whetton PH, Bhend J, Darbyshire R, Briggs PR, Barlow EWR. Earlier wine-grape ripening driven by climatic warming and drying and management practices. Nature Climate Change. 2012;2:259-264. DOI: 10.1038/nclimate1417'},{id:"B17",body:'Anderson K, Findlay C, Fuentes S, Tyerman S. Garmaute Climate Change Review: Viticulture, Wine and Climate Change. Adelaide: University of Adelaide; 2008'},{id:"B18",body:'Teixeira AH de C, Hernandez FBT, Lopes HL. Up scaling table grape water requirements in the low-middle São Francisco River basin. Acta Horticulturae. 2014;1038:655-662. DOI: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2014.1038.83'},{id:"B19",body:'Teixeira AH de C. Water Productivity Assessments from Field to Large Scale: A Case Study in the Brazilian Semi-Arid Region. Saarbrücken: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing; 2009. 226 p. ISBN: 978-3838327785'},{id:"B20",body:'Santos JA, Grätsch SD, Karremann MK, Jones GV, Pinto JG. Ensemble projections for wine production in the Douro Valley of Portugal. Climate Change. 2013;117:211-225. DOI: 10.1007/s10584-012-0538-x'},{id:"B21",body:'Teixeira AH de C, Hernandez FBT, Scherer-Warren M, Andtrade RG, Victoria D de C, Bolfe EL, Thenkabail PS, Franco RAM. Water productivity studies from earth observation data: Characterization, modeling, and mapping water use and water productivity. In: Prasad ST, editor. Remote Sensing of Water Resources, Disasters, and Urban Studies. Vol. III. 1st ed. Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis; 2015. pp. 101-126. ISBN: 9781482217919'},{id:"B22",body:'Tonietto J, Carbonneau A. A multicriteria climatic classification system for grape-growing regions worldwide. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2004;124:81-97. DOI: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2003.06.001'},{id:"B23",body:'Blanco-Ward D, García Queijeiro JM, Jones GV. Spatial climate variability and viticulture in the Miño River Valley of Spain. Vitis. 2007;46:63-70. ISSN: 0042-7500'},{id:"B24",body:'Ferrer M, Pedocchi R, Michelazzo M, Gonzalez-Neves G, Carbonneau A. Delimitación y descripción de regiones vitícolas del Uruguay en base al método de clasificación climática multicriterio utilizando índices bioclimáticos adaptados a las condiciones del cultivo. Agrociencia. 2007;11:47-56. ISSN: 1405-3195'},{id:"B25",body:'Montes C, Perez-Quezada JF, Peña-Neira A, Tonietto J. Climatic potential for viticulture in Central Chile. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 2012;18:20-28. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-0238.2011.00165.x'},{id:"B26",body:'Teixeira AH de C, Bastiaanssen WGM, Bassoi LH. Crop water parameters of irrigated wine and table grapes to support water productivity analysis in Sao Francisco River basin, Brazil. Agricultural Water Management. 2007;94:31-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2007.08.001'},{id:"B27",body:'Azevedo PV, Soares JM, Silva V de P, Silva BB, Nascimento T. Evapotranspiration of “superior” grapevines under intermitente irrigation. Agricultural Water Management. 2008;95:301-308. DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2007.10.011'},{id:"B28",body:'Teixeira AH de C, Scherer-Warren M, Hernandez FBT, Andrade RG, Leivas JF. Large-scale water productivity assessments with MODIS images in a changing semi-arid environment: A Brazilian case study. Remote Sensing. 2013;5:5783-5804. DOI: 10.3390/rs5115783'},{id:"B29",body:'Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M. Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 1998. 300 p'},{id:"B30",body:'Williams LE, Ayars JE. Grapevine water use and the crop coefficient are linear functions of the shaded area measured beneath the canopy. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2005;132:201-211. DOI: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2005.07.010'},{id:"B31",body:'Ortega-Farias S, Carrasco M, Olioso A, Acevedo C, Poblete C. Latent heat flux over Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard using the Shuttleworth and Wallace model. Irrigation Science. 2007;25:161-170. DOI: 10.1007/s00271-006-0047-7'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Antônio Heriberto de Castro Teixeira",address:"heriberto.teixeira@embrapa.br",affiliation:'
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