Content of the main plant-based fatty acids (%).
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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Lipid components, especially fatty acids, are present in the most diverse forms of life, playing important roles in the structure of cell membranes and metabolic processes. In humans, omega-series fatty acids are required to maintain cell membranes, brain functions, and the transmission of nerve impulses under normal conditions. These fatty acids also play a key role in the processes of transfer of atmospheric oxygen to blood plasma, hemoglobin synthesis, and cell division. They are called essential because the human body does not synthesize them [1].
Fatty acids are classified according to the presence of double bonds between the carbon chains. They are called saturated fatty acids (SFA) if there are no double bonds; monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) if there is one double bond; and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) if two or more double bonds are present. Regarding the size of the carbon chain, PUFAs have number of carbons ≥ 16 and are also called long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, whereas those with number of carbons ≥ 20 are referred to as very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. The PUFAs omega-3 and omega-6 are distinguished by their beneficial effects on human health, including their role in the synthesis of tissues [2].
Among the organisms that produce fatty acids, fish is the most consumed worldwide. However, its production has not been sufficient to supply the demand of the world market. Due to this fact, sources from agriculture have been replaced by fish oil. Moreover, nowadays, nutritionists also recommend the ingestion of vegetable oils as an important part of a healthy diet [3, 4].
The production of vegetable oils has advantages over the production of fish oil, since the methods of obtaining and purification of vegetable oils are simpler, resulting in cheaper processes [5].
Fatty acids are present in both animal and plant species. Among the animal species, fish are the main sources of fatty acids, but there are a number of limitations regarding the use of fish oil as a supply of fatty acids. Among them, problems caused by harmful contaminants such as carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic, and noncarcinogenic agents (antibiotics and heavy metals, for example) are highlighted. Other limitations on the production and commercialization of fish oil are also widely discussed, such as oil stability problems and unpleasant taste and odor, which result in higher production costs and create difficulties in the oil purification [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Fish oil is a limited resource. In 2017, there was an increase in its world production compared to 2016, but it did not reach the market expectation for 2017, resulting in an increasing trend in the global price [4].
One way to minimize the problems caused by the limitations in fish oil production is to use alternative sources such as vegetable oils. Lipids found in plants present, in their composition, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), mainly omega-6 and omega-3, which are derived from linoleic acid and α-linolenic acids, respectively. Both are synthesized by plants and not by animal tissues and are classified as essential for good health and disease prevention [11].
Over the years, lipids derived from plants have been gaining prominence in the biotechnology area, mainly for the development of products with pharmacological potential [12].
When evaluating a potential source of fatty acids, its sustainability and ability to meet any demand must be considered. The possibility of a scalable production based on agriculture, coupled with low costs and ease of production, highlights the potential of plants as sources of fatty acids for human diet. Table 1 presents some plant matrices evaluated as sources of fatty acids.
Species | Fatty acid composition (%) | Reference | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
C16:0 | C18:1 | C18:2 | C18:3 | ||
Nuts and seeds | |||||
Arachis hypogaea L. | 16.02 ± 0.01 | 53.80 ± 0.01 | 25.10 ± 0.10 | — | [13] |
Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K. | 14.04 ± 0.75 | 34.55 ± 1.85 | 40.15 ± 2.13 | 0.09 ± 0.05 | [14] |
Camellia L. | 14.76 ± 0.01 | 22.71 ± 0.03 | 56.27 ± 0.03 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | [15] |
Chenopodium quinoa Wild. | 9.58 ± 0.02 | 25.84 ± 0.06 | 49.55 ± 0.07 | 8.51 ± 0.02 | [16] |
Cucurbita maxima | 12.05 ± 0.73 | 23.90 ± 1.01 | 57.33 ± 0.41 | 0.32 ± 0.02 | [17] |
Dipteryx alata vogel | 5.71 ± 0.01 | 53.35 ± 0.01 | 24.59 ± 0.01 | 4.12 ± 0.01 | [18] |
Helianthus annuus L. | 6.70 ± 0.30 | 25.60 ± 3.0 | 65.80 ± 2.90 | 0.07 ± 0.02 | [19] |
Heliophila africana | 7.60 ± 1.00 | 23.4 ± 2.20 | 22.00 ± 4.3 | 4.2 ± 0.60 | [20] |
Lupinus albus | 6.30 ± 0.30 | 56.10 ± 0.30 | 18.40 ± 0.40 | 7.80 ± 0.10 | [21] |
Myristica fragrans | 17.53 ± 0.01 | 59.44 ± 0.03 | 13.83 ± 0.02 | 1.94 ± 0.01 | [22] |
Moringa oleifera Lam. | 23.65 ± 0.68 | 5.92 ± 0.02 | 6.84 ± 0.05 | — | [23] |
Vaccinium myrtillus L. | 6.10 ± 0.10 | 23.30 ± 0.00 | 33.70 ± 0.20 | 35.50 ± 0.00 | [24] |
Zea mays L. | 12.57 ± 0.01 | 29.70 ± 0.11 | 52.68 ± 1.44 | 1.12 ± 0.01 | [25] |
Leaves, stems, roots and palms | |||||
Cassia tora L. | 18.6 ± 0.08 | 11.2 ± 0.04 | 13.2 ± 0.06 | 16.1 ± 0.02 | [26] |
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. | 36.30 ± 3.40 | 47.40 ± 2.50 | 9.40 ± 2.10 | 0.50 ± 0.30 | [27] |
Morus alba | 26.38 ± 0.01 | 2.86 ± 0.01 | 14.76 ± 0.91 | 34.97 ± 1.84 | [28] |
Olea europaea L. | 20.30 ± 0.80 | 29.20 ± 1.70 | 5.80 ± 0.30 | 32.30 ± 0.50 | [29] |
Panax ginseng Meyer | 2.22 ± 0.01 | 1.0 ± 0.01 | 6.58 ± 0.01 | 0.39 ± 0.01 | [30] |
Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) | 12.57 ± 0.01 | — | 33.14 ± 0.01 | — | [31] |
Fruits | |||||
Caryocar brasiliense | 31.90 ± 0.10 | 61.40 ± 0.30 | 2.30 ± 0.10 | 0.40 ± 0.00 | [32] |
Euterpe oleracea | 23.47 ± 0.01 | 57.73 ± 0.01 | 15.54 ± 0.01 | — | [33] |
Morus nigra L. | 11.93 ± 1.30 | 6.0 ± 0.14 | 75.85 ± 1.82 | 1.51 ± 0.27 | [34] |
Content of the main plant-based fatty acids (%).
Fatty acids present many applications, due to their physical, biological, and alimentary properties. Regarding their obtaining, there is a great diversity of conventional and modern techniques [35]. According to [36], one of the most traditional methodologies for obtaining oils rich in fatty acids, which involve the use of organic solvents, is Soxhlet [36, 37]. Another technique used is cold pressing, even though it is a millenarian technique [38]. More sophisticated procedures, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, supercritical fluids extraction, and enzyme extraction are also used to obtain such oils [39].
The extraction of oils can be carried out by Soxhlet using different parameters and organic solvents [40]. The most used solvent in this methodology is petroleum ether, due to its high solvation capacity, inertness, and good stability with oils. Time, temperature, and number of cycles are parameters that directly influence the oil yield obtained in the process [41]. In the methodology of [42], the classic extraction protocol based on chloroform and methanol is used, and it is performed in two different steps: the first one with homogenization and filtration and the second one with washing of the filtrate obtained in the first step, in order to collect the clean oil [42].
The methodology of [37] is an adaptation of that performed by [43], developed due to the need of a faster and simpler process, maintaining its efficiency and reproducibility. According to the needs faced by researchers, several adaptations based on these methodologies have already been developed, most of them with the purpose of obtaining oil of different matrices, with use of less aggressive solvents [40, 43].
A technique of low environmental impact is the extraction by cold pressing, which in addition to being faster, when compared with other techniques, and of low cost, no solvent is used. However, it does not have the ability to completely remove the lipid fraction of the matrix, and due to the absence of selectivity, an extract with low degree of purity is obtained; that is, it contains a greater variety of compounds besides the fatty acids. This type of oil is widely used in food industries [44].
Among the most modern techniques, the extraction by supercritical fluid outstands, which does not use toxic organic solvents, is efficient in obtaining oils rich in fatty acids and is a process with high selectivity [44]. The most commonly used solvent is carbon dioxide, because it is nontoxic, inert, and has low critical properties. In this process, the solvent is pressurized until it becomes a fluid in the supercritical state, with characteristics of liquid and gas, and presents high solubilization and diffusion power, which is able to extract the lipid fraction [45]. The ultrasonic scanning, on the other hand, occurs through ultrasonic waves that create bubbles in the solvent used; these bubbles rupture near the cell walls causing their rupture, and consequently leading to the release of the lipid fraction [46].
In addition to these techniques, there is the microwave-assisted enzymatic extraction, in which some enzymes (cellulase, pectinase, and proteinase), due to their potential of oil release from within membranes, come into contact with the aqueous matrix and react under agitation and microwave resonance. It is a clean methodology because it does not use organic solvents, and it is possible to obtain results similar to the traditional techniques regarding the content of fatty acids [47].
With a wide range of methodologies for obtaining oils rich in fatty acids, which go beyond those mentioned in this chapter, it is possible to obtain oils of the most varied qualities for the most varied applications. The fatty acids are high-value compounds used in the food and pharmaceutical areas. They are marketed predominantly in the form of edible oils, supplements in the form of gelatinous tablets, intravenous emulsions, and in oil-based products of topical use.
Edible vegetable oils rich in fatty acids are products widely consumed worldwide, and also the main sources of omega-9 (oleic acid). Omega-9 is the most consumed fatty acid in America through its main marketed sources, such as olive oil, oleaginous fruits (almonds and nuts), grape seeds, canola, sesame, sunflower, soybean, coconut, and palm oils, among others. Most of these products are linked to a healthy lifestyle of their consumers [48].
However, the increased incidence of diseases related to the lack of a balanced diet and the presence of sedentary lifestyles is one of the main factors driving the global market for fatty acid supplements, which directly increases the demand for isolated omega supplements (3, 6, and omega-9), or their main plant sources. Such products are indicated as a source of lipids to meet the energetic needs of patients who require parenteral nutrition when oral or enteral feeding is impossible, insufficient, or contraindicated [49]. It is also indicated in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis [50].
Omega-3 supplements are generally consumed in the form of gelatinous tablets due to their residual taste, caused by their high instability to oxidation, which causes the product to exhibit odor and taste of fish. One of its main plant sources is linseed oil. These products are indicated for the prevention/treatment of cardiovascular diseases; for the reduction of triglycerides rates, total cholesterol and arterial pressure, and also in neurological treatments, improving concentration, memory, motivation, and motor abilities, besides neutralizing the stress and preventing degenerative brain diseases [51, 52]. They are also indicated during pregnancy, reducing the risk of postpartum depression and mood swings, as well as improving health after child’s birth [53].
Omega-6 supplements are usually marketed as evening primrose oil (EPO), which is its most popular form, being indicated in the prevention/treatment of problems related to premenstrual syndrome, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, skin problems, and cancer, as well as assisting the attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, reducing arterial hypertension and osteoporosis [54]. On the other hand, omega-9 supplements are the most commercialized in the form of intravenous emulsion. They are mostly made from refined olive and soybean oils, and found in the market in tablet form. Omega-9 supplementation is indicated for the reduction of waist circumference, combating total and bad cholesterol (LDL), and increasing the good one (HDL). Also, it presents anti-inflammatory activity and is involved in the prevention of coronary diseases, cancer, and aging [55].
Another way of commercializing fatty acids is in topical products. These products are aimed at the dermoprotection, being found in the market in liquid form, and in bandages soaked in oil. Some are indicated for nail strengthening due to their antifungal character (for example, oils derived from melaleuca, clove, thyme, and rosehip), whereas others are indicated for the treatment of all types of skin lesions, such as pressure sores, and venous stasis ulcer. Because of their emollient and healing properties, they improve the skin barrier function and reduce the symptoms of inflammation in atopic dermatitis and psoriasis, diminishing the transepidermal water loss [56, 57].
These fatty acid-based products may contain one or both fatty acids plus other substances, such as vitamin A, E, and soy lecithin. They can also integrate medium-chain triglyceride formulations, linoleic and linolenic acids, mainly responsible for this therapeutic effect, since they are the main constituents of the epidermal water barrier layer. The medium-chain triglycerides present in such formulations contain predominantly caprylic, capric, caproic, and lauric acids, which can be used as a nutritional source, solvents, and product stabilizers. When present in topical products, these acids have the function of lubricating the skin and hair, making the skin more resistant to infections, protecting it from chemical and enzymatic agents, preventing dryness, and accelerating the cicatricial processes. In addition, they are free of side effects [58, 59, 60].
Therefore, the application of fatty acids in food and pharmaceutical areas is of fundamental importance, in order to promote the development of new natural products that offer numerous benefits to their consumers.
A new paradigm of food health is evolving, in which the positive aspects of diet are more emphasized. Therefore, consumers are looking for beneficial, complementary or alternative products, and the nutraceutical ones particularly stand out. Nutraceutical comes from the combination of the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical,” which was coined in 1989 by Dr. Stephen Defelice. It is considered food or part of food, or any substance of both plant and animal origin, which has positive effects on the health, playing an important role in maintaining the normal physiological function that keeps humans healthy, including the prevention and/or treatment of diseases [61, 62, 63, 64].
Some of the most common ways of classifying nutraceuticals can be based on food sources, mechanisms of action, chemical nature, etc. Food sources used as nutraceuticals can be categorized as dietary fiber, prebiotics, probiotics, PUFAs, antioxidant vitamins, polyphenols, and other different types of herbal foods. These nutraceutical products help fight diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, osteoporosis, arthritis, diabetes, cholesterol, among others [53, 61, 65].
Long-chain PUFAs are also called essential fatty acids because they are necessary for vital functions in humans, as well as being an important source of energy for most tissues. In this sense, PUFAs can be divided into two groups: omega-3 and omega-6. The major omega-3 fatty acids are α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA is the precursor of EPA and DHA, and its main sources are linseed, soybeans, and canola. The omega-6 fatty acids consist mainly of linoleic acid (LA), γ-linolenic acid (GLA), and arachidonic acid (ARA). LA occurs mainly in corn, soybean, and sunflower oils. Essential fatty acids should be consumed through diet, since humans do not possess the enzymes to produce them [64, 65, 66].
Recent studies show the importance of PUFAs as essential fatty acids, and their nutritional value in human health and disease prevention. Intake of PUFAs has been associated primarily with decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases and normal brain development [66, 67, 68]. They also present anti-inflammatory effects and contribute to the good functioning of vision. In the study carried out by [69], it was shown that among PUFAs, ALA can serve as a great anti-inflammatory agent of the ocular surface. Its anti-inflammatory effects are comparable to those of corticosteroids. ALA’s inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines was associated with a significant reduction of I-κBα. According to [70], dietary supplementation with PUFAs is a promising therapeutic option for patients with rheumatoid arthritis, considered as a chronic disease, in which many inflammatory pathways contribute to structural damage, joint swelling, and systemic inflammation.
More recently, studies have shown the benefits of PUFAs in cancer prevention. According to [71], PUFAs exert inhibitory effects on the growth of colon cancer cells. Metabolites of PUFAs such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes play an important role in colon cancer. Also, they are reported in the treatment of diabetes mellitus [72], based on clinical intervention studies performed in diabetic patients. It corroborates that dietary supplementation with 0.42–5.2 g of PUFAs per day for 8 weeks might become an alternative treatment against type 2 diabetes mellitus.
PUFAs have also been attributed to anticoagulant, vasodilator, and antiaggregant activities [66, 67]. Specifically, the biological activities of essential fatty acids (ALA and LA) influence on the functions and responsiveness of cell membranes, tissue metabolism, hormone signals, and others. The beneficial effects of PUFAs can be mediated by different mechanisms, including altering or regulating cell membrane structures, regulating intracellular signaling pathways, modulating gene transcription, and regulating the production of bioactive lipid mediators or production of eicosanoids (prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes) [68, 73].
Essential fatty acids are considered nutraceutical or functional foods, exhibiting cardioprotective effect, due to their anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, antiatherogenic, antiarrhythmic, and antithrombotic properties, being thus used as risk reducers of cardiovascular diseases [74, 75].
Cardiovascular diseases have been reported as the leading cause of death in the western countries. According to data obtained in 2017 by the World Health Organization, cardiovascular diseases cause approximately 31% of deaths worldwide, making it clear that prevention is important for reducing these numbers [76].
Currently, the number of deaths due to cardiovascular diseases is increasing, and this is an important reason to carry out studies in order to obtain products that can contribute to a healthier diet through the intake of substances beneficial to heart health, such as unsaturated fatty acids (omega series), as well as reduce the intake of saturated fatty acids [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82].
Researchers have investigated the reduction of the risk of cardiovascular diseases by implementing a diet rich in PUFAs. These studies confirm the efficiency of the intake of these acids, demonstrating a positive effect on lipid metabolism, and also emphasizing that diets rich in SFAs promote cardiovascular damage, as well as an increase in hypercholesterolemia. Nutritionists recommend that intakes of SFAs are maintained by up to 10% relative to total energy, based on dietary guidelines for prevention of cardiovascular diseases [80, 82, 83, 84].
Limiting the intake of SFAs becomes an important measure for the prevention of cardiac ischemia, since healthy eating habits can affect the development of diseases and reduce the risk of their occurrence in the myocardium. Thus, daily intake of PUFAs such as omega-3 and omega-6 is important. Experimental tests were carried out with people with ischemic heart failure, and the beneficial effect of PUFAs consumption was verified by the reduction of cardiovascular risk factors such as reduction of the inflammatory process in myocardial tissue, and acceleration of the healing process of the myocardium fibrous tissue [78, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89].
Coronary heart disease relates to the development of atherosclerosis, characterized by chronic inflammation of the tunica intima of large and medium-sized arteries. Such inflammation is caused by the interaction between the smooth muscle of the arterial walls and the plasma lipids, or platelets, lipoproteins, endothelium and monocytes, causing narrowing of the coronary arteries. Thus, the maintenance of a diet rich in dietary lipids acts as a therapeutic alternative in the prevention and treatment of various cardiovascular diseases such as strokes and thrombosis [90, 91, 92].
The importance of fatty acids of vegetable origin in neural development, aging, and neurodegeneration has been addressed in several studies. The brain is an organ rich in phospholipids, which make up about 25% of its dry weight [93]. Some of these fatty acids participate in the structure, biochemistry, physiology, and consequently of the cerebral function, being necessary to maintain, under normal conditions, the cellular membranes, increasing their fluidity and functionality. They also aid in the nerve impulses transmission, reinforcing the importance of the adequate consumption of these lipids to benefit patients with neurological diseases [94, 95].
The consumption of PFAs is related to the reduction, prevention, and nonpharmacological treatment of some neurological diseases [96, 97]. Some studies show how eating habits can affect the brain development by making a comparison between the “Mediterranean diet” and the “western diet,” for example. Whereas the Mediterranean diet is rich in long-chain PFAs derived from the combination of fruits, vegetables, cereals, olive oil, and other foods, the western diet is characterized by an increase in the consumption of SFAs and transfats due to the introduction of highly processed foods [98, 99]. Experimental data relate these dietary components to neurological, neurodegenerative, and psychiatric disorders, since diets with high cholesterol rates increase the risk of developing such diseases, whereas diets with low saturated-fat intake reduce the risk of dementia [100, 101, 102], confirming the important role of diet in pathological mechanisms related to the brain.
The hypothesis that diet-induced changes affect brain circulation may be linked to changes in brain structure [103, 104]. The fatty acid content may affect the production and function of dopamine and serotonin [105], since omega-series fatty acids are fundamental for the maintenance of dopaminergic function in the brain, whereas irregularities of these fatty acids can interfere in the function of the dopaminergic receptors [104]. Healthy aging of humans on a regular diet was associated with neuroprotective properties, such as increased volume of the cortex’s gray matter, higher total brain volume, and less white matter hyperintensities (lesions) [106], whereas high-energy transfat diets are associated with increased brain atrophy, and reduced total brain volume and numbers of neurons [107].
Adequate dietary intake of fatty acids or their precursors is also important during the perinatal period (before and after the baby’s birth), since to ensure the normal development of the brain, newborns need more lipids than adults do. They are essential for fetal growth and development, and for neurological, behavioral, and learning functions [108, 109, 110]. Therefore, insufficient supplementation during early life may also aid in the development of diseases related to poor brain development, such as coordination disorder, dyspraxia (neurological motor dysfunction), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [109]. And the ingestion of fatty acids, mainly of the ω-3 type, positively affects the functioning and development throughout life, increasing cognitive functionality, such as learning, memory, and attention [110, 111].
Vegetable oils rich in essential fatty acids have been consumed instead of animal oils due to their high potential of production scalability, and because the fish oil market has not been able to satisfactorily meet the current consumers’ demands. Several commercial applications have been developed with wide acceptability, and studies aimed at treating cardiovascular diseases and improving brain functions have reached promising results. In this sense, the use of plants as sources of fatty acids presents itself as a potential alternative not only in the economic scope, but also for human health.
In industrialized countries, more than 20% of the population has symptoms of allergies. The commonness of childhood asthma increased by 50% in the USA from 1980 to 2000. The allergy mechanism is an immune response to the allergen, which is often mediated by the immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody [1]. Allergies can be a serious risk for individuals. Allergens or pollens represent a small fraction of the proteins that humans are regularly exposed to. The importance of the topic in the uncertainty is the cause of the B and T cells’ responses to these proteins [2, 3]. Notably, some proteins that are structurally similar pollens may lead to immune response, known as cross-reactivity [4].
\nThe human body microbiome has a diverse composition of bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, and viruses, which are inhabited mainly in the different epidermal surfaces of the body—the skin and mucosal surface. Some of the species of these microbiotas are identified based on cultural techniques, but due to limitations of these techniques [5], it is suggested that the number of human microbiota exceeds 1000 species or 10 times the number of cells in the entire body with 30 times larger total genome than the human genome.
\nA majority of these microbiotas are in the gastrointestinal tract, the major source of microbial exposure, and live in symbiosis with their host cells [6, 7]. Given up genes necessary for the survival of the commensal microbiota in other microenvironments and retained genes beneficial for the host with no or little benefit to themselves [8] are the evidences of the symbiotic coevolution of the microbiota and human [9].
\nThe interplay of the immune system with gut microbiota starts from the day of birth and even before that. Early exposure during plasticity and prenatal period seems to be beneficial to prevent the T helper cell type-2 (Th2)-mediated allergic disease [10]. Th2 phenotype is the dominant one in newborns [11] to prevent rejection in utero. Skewing to Th2 in the immune system leads to the stimulated secretion of IgE by B cells and hence to allergies as seen in germ-free mice with the same condition that results in greater IgE responses to food antigens and failure in producing the proper amount of regulatory T cell (Treg) responses [12, 13, 14]. On the other hand, upsurge in the amount of T helper cell type-1 (Th1) also mediates the autoimmune disease [12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
\nRestoring Th1/Th2 is the significant role of the microbiota [20]. The association of microbiota and the immune system is mutual. This engagement results in different signaling pathways through the immune system’s molecules that increase immune responses [21]. These regulations are crucial for maintaining the homeostasis of the host and for the prevention of different diseases by inducing secretion of IgA and regulatory T cell (Treg) and stimulation of tolerance in face of common antigens [22]. So the formation, maintenance, and heterogeneity of microbiota are necessary during early life owing to their regulatory and tolerance properties in the immune system [23, 24], as it was confirmed that the lack of microflora during a short time in early life results in defection in immune regulation [15]. The mechanisms of oral tolerance which are necessary to suppress excessive immune reactions to antigens are mediated by Foxp3þ Treg [25] and IgA, which is known as the most abundant immunoglobulin and is vital in establishing the composition of microbiota [26] and strengthening the mucosal barrier function [27].
\nAlthough, it is observed that abnormal IgA responses lead to allergy development [28]. So the obligation of equilibrium of the allergy mediators is more sensible now.
\nLack of genetic elements such as Toll-like receptors that cause enterocyte proliferation like TLR4 and CD14, which enhance the detection of bacterial LPS by TLR4, and TLR9, which identify the genetic molecules of the microorganisms, also increase susceptibility to allergies [29, 30].
\nAs the priority of the microbiome is proven, some factors are mentioned as follows, to support their presence and diversity in the body. Mode of birth; surgical or natural delivery, the process of contacting microflora in the first moment of the presence. Breast or formula feeding; the extension of contact with microflora. Nutritional patterns; the habit of food, based on people’s patterns to eat fatty and fast foods or healthy ones like prebiotics which are considered beneficial for even the microbiota of the host. Antibiotics; the matter of using antibiotics at an early age or the trouble of overuse of them in all ages which impair normal flora. Locality; living in urban areas with all of the stresses, less interaction with nature in contrast with living in rural areas results in losing ancient commensal microbiota. Environmental factors; contacting people or animals. Hygiene; the obsession behaviors or normal ones. Lifestyle; the matter of activity or sedentariness in someone’s lifestyle.
\nNatural delivery and breastfeeding are the first two initial and essential exposures when the immune system is not still mature and needs antigens to active oral tolerance [18, 25, 31]. Contravention of these simple factors grounds reformed patterns of early settlement which may result in the incidence of allergy [32]. Food sensitization especially milk allergy and atopic eczema are examples of reduced gut microbial diversity [33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
\nThe microbiome is considered as an active organ because of manufacturing intrinsic signals for shifting postnatal development, inspiration of tolerance mechanisms and immunogenicity reduction, and resistance against invasive pathogens [38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
\nConsuming substrates of the microbiota containing fibers and mucins provides additional energy for the host as fatty acids [43]. Amines, sulfides, and ammonia are the products of them, which are detrimental metabolites for the human.
\nThe protective barrier function against the invasive microbes by their colonization in the intestine is another potential of the microbiota. Different mechanisms for the resistance colonization of the microbiota are considered, such as competition for nutrients and connection to the binding sites and secretion of the antimicrobial substances [44].
\nStimulation of the innate signaling pathways through the straight cell-to-cell communications or secretion of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are the other regulatory actions of the microbiota. SCFAs produced by the microbiota can direct intestinal Treg cells and inhibit pro-inflammatory responses [45, 46, 47, 48].
\nThe role of maternal microbiota in the process of preventing allergy has been proven. Infants from allergic parents are at least twice more likely to the risk of developing allergic diseases than nonallergic parents. Microbiota diversity exists between allergic and nonallergic persons. Reduction in the fecal diversity of the bacteroidetes in pregnancy is connected with the prevalence of atopic eczema in their young children [49]. The microbiota of healthy infants with nonallergic parents frequently consists of healthy lactobacilli, representing the role of maternal microbiota in preventing allergic disorders. A decrease in the number of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria and an increase in the colonization of Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium difficile are associated with the development of allergic disorders later in life, which shows the abnormality even before the onset of the allergy [50, 51]. Apart from quantitative alterations, qualitative alterations are important in the microbiota. For example, the microbiota of infants suffering from atopic dermatitis (AD) consists of mostly B. adolescentis which is mainly forming adult microbiota, whereas B. bifidum is the fundamental former of the healthy breastfeeding infants [52, 53]. Bifidobacteria of atopic dermatitis infants encourage the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, whereas the bifidobacterium of healthy ones encourages the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines [54]. Besides, these bifidobacteria have different adhesion behaviors to Caco-2 tissue culture cells [55] and intestinal mucus [56], which seems to be the reason for the reduction in stimulating the immune system. And at last, the metabolic activity of the microbiota composition is different too. Higher levels of butyrate, isovalerate, and caproate in the fecal matter of children with high risk for developing allergy in comparison with normal children are the confirmation of this claim [57].
\nThe intestine, the largest immune organ of the body, which is the source of the most antibody-producing cells [58] is the target of triggering maturation of the immune system or the restoration of the impaired commensal bacteria. Stimulation of the immune system is one of the most impressive functions of the resident microbiota of the intestine. Probiotic bacteria are considered as a safe solution for modulation of diminished commensal composition and also as influencer of the immune system in preventing allergic disorders [59]. Lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria are good candidates as probiotics with an appropriate life span, no toxic or pathogenic properties, and no inflammatory induction. The selection of the bacteria as probiotics is mainly based on no harmful side effects during the history of their use for a long time. Consumption of these probiotics aid in balancing the ratio of the intestinal flora, avoiding the inhabiting of the pathogens by preventing the binding of them to the host cells, and suppressing the inflammation, which all are as the result of immune system regulation [60]. The effects of probiotics vary with the dose, strain, and duration of consumption and timing.
\nBut the problem of the probiotics is their longevity and residence in the body of the host, as it was seen that they only remain during the administration period and not after that, showing the transient colonization of the probiotics [61, 62, 63, 64, 65].
\nLong-term effects of probiotics in different periods of everyone’s life need to be more investigated in complementary studies.
\nAs it was mentioned, immune tolerance is one of the necessary immune reactions to stop excessive inflammatory reactions. Preservation of this tolerance involves the integrity of the epithelial barrier that is heightened by commensal anaerobes, such as Clostridium spp. [15, 16, 66, 67], Bacteroides fragilis [68], and Clostridium spp. [66, 67], which are potent inducers, persuading Foxp3þ Treg differentiation to maintain mucosal tolerance and intestine integrity. Clostridia class also has adaptation properties in the intestinal cells to the routine exposure of an extended range of the antigens. This adaptation is acquired by the effect of IL-22 secreted by innate lymphoid cells which control enterocyte proliferation, activating the secretion of the mucus and antimicrobial production [16, 69].
\nImmune homeostasis develops in the gut as a relationship between the intestinal microbiota, the luminal antigens, and the epithelial barrier is established. Microbial intestinal colonization starts after conception. This happens when the newborn’s sterile gut is slowly colonized by environmental bacteria and by interaction with the mother’s intestinal flora and surroundings and probably by genetic factors [70, 71, 72]. Exposure to microbial flora early in life causes a transition in the T helper cell type-1 (Th1)/Th2 cytokine balance, promoting a Th1 cell response [73].
\nAn infant’s immune system at birth is not completely formed and appears to be geared toward a Th2 phenotype to prevent in utero rejection [74]. Nevertheless, the Th2 phenotype results in a stimulated production of IgE by B cells and therefore raises the risk of allergic reactions by mast cells activation [75, 76]. Early in life microbial stimulation will reverse the Th2 bias and promote the expansion of the Th1 phenotype and promote Th3 cell activity [76]. In this way, their combined activity will lead to B-cells releasing IgA. IgA contributes to the elimination of allergens and hence would reduce the immune system’s response to antigens. Th1 phenotype-produced cytokines will also reduce inflammation and promote tolerance toward specific antigens [77].
\nThe hygiene concept states that inadequate or aberrant exposure to environmental microbes is one of the triggers of allergy production and related diseases [78]. As mentioned before, allergic diseases are associated with a change in the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance leading to Th2 cytokine activation and interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-13 activation as well as IgE production [79, 80]. Probiotics significantly alter the gut microenvironment by encouraging a shift in local microflora and cytokine secretion [81] and can potentially modulate enterocyte Toll-like receptors and proteoglycan recognition proteins, resulting in dendritic cell (DC) activation and a Th1 response. The resulting stimulation of Th1 cytokines can suppress reactions to Th2 [82].
\nAtopic dermatitis (AD) is a widespread chronic inflammatory skin condition with a prevalence of around 20% in children and 2–5% in adults worldwide [83]. In recent years, the function of the intestinal microbiota in the aetiopathogenesis of AD has become increasingly important. Atopic dermatitis probiotic therapy is widely studied, with contradictory outcomes [84]. Probiotics containing Lactobacillus spp. for the treatment of infantile atopic dermatitis showed beneficial effects in children. Caution should however be raised when treating children under the age of 1 years of age [85]. In addition, mild subjects are exceptions to that beneficial effect. More studies could be informative in investigating the efficacy of Bifidobacterium strains. Further larger studies in the treatment of pediatric AD are also required to examine the health, dose-response profile, and long-term impact of probiotics [86].
\nAsthma, a chronic complex airway disease, is characterized by reversible airflow obstruction, bronchial hyper responsiveness, and underlying inflammation [87]. In recent decades, the prevalence of asthma has risen. One possible mechanism behind this high prevalence is the microbial hypothesis, which suggests that less microbial exposure upregulates T helper cell type-2 (Th2) cytokine development, leading to a rise in allergic diseases [75]. A meta-analysis found that while perinatal and early-life probiotic administration reduces children’s risk of atopic sensitization and total rates of immunoglobulin E (IgE), it may not reduce their risk of asthma [88]. However, in addition to routine treatment, several studies have documented the advantage of using probiotics for treating children with asthma. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial for 7-week treatment with Enterococcus faecalis showed reduced peak flow variability in children with asthma [89]. Lee et al. have reported substantial improvements in the pulmonary function of children with asthma following a regimen of supplementation of vegetables, fish oil, and fruit along with probiotic administration. Studies, however, have shown that Lactobacillus is safe for children with asthma [90, 91].
\nOn these bases, probiotic bacteria are capable of altering immune responses through a range of mechanisms that could minimize allergic reactions to airborne allergens without the side effects of any current drugs, and these possible mechanisms, as shown in Figure 1, include regulatory T cells that dampen immune responses and suppress the production of IgE antibodies [92, 93]. There are contradictory studies about the effectiveness of probiotics in treating allergic rhinitis [94]. It is reported that L. casei decreased the number of episodes of rhinitis in 64 preschoolers with allergic rhinitis [95]. Nonetheless, another study found that patients treated with Lactobacillus GG during the birch pollen season who were allergic to birch pollen and apple food found no improvement in symptom score and no reduced sensitivity to birch pollen and apple following probiotic supplementation [96]. Probiotic consumption increased life performance in allergic rhinitis patients. Blood or immunological parameters did not alter significantly in the probiotic community. This indicates probiotics may be useful in allergic rhinitis, but the data present are not sufficient to make any guidelines for treatment [97, 98].
\nProbiotic mechanism against the allergen include increasing regulatory T cells that damp down immune responses and suppress the production of IgE.
Food allergy (FA) is one of the pediatric age’s most common allergic disorders and has been considered a global health issue, particularly in the developed world.
\nNaturally, many subjects with FA outgrow this over time. Cow’s milk allergy (CMA), hen’s egg allergy, and wheat allergy resolve by 5–10 years in 50% of children. Many FAs (including peanuts, tree nuts, and fish) have low-resolution levels and are seen as persistent [99]. Furthermore, certain types of FA may be correlated with the subsequent development of other allergic symptoms such as oculorhinitis, atopic dermatitis, asthma, and urticaria (the so-called “Atopic March”) [100] as well as other diseases such as functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs), inflammatory intestinal diseases (IBD) [101], and psychiatric disorders such as attentive autistic spectrum disorders (ASD).
\nThe gut microbiome-immune system axis that influences the frequency of FA may be modulated by several genetic, environmental, and dietary factors [102]. For example, increased family size, pet and/or rural exposure, balanced diet (full of fibers, fermented foods, antioxidants, omega-3), breastfeeding, and probiotic use are correlated with FA safety. Conversely, C-section, prenatal, and early-life exposure to antibiotics/gastric acid inhibitors/antiseptic agents, unhealthy diet (low fibers/high saturated fats, and junk foods) may increase the risk of developing FA. All these environmental factors mainly operate on a modulation of the structure and function of the gut microbiota, which may in effect be responsible for the epigenetic control of genes involved in immune tolerance.
\nThe pathogenesis of these incidents also is largely unknown, but increasing evidence suggests the hypothesis that disturbance of intestinal microbiome, leading to alterations in the immune system and gut-brain axis, may affect the occurrence of FA and FA-related conditions later in life [103] (Figure 2).
\nGood microbiome as a target for food allergy intervention.
Mediterranean diet (MD) is described as a healthy, balanced diet. It is associated with a high intake of assorted cereals, legumes, fruit, vegetables, olive oil, and nuts; moderate consumption of red wine, poultry, and fish; and a lower intake of red meat and sweets. MD has been shown to have a protective role against allergic illnesses in children during pregnancy and early life [104].
\nElevated adherence to MD was associated with increased levels of Prevotella and other Firmicutes and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) [102]. One of the strongest links between diet, gut microbiome, and allergic diseases is the immunomodulatory mechanisms elicited by SCFAs [105]. Common SCFAs contain acetate, butyrate, propionate, and valerate. SCFA-producing bacteria include Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Eubacterium rectale. Roseburia is an important butyrate producer [106]. SCFAs are a major source of energy for colonocytes and epigenetically influence many nonimmune functions (tightened junction proteins, and mucus production) and immune functions (macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells (DCs), and T and B cells) [107, 108]. Enterocyte interaction of SCFAs is mediated by G-protein-coupled receptors, namely GPCRs, GPR41, GPR43, GPR109A, and Olfr78 [109, 110]. The hopeful target of novel therapeutic and preventive approaches against FA may be the gut microbiome. The results of the studies are promising, but more research is needed for the better definition of the potential for diet-gut microbiome—immune system axis modulation to counter FA. We are entering a new age in which the production and function of the immune system can be controlled by dietary intervention, and the clinical effect can be assessed by gut microbes and their metabolites. Given the current gaps in research methods and data analysis and interpretation, more scientific evidence is required which can be converted into clinical evidence praxis [103].
\nThe results of many studies have demonstrated that there is a strong relationship between modifications within the microbiome and many diseases. Much evidence proves that healthy microbiota affects and improves the immune system. It seems that probiotics can have an important role in the prevention of many diseases such as allergy. Microbiota diversity exists between allergic and nonallergic persons. Different mechanisms are considered for the anti-allergic impact of probiotics, like detecting related molecular patterns, including DNA motifs or LPS of the bacteria by Toll-like receptors. Probiotic mechanism against the allergen includes increasing regulatory T cells that damp down immune responses and suppress the production of IgE.
\nThe authors are thankful to the National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB), Iran, for providing the facilities.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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