Planned versus actual coverage of the survey.
\r\n\t"
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc796459268324e827219d1d904e4265",bookSignature:"Prof. Moulay Tahar Lamchich",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7196.jpg",keywords:"Induction motor, smart motor, electrical vehicles, energy generation, drives, electromechanical, hybrid transportation, smart control, high efficiency motor, variable speed drives, power electronic, energy efficiency.",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 4th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 25th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 12th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 10th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"21932",title:"Prof.",name:"Moulay Tahar",middleName:null,surname:"Lamchich",slug:"moulay-tahar-lamchich",fullName:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21932/images/system/21932.png",biography:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich is a Professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia at Marrakech (Morocco). He completed his thesis in electromechanics in September 1991 and received his third cycle degree. Dr. Lamchich received his Ph.D. from the same university in July 2001. His main activity is based on short-circuit mechanical effects in substation structures, control of different types of machine drives, static converters, active power filters. In the last decennia, his research interests have included renewable energies, particularly the control and supervision of hybrid and multiple source systems for decentralized energy production, and intelligent management of energy. He has published more than fifty technical papers in reviews and international conferences. With IntechOpen, he has published two chapters and was editor of the books “Torque Control” and “Harmonic Analysis”. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68017",title:"Review on UWB Bandpass Filters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87204",slug:"review-on-uwb-bandpass-filters",body:'The ultra-wideband (UWB) communication technology with a long history is developed rapidly in the past few decades. Since 1989, the UWB was first employed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DAPRA) as a term, and the DAPRA also proposed the bandwidth definition of the UWB. In fact, the UWB technology was only authorized to be applied in military communications. Since February 2002, the development of UWB has undergone a great change. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) finally released the UWB spectrum globally for data communication or radar and security field for civilian application and redefined the bandwidth of UWB, which specifies that the UWB radio-frequency signal has a fractional bandwidth (FBW) greater than 20% or 10 dB absolute bandwidth greater than 500 MHz. According to the definition of FCC part 15 [1], the authorized band allocated to the UWB communication systems is ranging from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz. Unprecedented 7.5 GHz of bandwidth is the largest bandwidth of any commercial terrestrial system has ever allocated. The 3 dB FBW of the UWB can reach 109%, and FCC emission mask specified that the transmission power does not exceed −41.3 dBm/MHz (75 nW/MHz). The way of sharing the spectrum with extremely low-power spectral densities (PSD) is of paramount significance in present intense crowned spectrum circumstance. The major merits of the UWB are as follows:
Firstly, high date rate: according to the Shannon formula for channel capacity [2], the maximum infallibility information date rate of the system in the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel can be expressed as
where B stands for channel width and S/N denotes the signal-to-noise ratio. Hence, it can be concluded from Eq. (1) that even if the signal-to-noise ratio values are as low as 0.1 (−10 dB), the system’s data rate still can reach as high as 1 Gbps. It fully demonstrates the extremely high date rate of the UWB system. Secondly, strong anti-interference ability: UWB resorts carrierless communication with nanosecond pulses. With Fourier transform, it can be derived that the power spectral density is dramatically wide with low-energy density, which reveals that the UWB system is of excellent concealment. Thirdly, high resolution ratio of time and space: the UWB is operating at high frequency with a nanosecond resolution of time domain, and the short wavelength at the RF enables spatial resolution of 0.1 m approximately. The rapid development of 5G [3] and the Internet of Things (IoT) [4] has an urgent demand for high response speed and high positioning accuracy, and the UWB can perfectly meet this requirement. The emergence of key reports and research process, whether from an academic or engineering perspective, has greatly advanced the development of UWB over the past few decades.
The UWB bandpass filters served as key building block in UWB wireless communication systems to regulate the FCC UWB masks have aroused much research interest in this century. And various attempts to design UWB have been reported continuously. The UWB bandpass with a FBW of more than 20% have been reported with simple design methodology and excellent passband performance since 2012 [5, 6]. However, for the FCC authorized specification, 109% of the FBW is actually an unprecedented challenge in approaching UWB bandpass filters design. Despite the well-established comprehensive design theory for narrowband bandpass filters with varied specification [7, 8, 9, 10], the synthesis design methods for UWB bandpass filters are not suitable to employ existing powerful design theory foundations.
Various techniques have been presented to develop the UWB bandpass filters. One of the straightforward methods is cascading a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter to accomplish UWB bandpass filter [11, 12, 13]. Though considerable wideband is realized in [11], the occupied circuit size needs to be further reduced. To achieve UWB bandpass filters with compact size and simple design process, multimode resonator (MMR) has been presented [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. In [16], the UWB bandpass filter is achieved with wide stopband, and 40 dB attenuation can be realized within frequency ranging from 12.0 to 16.0 GHz. In [19], quintuple-mode resonator is introduced to design UWB bandpass filter and sharp shirt, and wide upper stopband is achieved simultaneously. A UWB bandpass filter with 20 dB out-of-band suppression up to 25.1 GHz is proposed in [21].In [25], a novel MMR with interdigital-coupled-microstrip line sections is implemented, which can excite seven transmission poles to design UWB bandpass filter with high roll-off rate. In summary, design of UWB bandpass filters by using MMR is of compact size and with multi-transmission poles, whereas the range of out-of-band rejection is still insufficient since harmonic effects. Similar to the MMR, the stub-loaded multimode resonator (SLMMR) is another ideal structure to design UWB bandpass filters owing to its simple structure and easy design procedure [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. In [26], a highly selective UWB bandpass filter is achieved by short-circuit stub-loaded structure, which can excite 11 resonant modes to fulfill the requirement of UWB with miniature circuit size. The stub-loaded quintuple-mode resonator is employed to design UWB bandpass filter with two transmission zeros near the lower and the upper cutoff frequencies in [30]. To address the issue of harmonic effect to obtain wide stopband, the step-impedance resonator (SIR) is utilized to design UWB bandpass filters with remoted harmonic [33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. A UWB bandpass filter with more than 30 GHz out-of-band attenuation is approached by using SIR in [34]. The novel ring resonators are considered as an effective way to design UWB bandpass filters attributed to its miniature size and multiple resonance behavior [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. In [39], a design of UWB bandpass filter with extremely compact circuit size (0.46 cm2, without feedlines) by using quintuple ring resonator is proposed. In [42], UWB with switchable bandwidth is also investigated by implementing a ring resonator, and tunable passband ratio of 1.22:1.13:1 is obtained. Another major category of UWB bandpass with desired UWB passband performance is based on the parallel-coupled lines [47, 48]. In [48], by using parallel-coupled microstrip lines, a UWB bandpass filter with a passband from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz of less than 1 dB insertion loss is accomplished; meanwhile, the attenuation level can reach 40 dB in stopband. In order to cater for the urge demand for miniaturization, UWB bandpass filters with multilayer structures have been extensively investigated and reported [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. In [57], design of an eight-pole UWB filter is demonstrated; meanwhile the proposed UWB filter not only has merits of miniature circuit size but also processes a 38.1 dB out-of-band suppression by utilizing the multilayer structure. In addition to the aforementioned techniques, there were also other routines to obtain the UWB bandpass filter, such as semi-lumped UWB bandpass filter [58, 59] and UWB bandpass filter designed with right-/left-banded structure [60, 61, 62]. Furthermore, for the purpose of achieving the UWB communication while eliminating other inferences of current communication systems, notch band UWB bandpass filter is presented [60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77] and will be demonstrated in detail in Section 6 of this chapter.
This chapter mainly focuses on the various approaches to achieve UWB bandpass filter and the discussion of several conventional methods for high-performance UWB filter with wide stopband, high out-of-band attenuation, sharp selectivity, and miniaturization. Therefore, the organization of this chapter is as follows: in Section 2, application scenarios of UWB, development history of UWB, and the UWB regulations established by the FCC are briefly demonstrated. In Section 3, the major specifications of the UWB filters as well as the foundation of design methodology are illustrated. Section 4, the key section, focuses on varied approaches to realize the UWB filter design. Common ways for accomplishing the design of UWB filters can be classified into the following categories: one of the general methods of designing UWB bandpass filter is using multimode resonator (MMR) (Section 4.1), and similar to the method in Section 4.1, UWB bandpass filters are also realized by using a stub-loaded multimode resonator (SLMMR) (Section 4.2). The methods of implementing the UWB bandpass filter with multilayer structure, parallel-coupled line, and step-impedance resonator design methodology are, respectively, reviewed in Sections 4.3–4.5. In order to fulfill the requirement to eliminate the RF interference within the UWB band, the UWB bandpass filter with notch band has been designed and reported extensively, which is reviewed in Section 5. Section 6, the Conclusion section, will be given at the end of this chapter.
The UWB wireless communication has been only authorized to the military communication for 42 years. Since 2002, the FCC released the unlicensed employment of UWB for commercial purpose and classified the application scenario into imaging system, vehicle radar system, and communication and measurement system. According to the regulation of FCC, the fL and fH are located at 3.1 and 10.6 GHz, where fL and fH, respectively, stand for the frequencies with 10 dB attenuation of the upper and lower sidebands. Therefore, the center frequency of UWB bandpass filter is expressed as
Meanwhile, the FBW can also derived as
For the purpose of evading the interference of UWB systems and existing communication systems (such as GPRS, WLAN, TD-LTE, and mobile cellular), the radiation spectral density of UWB systems is strictly limited and regulated, the highest power spectral density of the UWB systems regulated not exceeding −41.3 dBm/MHz, as illustrated in Figure 1. It is worth noting that the regulation also varies depending on the indoor and outdoor circumstance.
Indoor radiation masks and outdoor radiation mask regulated for UWB system by FCC.
As depicted in Figure 2, the UWB band has an extremely high FBW and unparalleled 7.5 GHz absolute bandwidth; the UWB therefore has potential in many applications. The UWB can be applied to support large channel capacity since its huge bandwidth, whereas its propagation distance is limited by low effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP). Therefore, the UWB is an ideal candidate for short-distance high-rate communication. For detecting, the UWB has a dramatic penetrating ability by using its outstanding weak narrow pulse of baseband, which can easily penetrate the leaves, the earth’s surface, the clouds, and the concrete; even objects behind the obstacle can also detected. For locating, high positioning accuracy can be accomplished by UWB technology, whether for military or civilian application.
The comparison between the UWB spectrum and spectrum of currently commercial communication systems.
The UWB bandpass filters have the responsibility to remove the unwanted signals and noise in UWB communication system. As shown in Figure 3, for the transmitting system, the modulated signal is directly filtered by using the UWB bandpass filter, and the UWB bandpass filter is also a critical component in RF front end of the receiving system [5]. Therefore the UWB bandpass filters are known as an inevitable key building block of wideband communication systems, and the filtering performance of UWB bandpass filter will directly related to the performance of the entire UWB system.
The sketch of transmitting system and receiving system with primary components.
The performance is a critical factor for UWB filters even in any engineering device, and the major parameters for UWB filter performance evaluating are as follows:
Insertion loss (IL): insertion loss is the attenuation caused by the introduction of the device between the in port and out port, usually expressed in dB. The insertion loss can be calculated as follows:
where Pin is the input transmitted power and the Pout is the output received power. In addition to the mismatching loss, the actual bandpass filters have a series of other losses. Firstly, dielectric loss, can expressed as
where the λg is the guide wavelength of 50 Ω microstrip line at frequency f.
Secondly, the conductor loss, can be derived from
where μ0 is the permeability of vacuum, σ is the conductivity, w is the width of conductor, and t is the conductor thickness.
Thirdly, the dielectric loss, can be written as
Return loss (RL): return loss is the ratio of the reflected power to the incident wave power, expressed in dB:
FBW and center frequency
Roll-off rate (ROR): the ROR is a critical specification for evaluating passband selectivity and can be defined as follows:
where δ−20 dB and δ−3 dB are attenuation point at −20 and −3 dB, respectively. f−20 dB and f−3 dB are, respectively, −20 and −3 dB stopband frequency.
Group delay: the ratio of phase variation to frequency variation is utilized to describe the overall delay of signal though the device. The group delay can be derive as
Out-of-band suppression level: the stopband suppression level is applied to evaluate the out-of-band performance of the UWB bandpass filter.
Upper stopband bandwidth: it is worth noting that there is no spike in the stop band.
Transmission poles: multi-transmission poles prone to achieve UWB bandpass filters with sharp shirt.
Transmission zeros: the UWB bandpass filter with multi-transmission zeros tends to process excellent out-of-band rejection and high selectivity of passband.
The critical step in the design of a conventional transmission line UWB filter is to select the appropriate electrical lengths/impedances of transmission lines to adjust the resonant modes to fulfill the design specifications of UWB bandpass filter. For the purpose of establishing the expression of the resonant frequencies and each electrical lengths or impedances, the Yin of UWB filter needs to be derived, and the resonance condition can be calculated by using the following expression:
As demonstrated in Figure 4, the detailed steps for solving resonant frequencies with numerical calculation are as follows:
Step 1, Initialization. The electrical lengths θi (i = 1, 2, …, n), f0 (reference frequency for electrical length calculation), and frequency sweep range should be given.
Step 2, Recalculating the electrical lengths. When the frequency fi is considered, all of the electrical lengths should be recalculated as
Step 3, if Eq. (1) is satisfied, that is, f1 = fi is the first resonant frequency that we are searching for, then the resonant frequency f1 should be saved and turn to the next step. If Eq. (1) is not satisfied, the program turns to the next step directly.
Step 4, considering the next frequency fi++.
Step 5, is the new value of fi++ beyond the frequency sweep range? If the answer is yes, then quit and end the program. If the answer is no, then go to step 2.
Flow chart of solving the resonate frequency.
Since the odd-mode resonant frequencies of the symmetrical structure are orthogonal to the even-mode resonant frequencies, the whole transmission line model can be divided into odd-mode and even-mode circuits. Therefore, the resonant frequencies are then derived separately, which dramatically reduces the computation of resonant modes. It is worth noting that with odd-mode excitation, the symmetrical planes are considered to be grounded and with even-mode excitation, the symmetrical planes are considered to be open.
Even-/odd-mode input admittance can be obtained from the even−/odd-mode equivalent circuit, and Eq. (11) can be replaced by the following equations:
The analysis of traditional transmission line filters with asymmetric structures is no longer within the application scope of classical odd-even-mode analysis method. To overcome this issue, the ABCD matrix method is employed to approach the overall transmission ABCD matrix; the Yin is then derived from the ABCD matrix of the overall structure. The ABCD matrix of several typical transmission line models and the ABCD matrix of several conventional circuit elements are depicted in Figure 5.
Classical transmission line structure and their ABCD matrix.
The analysis of parallel-coupled lines is more complicated than that of series/shunt transmission lines. One of the reliable ways is to analyze the parallel-coupled lines as a four-port component, and parameters of parallel-coupled lines are shown in Figure 6.
Electrical diagram of parallel-coupled line.
Different paralleled coupling conditions and the position of the in/out port correspond to varied initial conditions. Therefore, the Z matrix of parallel-coupled lines can be solved according to this initial condition. The four-port impedance matrix is given as follows.
where
A quintuple-mode resonator is proposed to design UWB bandpass filter, and the physical layout of the presented UWB filter is sketched in Figure 7 [19]. Since the whole structure is symmetrical along the T–T’ line, classical odd-even-mode method is adopted to analyze the quintuple-mode resonator. As demonstrated in Figure 8, five resonant modes can be generated by quintuple-mode resonator; besides, owing to the loaded stub, two transmission zeros are realized both at lower and upper cutoff frequencies; thus, high selectivity is approached. As shown in Figure 9, the measurement results are in good agreement which shows sharp skirt and ultra-wide stopband of the UWB bandpass filter (Figure 9).
Physical layout of the quintuple-mode resonator.
Transmission coefficient |S21|versus weak coupling and strong coupling.
Simulated and measurement frequency responses of presented UWB.
As illustrated in Figure 10, dual short stub-loaded resonator is presented to construct UWB transmission characteristics [31]. Owing to symmetrical structure of the presented SLMMR, classical odd-even-mode method can be introduced to analyze the resonant modes of UWB filter. With even-mode excitation and odd-mode excitation, the input admittance can be, respectively, written as follows:
Schematic diagram of proposed UWB bandpass filter with SLMMR.
By using the numerical calculation method mentioned in Figure 4, the design graphs for implementing UWB bandpass filter are sketched in Figure 11. For example, by properly choosing the values of θ2, the excited four resonant frequencies can be easily adjusted to the desired UWB specifications. Therefore, the first four resonant modes are located at 2.86, 5.58, 8.56, and 10.21 GHz, and the dimension parameters are optimized by IE3D as follows: L1 = 8, L2 = 1.6, L3 = 1.6 L4 = 1.4, L5 = 1.2, L6 = 3, L7 = 2.5, L8 = 1, L9 = 4, L10 = 3.6, L11 = 8, W1 = 0.2, W2 = 0.3, W3 = 0.6, W4 = 0.2, and W5 = 0.3. It can be observed in Figure 12 that simulation results are in good agreement with measurement results, which shows UWB bandpass characteristics with small and flat group delay in the passband.
Design graph for SLMMR, (a) normalized even-mode resonance frequencies versus θ2, (b) normalized odd-mode resonance frequencies versus θ2.
Measured results versus simulated results of fabricated UWB filter.
In order to design bandpass filter with UWB performance while occupied compact size, dual-layered structure is proposed in [56]. The UWB filter is constructed by substrate integrate waveguide (SIW) ridge resonator, and the bandwidth of the UWB filter can be easily tuned by properly changing the width of rod in ridge resonator. The scheme diagram is sketched in Figure 13.
Physical layout of the presented UWB filter. (a) Top band side view. (b) Front view.
As depicted in Figures 14 and 15, the bandwidth of UWB filter increases as the Rs increases, and the coupling strength and the bandwidth are both decreased as RL lessens; thus, the bandwidth of UWB filter can be easily tuned by properly adjusting the Rs and RL, and design parameters are finally chosen as W0 = 0.4, L0 = 4, W1 = 0.55, L1 = 4.85, W2 = 0.85, L2 = 5.1, W3 = 1.4, L3 = 4.9, W4 = 2.25, L4 = 4.74, W5 = 3.15, and L5 = 4.1. For the purpose of validating the design methodology, the dual-layer UWB bandpass filter is fabricated on the substrate of Rogers 6006 with relative permittivity if 6.15 and measured. The measurement results indicate that the proposed UWB filter is of extremely low insertion loss (<1 dB) and 47 dB stopband suppression up to 17.4 GHz with compact size, which can be observed in Figure 16.
Different transmission characteristics versus varied Rs.
Variation of frequency responses against varied RL.
Measurement results and simulated results of fabricated UWB filter.
The parallel-coupled lines can also employ to design UWB bandpass filter with simple structure. In [47], shorted coupled line structure and λ/4 shorted stub are introduced to achieve UWB bandpass filter with compact size. The ideal transmission line model of proposed UWB bandpass filter is demonstrated in Figure 17. Since the shorted coupled line structure is not a symmetrical structure, the ABCD matrix analysis method is employed to solve the input admittance of the proposed UWB bandpass filter, and the Y-matrix of this filter can be written as
Configuration of proposed UWB bandpass filter with shorted coupled lines.
where
where the whole ABCD matrix can be derived by
where
where
Thus, transmission coefficient can be derived. By properly changing the electrical lengths, UWB bandpass characteristics can be fulfilled, and the dimension parameters can be determined by using full-wave EM simulator, as demonstrated in Figure 18. Then simulation results and measurement results of fabricated UWB bandpass filter are shown in Figure 19, which shows excellent passband performance and multi-transmission zeros.
Final circuit layout with dimension parameters of presented filter.
Simulation and measurement results of presented UWB bandpass filter.
As illustrated in Figure 2, the UWB band has dramatic high FBW and surprisingly 7.5 GHz absolute bandwidth; therefore, the UWB has got great potential in many applications. However, a variety of undesired radio signal interferences and noise exist in the UWB frequency spectrum covering 3.1–10.6 GHz. Such as WiMAX (3.5 GHz), WLAN (5.2 GHz, 5.8 GHz), C-band satellite signals (5.975–6.745 GHz, 6.725–7.025 GHz), and RFID (6.8 GHz). As shown in Figure 2, some interference is introduced to the UWB communication system due to these narrowband signals. Thus, several notches are required to filter out the unwanted radio interference signals in UWB communication systems. In general, the methods of introducing a notch band in the UWB bandpass filter is of same essence, which is the electromagnetic energy of a certain frequency absorbed in the UWB band, so that signals with this frequency has been shorted out and averted to transmit from input to the output port. The design of the UWB notch filter has the following two methods: first, introducing additional notch unit circuits and, second, introducing lateral signal interference. The notch unit can be realized by various configurations, which includes single-mode/multimode resonator, a defected ground structure resonator, a metamaterial resonator, etc. Ultimately, the purpose of introducing notch unit circuits is to construct an electromagnetic absorption that set a notch in the UWB. Obviously, the notch which is designed based on aforementioned method is independently controllable. Furthermore, the number of notches can be easily extended, such as dual-notch band UWB filter and triple-notch band UWB filter.
To approach UWB bandpass characteristics with notch band, open-ended stubs can be applied to generate electromagnetic absorption [70]. The physical configuration is shown in Figure 20. Triple pairs of dumbbell defected ground structure are introduced to realize low-pass transmission characteristics with improved out-off-band performance. Embedded open-circuited stubs are utilized to generate a pair of notch band, which is located at 5.75 and 8.05 GHz, as depicted in Figure 21. The developed filter is analyzed by using EM simulator CST microwave and fabricated on TACONIC substrate of dielectric constant 2.2. Excellent agreement can be observed which proves that the proposed UWB bandpass filter is of UWB with dual-notch band characteristics and wide stopband, as illustrated in Figure 22.
Top view of the UWB bandpass filter with notch band.
The layout diagram of embedded open-circuited stubs and dual-notch band of proposed UWB filter.
EM simulation results versus circuit simulation results versus measurement results of presented UWB notch band bandpass filter.
The research significance of the UWB bandpass filters and several conventional methods to achieve UWB bandpass filters with desired transmission performance is reviewed in this chapter. As the key building block of the UWB technology, the UWB bandpass filters can be realized by using several reliable design methodologies with excellent frequency response performance, which is of great value for scientific research and engineering significance.
Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their research. It shows the path through which these researchers formulate their problem and objective and present their result from the data obtained during the study period. This research design and methodology chapter also shows how the research outcome at the end will be obtained in line with meeting the objective of the study. This chapter hence discusses the research methods that were used during the research process. It includes the research methodology of the study from the research strategy to the result dissemination. For emphasis, in this chapter, the author outlines the research strategy, research design, research methodology, the study area, data sources such as primary data sources and secondary data, population consideration and sample size determination such as questionnaires sample size determination and workplace site exposure measurement sample determination, data collection methods like primary data collection methods including workplace site observation data collection and data collection through desk review, data collection through questionnaires, data obtained from experts opinion, workplace site exposure measurement, data collection tools pretest, secondary data collection methods, methods of data analysis used such as quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis, data analysis software, the reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data, reliability of data, reliability analysis, validity, data quality management, inclusion criteria, ethical consideration and dissemination of result and its utilization approaches. In order to satisfy the objectives of the study, a qualitative and quantitative research method is apprehended in general. The study used these mixed strategies because the data were obtained from all aspects of the data source during the study time. Therefore, the purpose of this methodology is to satisfy the research plan and target devised by the researcher.
The research design is intended to provide an appropriate framework for a study. A very significant decision in research design process is the choice to be made regarding research approach since it determines how relevant information for a study will be obtained; however, the research design process involves many interrelated decisions [1].
This study employed a mixed type of methods. The first part of the study consisted of a series of well-structured questionnaires (for management, employee’s representatives, and technician of industries) and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders (government bodies, ministries, and industries) in participating organizations. The other design used is an interview of employees to know how they feel about safety and health of their workplace, and field observation at the selected industrial sites was undertaken.
Hence, this study employs a descriptive research design to agree on the effects of occupational safety and health management system on employee health, safety, and property damage for selected manufacturing industries. Saunders et al. [2] and Miller [3] say that descriptive research portrays an accurate profile of persons, events, or situations. This design offers to the researchers a profile of described relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organizational, and industry-oriented perspective. Therefore, this research design enabled the researchers to gather data from a wide range of respondents on the impact of safety and health on manufacturing industries in Ethiopia. And this helped in analyzing the response obtained on how it affects the manufacturing industries’ workplace safety and health. The research overall design and flow process are depicted in Figure 1.
Research methods and processes (author design).
To address the key research objectives, this research used both qualitative and quantitative methods and combination of primary and secondary sources. The qualitative data supports the quantitative data analysis and results. The result obtained is triangulated since the researcher utilized the qualitative and quantitative data types in the data analysis. The study area, data sources, and sampling techniques were discussed under this section.
According to Fraenkel and Warren [4] studies, population refers to the complete set of individuals (subjects or events) having common characteristics in which the researcher is interested. The population of the study was determined based on random sampling system. This data collection was conducted from March 07, 2015 to December 10, 2016, from selected manufacturing industries found in Addis Ababa city and around. The manufacturing companies were selected based on their employee number, established year, and the potential accidents prevailing and the manufacturing industry type even though all criterions were difficult to satisfy.
It was obtained from the original source of information. The primary data were more reliable and have more confidence level of decision-making with the trusted analysis having direct intact with occurrence of the events. The primary data sources are industries’ working environment (through observation, pictures, and photograph) and industry employees (management and bottom workers) (interview, questionnaires and discussions).
Desk review has been conducted to collect data from various secondary sources. This includes reports and project documents at each manufacturing sectors (more on medium and large level). Secondary data sources have been obtained from literatures regarding OSH, and the remaining data were from the companies’ manuals, reports, and some management documents which were included under the desk review. Reputable journals, books, different articles, periodicals, proceedings, magazines, newsletters, newspapers, websites, and other sources were considered on the manufacturing industrial sectors. The data also obtained from the existing working documents, manuals, procedures, reports, statistical data, policies, regulations, and standards were taken into account for the review.
In general, for this research study, the desk review has been completed to this end, and it had been polished and modified upon manuals and documents obtained from the selected companies.
The study population consisted of manufacturing industries’ employees in Addis Ababa city and around as there are more representative manufacturing industrial clusters found. To select representative manufacturing industrial sector population, the types of the industries expected were more potential to accidents based on random and purposive sampling considered. The population of data was from textile, leather, metal, chemicals, and food manufacturing industries. A total of 189 sample sizes of industries responded to the questionnaire survey from the priority areas of the government. Random sample sizes and disproportionate methods were used, and 80 from wood, metal, and iron works; 30 from food, beverage, and tobacco products; 50 from leather, textile, and garments; 20 from chemical and chemical products; and 9 from other remaining 9 clusters of manufacturing industries responded.
A simple random sampling and purposive sampling methods were used to select the representative manufacturing industries and respondents for the study. The simple random sampling ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance for the selection or the chance of getting a response which can be more than equal to the chance depending on the data analysis justification. Sample size determination procedure was used to get optimum and reasonable information. In this study, both probability (simple random sampling) and nonprobability (convenience, quota, purposive, and judgmental) sampling methods were used as the nature of the industries are varied. This is because of the characteristics of data sources which permitted the researchers to follow the multi-methods. This helps the analysis to triangulate the data obtained and increase the reliability of the research outcome and its decision. The companies’ establishment time and its engagement in operation, the number of employees and the proportion it has, the owner types (government and private), type of manufacturing industry/production, types of resource used at work, and the location it is found in the city and around were some of the criteria for the selections.
The determination of the sample size was adopted from Daniel [5] and Cochran [6] formula. The formula used was for unknown population size Eq. (1) and is given as
where n = sample size, Z = statistic for a level of confidence, P = expected prevalence or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, P = 0.5), and d = precision (in proportion of one; if 6%, d = 0.06). Z statistic (Z): for the level of confidence of 95%, which is conventional, Z value is 1.96. In this study, investigators present their results with 95% confidence intervals (CI).
The expected sample number was 267 at the marginal error of 6% for 95% confidence interval of manufacturing industries. However, the collected data indicated that only 189 populations were used for the analysis after rejecting some data having more missing values in the responses from the industries. Hence, the actual data collection resulted in 71% response rate. The 267 population were assumed to be satisfactory and representative for the data analysis.
The sample size for the experimental exposure measurements of physical work environment has been considered based on the physical data prepared for questionnaires and respondents. The response of positive were considered for exposure measurement factors to be considered for the physical environment health and disease causing such as noise intensity, light intensity, pressure/stress, vibration, temperature/coldness, or hotness and dust particles on 20 workplace sites. The selection method was using random sampling in line with purposive method. The measurement of the exposure factors was done in collaboration with Addis Ababa city Administration and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair (AACBOLSA). Some measuring instruments were obtained from the Addis Ababa city and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair.
Data collection methods were focused on the followings basic techniques. These included secondary and primary data collections focusing on both qualitative and quantitative data as defined in the previous section. The data collection mechanisms are devised and prepared with their proper procedures.
Primary data sources are qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative sources are field observation, interview, and informal discussions, while that of quantitative data sources are survey questionnaires and interview questions. The next sections elaborate how the data were obtained from the primary sources.
Observation is an important aspect of science. Observation is tightly connected to data collection, and there are different sources for this: documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, and participant observations. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior. In this dissertation, the researchers used observation method as one tool for collecting information and data before questionnaire design and after the start of research too. The researcher made more than 20 specific observations of manufacturing industries in the study areas. During the observations, it found a deeper understanding of the working environment and the different sections in the production system and OSH practices.
Interview is a loosely structured qualitative in-depth interview with people who are considered to be particularly knowledgeable about the topic of interest. The semi-structured interview is usually conducted in a face-to-face setting which permits the researcher to seek new insights, ask questions, and assess phenomena in different perspectives. It let the researcher to know the in-depth of the present working environment influential factors and consequences. It has provided opportunities for refining data collection efforts and examining specialized systems or processes. It was used when the researcher faces written records or published document limitation or wanted to triangulate the data obtained from other primary and secondary data sources.
This dissertation is also conducted with a qualitative approach and conducting interviews. The advantage of using interviews as a method is that it allows respondents to raise issues that the interviewer may not have expected. All interviews with employees, management, and technicians were conducted by the corresponding researcher, on a face-to-face basis at workplace. All interviews were recorded and transcribed.
The main tool for gaining primary information in practical research is questionnaires, due to the fact that the researcher can decide on the sample and the types of questions to be asked [2].
In this dissertation, each respondent is requested to reply to an identical list of questions mixed so that biasness was prevented. Initially the questionnaire design was coded and mixed up from specific topic based on uniform structures. Consequently, the questionnaire produced valuable data which was required to achieve the dissertation objectives.
The questionnaires developed were based on a five-item Likert scale. Responses were given to each statement using a five-point Likert-type scale, for which 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree.” The responses were summed up to produce a score for the measures.
The data was also obtained from the expert’s opinion related to the comparison of the knowledge, management, collaboration, and technology utilization including their sub-factors. The data obtained in this way was used for prioritization and decision-making of OSH, improving factor priority. The prioritization of the factors was using Saaty scales (1–9) and then converting to Fuzzy set values obtained from previous researches using triangular fuzzy set [7].
The researcher has measured the workplace environment for dust, vibration, heat, pressure, light, and noise to know how much is the level of each variable. The primary data sources planned and an actual coverage has been compared as shown in Table 1.
Planned versus actual coverage of the survey.
The response rate for the proposed data source was good, and the pilot test also proved the reliability of questionnaires. Interview/discussion resulted in 87% of responses among the respondents; the survey questionnaire response rate obtained was 71%, and the field observation response rate was 90% for the whole data analysis process. Hence, the data organization quality level has not been compromised.
This response rate is considered to be representative of studies of organizations. As the study agrees on the response rate to be 30%, it is considered acceptable [8]. Saunders et al. [2] argued that the questionnaire with a scale response of 20% response rate is acceptable. Low response rate should not discourage the researchers, because a great deal of published research work also achieves low response rate. Hence, the response rate of this study is acceptable and very good for the purpose of meeting the study objectives.
The pretest for questionnaires, interviews, and tools were conducted to validate that the tool content is valid or not in the sense of the respondents’ understanding. Hence, content validity (in which the questions are answered to the target without excluding important points), internal validity (in which the questions raised answer the outcomes of researchers’ target), and external validity (in which the result can generalize to all the population from the survey sample population) were reflected. It has been proved with this pilot test prior to the start of the basic data collections. Following feedback process, a few minor changes were made to the originally designed data collect tools. The pilot test made for the questionnaire test was on 10 sample sizes selected randomly from the target sectors and experts.
The secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than the user. This data source gives insights of the research area of the current state-of-the-art method. It also makes some sort of research gap that needs to be filled by the researcher. This secondary data sources could be internal and external data sources of information that may cover a wide range of areas.
Literature/desk review and industry documents and reports: To achieve the dissertation’s objectives, the researcher has conducted excessive document review and reports of the companies in both online and offline modes. From a methodological point of view, literature reviews can be comprehended as content analysis, where quantitative and qualitative aspects are mixed to assess structural (descriptive) as well as content criteria.
A literature search was conducted using the database sources like MEDLINE; Emerald; Taylor and Francis publications; EMBASE (medical literature); PsycINFO (psychological literature); Sociological Abstracts (sociological literature); accident prevention journals; US Statistics of Labor, European Safety and Health database; ABI Inform; Business Source Premier (business/management literature); EconLit (economic literature); Social Service Abstracts (social work and social service literature); and other related materials. The search strategy was focused on articles or reports that measure one or more of the dimensions within the research OSH model framework. This search strategy was based on a framework and measurement filter strategy developed by the Consensus-Based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) group. Based on screening, unrelated articles to the research model and objectives were excluded. Prior to screening, researcher (principal investigator) reviewed a sample of more than 2000 articles, websites, reports, and guidelines to determine whether they should be included for further review or reject. Discrepancies were thoroughly identified and resolved before the review of the main group of more than 300 articles commenced. After excluding the articles based on the title, keywords, and abstract, the remaining articles were reviewed in detail, and the information was extracted on the instrument that was used to assess the dimension of research interest. A complete list of items was then collated within each research targets or objectives and reviewed to identify any missing elements.
Data analysis method follows the procedures listed under the following sections. The data analysis part answered the basic questions raised in the problem statement. The detailed analysis of the developed and developing countries’ experiences on OSH regarding manufacturing industries was analyzed, discussed, compared and contrasted, and synthesized.
Quantitative data were obtained from primary and secondary data discussed above in this chapter. This data analysis was based on their data type using Excel, SPSS 20.0, Office Word format, and other tools. This data analysis focuses on numerical/quantitative data analysis.
Before analysis, data coding of responses and analysis were made. In order to analyze the data obtained easily, the data were coded to SPSS 20.0 software as the data obtained from questionnaires. This task involved identifying, classifying, and assigning a numeric or character symbol to data, which was done in only one way pre-coded [9, 10]. In this study, all of the responses were pre-coded. They were taken from the list of responses, a number of corresponding to a particular selection was given. This process was applied to every earlier question that needed this treatment. Upon completion, the data were then entered to a statistical analysis software package, SPSS version 20.0 on Windows 10 for the next steps.
Under the data analysis, exploration of data has been made with descriptive statistics and graphical analysis. The analysis included exploring the relationship between variables and comparing groups how they affect each other. This has been done using cross tabulation/chi square, correlation, and factor analysis and using nonparametric statistic.
Qualitative data analysis used for triangulation of the quantitative data analysis. The interview, observation, and report records were used to support the findings. The analysis has been incorporated with the quantitative discussion results in the data analysis parts.
The data were entered using SPSS 20.0 on Windows 10 and analyzed. The analysis supported with SPSS software much contributed to the finding. It had contributed to the data validation and correctness of the SPSS results. The software analyzed and compared the results of different variables used in the research questionnaires. Excel is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical solutions.
The reliability of measurements specifies the amount to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument [8]. In reliability analysis, it has been checked for the stability and consistency of the data. In the case of reliability analysis, the researcher checked the accuracy and precision of the procedure of measurement. Reliability has numerous definitions and approaches, but in several environments, the concept comes to be consistent [8]. The measurement fulfills the requirements of reliability when it produces consistent results during data analysis procedure. The reliability is determined through Cranach’s alpha as shown in Table 2.
Internal consistency and reliability test of questionnaires items.
K stands for knowledge; M, management; T, technology; C, collaboration; P, policy, standards, and regulation; H, hazards and accident conditions; PPE, personal protective equipment.
Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency, i.e., how closely related a set of items are as a group [11]. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. The reliability of internal consistency most of the time is measured based on the Cronbach’s alpha value. Reliability coefficient of 0.70 and above is considered “acceptable” in most research situations [12]. In this study, reliability analysis for internal consistency of Likert-scale measurement after deleting 13 items was found similar; the reliability coefficients were found for 76 items were 0.964 and for the individual groupings made shown in Table 2. It was also found internally consistent using the Cronbach’s alpha test. Table 2 shows the internal consistency of the seven major instruments in which their reliability falls in the acceptable range for this research.
Face validity used as defined by Babbie [13] is an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variables, and it is the subjective judgment that the instrument measures what it intends to measure in terms of relevance [14]. Thus, the researcher ensured, in this study, when developing the instruments that uncertainties were eliminated by using appropriate words and concepts in order to enhance clarity and general suitability [14]. Furthermore, the researcher submitted the instruments to the research supervisor and the joint supervisor who are both occupational health experts, to ensure validity of the measuring instruments and determine whether the instruments could be considered valid on face value.
In this study, the researcher was guided by reviewed literature related to compliance with the occupational health and safety conditions and data collection methods before he could develop the measuring instruments. In addition, the pretest study that was conducted prior to the main study assisted the researcher to avoid uncertainties of the contents in the data collection measuring instruments. A thorough inspection of the measuring instruments by the statistician and the researcher’s supervisor and joint experts, to ensure that all concepts pertaining to the study were included, ensured that the instruments were enriched.
Insight has been given to the data collectors on how to approach companies, and many of the questionnaires were distributed through MSc students at Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT) and manufacturing industries’ experience experts. This made the data quality reliable as it has been continually discussed with them. Pretesting for questionnaire was done on 10 workers to assure the quality of the data and for improvement of data collection tools. Supervision during data collection was done to understand how the data collectors are handling the questionnaire, and each filled questionnaires was checked for its completeness, accuracy, clarity, and consistency on a daily basis either face-to-face or by phone/email. The data expected in poor quality were rejected out of the acting during the screening time. Among planned 267 questionnaires, 189 were responded back. Finally, it was analyzed by the principal investigator.
The data were collected from the company representative with the knowledge of OSH. Articles written in English and Amharic were included in this study. Database information obtained in relation to articles and those who have OSH area such as interventions method, method of accident identification, impact of occupational accidents, types of occupational injuries/disease, and impact of occupational accidents, and disease on productivity and costs of company and have used at least one form of feedback mechanism. No specific time period was chosen in order to access all available published papers. The questionnaire statements which are similar in the questionnaire have been rejected from the data analysis.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University. Official letters were written from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering to the respective manufacturing industries. The purpose of the study was explained to the study subjects. The study subjects were told that the information they provided was kept confidential and that their identities would not be revealed in association with the information they provided. Informed consent was secured from each participant. For bad working environment assessment findings, feedback will be given to all manufacturing industries involved in the study. There is a plan to give a copy of the result to the respective study manufacturing industries’ and ministries’ offices. The respondents’ privacy and their responses were not individually analyzed and included in the report.
The result of this study will be presented to the Addis Ababa University, AAiT, School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. It will also be communicated to the Ethiopian manufacturing industries, Ministry of Labor and Social Affair, Ministry of Industry, and Ministry of Health from where the data was collected. The result will also be availed by publication and online presentation in Google Scholars. To this end, about five articles were published and disseminated to the whole world.
The research methodology and design indicated overall process of the flow of the research for the given study. The data sources and data collection methods were used. The overall research strategies and framework are indicated in this research process from problem formulation to problem validation including all the parameters. It has laid some foundation and how research methodology is devised and framed for researchers. This means, it helps researchers to consider it as one of the samples and models for the research data collection and process from the beginning of the problem statement to the research finding. Especially, this research flow helps new researchers to the research environment and methodology in particular.
There is no “conflict of interest.”
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