Parameters of some piezoelectric materials.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"323",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Industrial Design - New Frontiers",title:"Industrial Design",subtitle:"New Frontiers",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"A new breed of modern designers is on the way. 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The diverse perspectives taken by the authors of this book ensure stimulating reading and will assist readers in leaping forward in their own practice of industrial design, and in preparing new research that is relevant and aligned with the current challenges of this fascinating field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-622-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6074-8",doi:"10.5772/849",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"industrial-design-new-frontiers",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"6712ef0cc1fdf610d17e8aa70170f773",bookSignature:"Denis A. 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\r\n\tIt is well known that the quality of animal origin foodstuffs (e.g. meat) is influenced by the quality of feed very strongly. Therefore, a very important area of animal nutrition research is focused on improving quality of animal products by feeding so that it can better meet the requirements of human nutrition.
\r\n\r\n\tAnimal nutrition in the 21st century aims to provide safe and good quality foodstuffs of animal origin and at the same time achieve a high efficiency of production and a low level of environmental pollution. These criteria, however, contribute to the complexity and rapid expansion of nutrition science. The continuously increasing demand of the human population needs to be supplied from a diminishing agricultural area, while maintaining the sustainability of production. According to the global trends, the challenges facing animal nutrition in the 21st century can be summarized as follows: more awareness and activity of participation is needed in animal production to supply quality and safe food in sufficient quantities, in accordance with the requirements of the society. Therefore, the efficiency of animal production needs to be improved. This can be achieved by enhancing 1) biological efficiency, 2) technological efficiency and 3) economic efficiency. Among many other factors, feed additives play a very important role in achieving the above objectives.
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64065",title:"Hip Fracture: Anatomy, Causes, and Consequences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75946",slug:"hip-fracture-anatomy-causes-and-consequences",body:'\nLow-trauma hip fracture has become a common health problem among the elderly all over the world [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21], mainly due to the population aging and the prevalence of osteoporosis. Of all osteoporotic fractures, hip fracture has the highest morbidity and mortality rate [22]. Approximately 50% of patients have permanent functional disability greater than that before fracture [23, 24]. The incidence of hip fracture appears to be increasing in many countries [10], and the total number of hip fractures is estimated to be more than five million by 2050 [25]. Socioeconomic impacts of hip fracture are twofold. On the one hand, hip fracture increases the morbidity and mortality in the elderly [26, 27, 28]; on the other hand, it is a substantial source of healthcare expenditure [29, 30]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to accurately assess hip fracture risk and then develop preventive and protective measures. In this chapter, hip anatomy is first reviewed, and hip fractures are classified by anatomic location. Then, prevalence of hip fracture is presented, followed by a description of the significance of accurately assessing hip fracture risk.
\nHip fracture is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the femoral bone. Hip fracture is generally affected by hip anatomy [31], the applied forces to the hip [32], and bone mechanical properties [33]. In this section, hip anatomy is explained to show why the hip is likely to experience fracture in a fall.
\nThe hip joint is one of the most important joints in the human body. It is also one of the most flexible joints allowing a great range of motions. To better understand hip fracture, it helps to know the anatomy of the hip joint. The hip is a joint formed by the ball-shaped head of the femur and the socket of the pelvis. The femurs are the longest and the strongest bones in the human body, extending from the hip to the knee. Important geometric features of femur bones include the head, neck, and greater and lesser trochanters, as shown in Figure 1(a). A femur is composed of two types of bones, cortical and cancellous. The cortical bone forms the outer layer of the femur and withstands most of the forces and moments. Cancellous bone is mostly enclosed by the cortical bone and mainly absorbs the shock energy produced in walking and running [34]. The hip joint is a stable ball-and-socket joint, much more stable than the shoulder joint. The stability in the hip mainly attributes to the deep socket, i.e., the acetabulum. Additional stability is provided by the strong joint capsule and its surrounding muscles and ligaments. The high level of stability of the hip joint is required to support the upper body [34].
\n(a) Anatomic structure of the hip [35]. (b) Concentration of applied forces on the proximal femur in a lateral fall which increases the risk of fracture.
More than 90% of all hip fractures occur in falls [36] as the femur is subjected to a high-level impact force. As shown in Figure 1(b), in a sideways fall, the greater trochanter and the femoral head are subjected to the impact and the joint force, respectively, from the ground and the acetabulum. The forces produce a moment at the intersection of the neck-shaft axes. Muscles that are attached to the femur also produce forces during the fall. As it is shown in Figure 1(b), the applied forces in a fall are mainly on the proximal femur, and it may explain why the majority of fall-induced hip fractures occur at the proximal femur [37]. A hip fracture refers to any fracture of the proximal femur down to a level of approximately 5 cm below the lower border of the lesser trochanter [38]. The extent of the break depends on the forces that are involved.
\nHip fracture is usually caused by an applied force that exceeds the strength of the femur bone [39]. Therefore, any situation that either induces a high level of force on the femur bone or decreases the bone strength should be considered as a hip fracture cause.
\nThe main cause of hip fracture is falling (90–92%) [36, 40, 41, 42], in particular falling in sideways direction (63–69% in fall-related fractures) [8, 43], as it induces a high level of force on the femur. Parameters that increase the risk of fall and apply a high level of force on the femur, especially in the elderly, are:
Mental impairment and confusion
Impaired vision
Impaired muscle reactions
Slow reflex response
Inability to effectively use the arms to reduce the energy of the fall
Impaired neuromuscular coordination and neurological diseases (e.g., hemiplegia, Parkinson’s disease)
In the elderly, most fractures occur after a low-trauma fall, which would not cause any severe injury to a healthy individual. Therefore, low bone strength is another main cause of hip fracture. Osteoporosis as a progressive bone disease, which is characterized by decreases in bone mass and density, has been identified as one of the main contributors of hip fracture [46, 47]. Osteoporosis advances when bone resorption exceeds bone formation, and therefore it is more common among the elderly [48]. Approximately three to four out of ten women over the age of 50, and one in eight men, suffer osteoporotic fracture in their lifetime [49].
\nApart from osteoporosis, several other causes may reduce the strength of the bone such as bone cancer and medical side effects [38]. Other factors associated with reduction in bone strength include [38]:
Genetic and family history
Sedentary lifestyle
Impaired nutrition
Smoking
Excess alcohol
Medications (including tranquilizers, hypnotics, anticonvulsant drugs, and steroids)
Osteomalacia from vitamin D deficiency, malabsorption, and liver or renal disease
Cardiovascular disease and cardiac arrhythmias
Underlying bone disease (e.g., Paget’s disease, bone tumors, and secondary bone tumors)
Endocrine abnormalities: hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, or hypercortisolism
In addition to the mentioned causes, high-trauma falls and accidents such as car and motorcycle accidents can lead to hip fracture [50]. But they are not studied in this dissertation. Figure 2 shows how different factors contribute to the hip fracture [6, 38].
\nConceptual model of the fall-induced hip fracture procedure and associated effective factors [15].
Hip fractures are associated with significant morbidity, mortality, loss of independence, and financial burden [3, 9, 25, 42, 51, 52, 53]. It has been reported that approximately 20% of hip fracture patients died within 1 year of the fracture [54]. Generally, the first year after hip fracture appears to be the most critical time. A recent meta-analysis revealed that women sustaining a hip fracture had a fivefold increase and men almost an eightfold increase in relative likelihood of death within the first 3 months compared with age- and sex-matched controls [29]. The relative death risk decreases substantially over the second year but still much higher than that of the controls [55]. Many lose their ability to walk mainly due to the pain caused by the hip fracture. In fact, only 40–79% of patients regain their previous ambulatory function a year after the fracture, and less than half return to their pre-fracture status of daily activities [56].
\nIn addition to functional impairments, hip fracture can have a negative impact on self-esteem, body image, and mood [57], which may lead to psychological problems [58]. Individuals who suffer fractures may be immobilized by a fear of falling again and suffering more fractures. They may feel isolated and helpless. The National Osteoporosis Foundation conducted a survey [59] among 1000 women with osteoporotic fracture in the United States to investigate the psychological effects of the fracture on the patients. Eighty-nine percent of said they feared breaking another bone; 80% were afraid that they would be less able to perform their daily activities and lose their independence; 73% worried that they would have to reduce activities with family and friends; and 68% were concerned that another fracture would result in their having to enter a nursing home [59]. If not addressed, fear about the future and a sense of helplessness can produce significant anxiety and depression. These problems may be compounded by an inability to fulfill occupational, domestic, or social duties, thus leading to further social isolation.
\nThe disability, reduced functional status, and poor mental health caused by hip fracture can have a profound impact on the quality of the individual’s life. Survivors of hip fracture reported a 52% reduction in the quality of life in the first 12 months and a 21% reduction after 2 years [60].
\nAlso, hip fracture is a major cause of the need for long-term nursing home care and a major contributor to healthcare costs [30, 61, 62]. There are approximately 23,000 cases of hip fracture every year in Canada with associated treatment costs of about $1 billion [63]. In the United States, 310,000 hip fractures occurred in 2003, and the total Medicare cost was estimated between $10.3 and $15.2 billion, including acute medical care and nursing home services [53, 64, 65]. As the population of the elderly is still continuously increasing, the number of hip fractures is expected to rise dramatically, and it will put more burdens on the community healthcare system [2, 66].
\nIn general, there are three types of hip fractures, depending on what region of the proximal femur is involved [67]:
Femoral neck fractures occur in the narrow section of the proximal femur that lies between the femoral head and the intertrochanteric cross section. Most femoral neck fractures occur within the capsule surrounding the hip joint and are, therefore, termed intracapsular fracture. The blood supply to the femoral head is carried by a number of arteries that pass through the femoral neck region. Therefore, femoral neck fractures may disrupt the blood supply to the femoral head, causing death of the femoral head bone tissues, called osteonecrosis or avascular necrosis. Femoral neck fractures are further grouped into nondisplaced and displaced fractures by the alignment of the fractured segments in relation to the original anatomic position of the femur [68].
Intertrochanteric fractures occur at a lower location than femoral neck fractures, in the area between the greater and lesser trochanters. The trochanters are bony projections where major hip muscles are attached. Intertrochanteric hip fractures occur outside of the joint capsule and are therefore also called extracapsular fracture in the literature. Intertrochanteric fractures are complicated by the pull of the hip muscles on the bony muscle attachments, which can exert competing forces against fractured bone segments and pull them out of alignment. Thus, healing of the fracture in a misaligned position is considered as a complication for intertrochanteric fractures. Intertrochanteric fractures may be further grouped into stable and unstable fractures, depending on the location, number, and size of the fractured bony segments [68].
Subtrochanteric fractures occur in the zone about 5 \n
In more complicated cases, the fracture of the bone can involve more than one of these zones. Figure 3 shows different types of proximal femur fracture.
\nThree main types of hip fractures: femoral neck fracture (subcapital and transcervical fractures), intertrochanteric fracture, and subtrochanteric fracture [69].
A variety of studies have examined hip fracture rates in different regions of the world [10, 51, 52, 70]. Greater than tenfold differences have been found on the basis of studies undertaken at a regional or national level for different calendar years. The studies show that the main demographic risk factors for hip fractures include increased age and female gender [10, 25]. The geographic distribution by fracture risk is shown for men and women combined in Figure 4. Heterogeneity in hip fracture risk in countries can be seen in this figure. Based on statistical results [10], for women, the lowest annual incidences are found in Nigeria (2/100,000), South Africa (20), Tunisia (58), and Ecuador (73). The highest rates were observed in Denmark (574/100,000), Norway (563), Sweden (539), and Austria (501). The incidence of hip fracture in men is approximately half of that noted in women. The highest annual incidence in men has been found in Denmark (290/100,000) and the lowest in Ecuador (35/100,000) [10].
\nHip fracture rates (men and women combined) in different countries of the world categorized by risk. Where estimates are available, countries are color-coded red (annual incidence >250/100,000), orange (150–250/100,000), or green (<150/100,000) [10] (reproduced with permission).
As it is shown in Figure 4, the high-risk countries are Iceland, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway in Northwestern Europe; Belgium, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy in Central Europe; Greece, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Slovenia in southwestern Europe; Lebanon, Oman, Iran, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malta, and Taiwan in Asia; and Argentina in South America. Regions of moderate risk include North America, Oceania, the Russian Federation, and southern countries of Latin America. Low-risk regions include the northern regions of Latin America, Africa, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, India, China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. It is notable that in Europe, the majority of countries are categorized as high or moderate risk. Low risk is identified only in Croatia and Romania [10].
\nHip fracture incidence rates are known to increase exponentially with age in both men and women for the most regions of the world [71, 72, 73, 74]. The increasing rate of hip fracture in the elderly is mainly associated with their slower reflex response and the inability to effectively use their arms to reduce the energy of the fall and low bone density of the proximal femur [44, 45].
\nEpidemiological studies show that the number of hip fractures will rise from 1.66 million in 1990 to 4.5–21.3 million by 2050 (Figure 5) depending on the underlying assumptions about age- and gender-specific incidence trends [9, 25, 51, 75].
\nEstimated number of hip fractures by sex in the year 1990 and the number expected in 2025 and 2050 by region assuming no increase in age- and sex-specific rates, a 1% annual increase worldwide, or no increase in North America and northern Europe but an increase in age- and sex-specific incidence elsewhere of 2, 3, or 4%. (ROW is rest of world) [25] (reproduced with permission).
The aim of accurately assessing hip fracture risk is to identify patients at high risk of hip fracture and to start intime prevention and protection measures to reduce the number of hip fractures. These measures are accepted by the patients only after they are accurately diagnosed with the high fracture risk. Also, accurate assessment of hip fracture risk is the prerequisite step before starting a therapy. For example, during the process of osteoporosis treatment, it is required to monitor the change of fracture risk and subsequently track the effectiveness of the therapy. By knowing the risk of fracture, people can improve their bone health and change their environment to reduce the likelihood of the fall.
\nPatients diagnosed with high fracture risk may consider the following prevention measurements:
Individualized exercise programs:
Management of visual impairment:
Examination of basic neurological function, including mental status, muscle strength, lower extremity peripheral nerves, and reflexes [79]
Using mobility assisting devices (e.g., walking stick, frames)
Implementing surveillance and observation strategies
Protection measurements must be provided to patients with high fracture risk, for example:
Remembering that sideways falling is more likely to result in a hip fracture than falling in other directions [8]:
Trying to fall forward or backward not from sides
Taking steps to reduce the potential energy and subsequently decrease the risk of fracture [80]
Landing with the aid of hands or rea`chable objects around to break the fall [81]
Environmental modification (e.g., flooring) [31]
Medication and nutritional improvement:
Consuming a calcium-rich diet that provides about 1000 mg (milligrams) daily for men and women up to age 50 [88]. Women over age 50 and men over age 70 should increase their intake to 1200 mg daily from a combination of foods and supplements.
Obtaining 600 IU (international units = 0.025 μg) of vitamin D daily up to age 70 [88]. Men and women over age 70 should increase their uptake to 800 IU daily.
5–15 min’ exposure to sunlight 4–6 times per week [89].
From biomechanics point of view, assessment of hip fracture under stance loading or lateral impact force has been performed using three criteria: factor of safety (FOS) [90], risk factor (RF) [70], and fracture risk index (FRI) [91]. In this section, a review is performed on previously adopted bone fracture criteria in both 2D and 3D FE models.
\nKeyak et al. [90] assessed FOS under two loading conditions: one representing loading during the stance phase of gait and the other simulating the impact from a fall. Their study was based on a 3D FE model generated from CT data of the patient. They calculated FOS to compare the actual element strength with the applied von Mises stress.
\nSchileo et al. [92] applied maximum principle strain, von Mises stress, and maximum principle stress criteria to calculate risk factor and to predict fracture location of the femur. RF compares the applied stress/strain with the yield one to predict the bone fracture. Lotz et al. [93, 94] also used von Mises stress yield criterion for the cortical bone and crushing-cracking stress criterion for the trabecular bone. The performance of nine stress- and strain-based failure theories in assessment of hip fracture is investigated by Keyak and Rossi [95]. They evaluated the distortion energy (DE), maximum normal stress, maximum normal strain, maximum shear strain, maximum shear stress, Coulomb-Mohr, modified Mohr, Hoffman, and strain-based Hoffman failure theories, using CT-based FE models of the femur [95].
\nThe abovementioned fracture risk measurements are all derived from CT images. The most recent DXA-based fracture risk criterion is proposed by Luo et al. [91]. They calculated the averaged FRI as a ratio between the effective stress (von Mises stress) by applied forces and the allowable stress (yield stress) of the bone over a region of interest (ROI). FRI is a local fracture risk measurement, while FOS and RF are global ones.
\nThis chapter is concluded from a research that was supported by Dr. Yunhua Luo, and therefore, he is gratefully acknowledged.
\nMasoud Nasiri Sarvi declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Optoelectronic measurement methods are based on optical effects associated with the electromagnetic radiation interaction with matter. The polarization of the electromagnetic wave during such interaction is the most “susceptible” parameter which ensures high sensitivity of polarization-optical methods in comparison with other measurement methods [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. In addition, the optical measurement method is free from electromagnetic interference and can be used in severe environmental conditions and at high temperature [6].
One of the most important directions in the development of measuring methods and sensors based on them is the monitoring of stress states in various structures both in industry and research-and-development activities. Modern and promising strain sensors should have low weight, small size, low power, resistance to environmental influences and electromagnetic noise immunity, stability of parameters during operation, and low cost. Today, the most widely used method for strain measuring is based on the strain-resistive effect. The strain-resistive devices are used due to its relatively low cost and easy-to-use design [7]. However, such sensors have a number of unavoidable drawbacks: parameters degradation with time, hysteresis, nonlinearity, small dynamic range, low deformation sensitivity, and dramatic sensitivity to the overloads [7]. However, with the development of technologies, especially precision ones, the requirements for strain gauges increase significantly and strain-resistive gauges do not meet modern requirements.
For measuring vibrations, accelerations, acoustic signals, sensors based on the piezoelectric effect are widely used [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Such sensors performed well when measuring dynamic deformations (vibrations), but they are not suitable for measuring static loads due to the leakage of the charge induced by the load. Moreover, when such sensors are operated, both reversible and irreversible changes in their gauge factor and other characteristics are possible. This naturally limits the application conditions and is one of the most serious drawbacks of piezoelectric accelerometers.
Fiber-optic sensors are among the modern optical methods for measuring strain. A significant advantage of such sensors is the ability to implement several, up to a hundred, sensors on single optical fiber, which is used in distributed monitoring systems [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The disadvantages of such sensors include, first of all, low sensitivity (lower than that of strain-resistive gages and piezoelectric ones) and a complex system of optical measurements.
The most sensitive method for strain measuring is based on the piezo-optical effect, which consists in changing the polarization of light propagating in a transparent stressed material [7, 20]. Such sensors have a significantly higher sensitivity than strain-resistive ones due to the fundamentally high light polarization sensitivity to change in the state of the substance in which light propagates [20]. The attempts to develop the industrially usable deformation sensors based on the piezo-optical measuring transducers are known in the literature [21, 22, 23, 24]. However, for a number of reasons, primarily of a technological nature, these developments did not lead to the appearance of piezo-optical strain gauges capable of competing with strain-resistive sensors in terms of a price/quality ratio. In the scientific literature, there are no data on the comparative analysis of the gauge factors (the main strain gauge parameter) of strain sensors based on different physical principles, which complicates the objective assessment of their advantages and disadvantages.
The purpose of this work is to develop theoretical foundations and basic design and technological solutions for creating a highly sensitive strain sensor based on a piezo-optical optoelectronic transducer. At the same time, the sensor must meet the requirements of industrial operation, significantly surpass the parameters of modern sensors based on other principles, and be devoid of drawbacks inherent in these sensors: parameters degradation with time, hysteresis, nonlinearity, small dynamic range, low sensitivity to the deformation, and high sensitivity to the overloads.
Here we consider the theoretical foundations of the physical effects that underlie modern strain gauges. We will also determine the gauge factor (GF) for each type of sensor so that the sensitivity of these sensors can be compared. The GF dependence on the sensor design will also be determined.
Strain-resistive gauge sensors have been well known for a long time. At first glance, the design of such a sensor looks rather simple (Figure 1a). A typical strain sensor design is a thin serpentine conductor film (thickness – around 0.0025 mm and length – 0.2–150 mm) deposited on a thin polymer support film. The conductor film thickness is made to be thinner and the length longer to obtain a sufficiently large resistance. Therefore, the resistance creates sufficiently large voltage for the measurements. The structure is glued to a controlled specimen and incorporated into the Wheatstone bridge [7] as an alternating resistance Rx (Figure 1a). The polymer film is the carrier and insulator. Their production technology is well developed and well controlled. Nevertheless, polymer films, glues, and thin metal films have low plastic deformation threshold. This leads to the problems listed above: hysteresis, nonlinearity, degradation of parameters with time, etc.
Operation principle of strain gauges based on: (a) Strain-resistive, (b) Fiber–optic and (c) Piezoelectric sensors. F – Measured load, Rx – Alternating resistance, n – Effective refractive index, Δq – Stress-induced charge density.
The theoretical foundations of such sensors operation, as well as the technical aspects of their use, are described in detail in work [7]. Here, the basic provisions necessary for comparing such sensors with sensors based on other physical principles are briefly presented.
It is well known that the conductor length increases (
where
It can be seen from Eq. (2) that the
The sensitive element of the fiber-optic sensors is a Bragg fiber grating which is an optical fiber with a periodically changing refractive index (Figure 1b). When light passes through such a structure, part of it with a specific Bragg wavelength (λB) is reflected, and the rest is transmitted further. The reflected light wavelength λB is given by the relation λB = 2nL, where n is the effective refractive index of the optical fiber and L is the distance between the gratings or the grating period. Stretching/compression of the fiber changes the distance L and the refractive index n resulting in a change in Bragg wavelength (λB ± dλB), which is recorded by the optical system. The fiber-optic strain sensor GF is found by analogy with strain-resistive sensors [25]:
where dλB is the change in the reflected-light wavelength during deformation of the fiber grating and dL/L is the relative deformation of the grating. According to [25], the fiber-optic strain sensor GF is about 0.78, which is markedly lower than the strain-resistive sensor GFs. As in case of strain-resistive sensors, it does not depend on the sensor design and is determined by the properties of the fiber-optic material.
A piezoelectric transducer converts a mechanical force into an electric charge. Its operation is based on the piezoelectric effect which entails the occurrence of dielectric polarization under mechanical stresses (Figure 1c). The density of the electric charge induced on the piezoelectric element surface under an external load is described by the Equation [26].
where Δq is the surface charge density; dij is the piezoelectric modulus described by a 3 × 6 matrix with typical component values in the range of 10−10–10−12 C/N; σ is the stress in the material under the external load. The sensitivity of these sensors is described by the piezoelectric modulus which complicates their comparison with strain-resistive and fiber-optic sensors. Similarly to Eqs. (2) and (3), the piezoelectric sensor GF should be inversely proportional to the relative deformation dL/L. Using Hooke’s law σ = E(dL/L) and Eq. (4) we get:
It follows from Eq. (5) that the GF does not depend on the sensor design and is determined only by the piezoelectric element material properties. Table 1 shows the values of the piezoelectric moduli and Young’s moduli taken from [26, 27] and the sensitivity factors calculated by Eq. (5) for some materials widely used for the fabrication of piezoelectric sensors. It is the GF (and not the piezoelectric modulus) that is an objective sensitivity parameter of piezoelectric sensors when compared with the sensitivity of another type of sensors. For example, the piezoelectric modulus for electroactive polymers is more than two orders of magnitude greater than for other piezomaterials. However, this advantage almost vanishes due to the small elastic modulus, and, as a result, GF becomes two orders of magnitude lower than that of the other materials. Table 1 shows that the piezoelectric sensor GFs are comparable in order of magnitude with the strain-resistive sensor GFs.
Material | dij, 10−12 C/N | E,GPa | GF |
---|---|---|---|
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) | |||
PZT −19 | 160–330 | 70 | 11,2–23,1 |
PZT −21 | 40–100 | 90 | 2,8–7,0 |
PZTNV-1 | 160–400 | 64 | 10,2–26,6 |
PZT-5A | 274–593 | 60 | 16,4–35,6 |
PZT-6A | 80–189 | 94 | 7,5–17,8 |
PZT-6B | 27–71 | 111 | 3,0–7,8 |
Crystal quartz | 2,33 | 78,7 | 0,16 |
Barium titanate (BaTiO3) | 78 | 100 | 7,8 |
Solid solutions (K, Na)NbO3 | 80–160 | 104–123 | 8,3–19,7 |
Nonpolar polymers (polyethylene, rubbers, etc.) | 0,1–1,0 | 1–3 | 0,1–3·10−3 |
Polar polymers (polycarbonate, polyvinyl chloride) | 20–40 | 2,3–3,5 | 0,05–0,14 |
Electroactive polymers | 30,000 | (6–1000)·10−6 | < 0,03 |
Parameters of some piezoelectric materials.
The piezo-optical effect (also called “photoelasticity”) used for precision stress (deformation) measurements is known since the 1930s [28]. If a light wave with a linear (circular) polarization (Figure 2) is incident upon transparent material (photoelastic element) under the load F, an additional phase difference
Effect of photoelasticity.
here
The GF for the piezo-optical transducer can be determined by analogy with the strain-resistive one, where the measuring parameter is
The measuring parameter for the piezo-optical effect is the phase difference
The
If fused quartz is used as the optical material, the gauge factor value
The GF value is more than three orders of magnitude higher than the strain-resistive effect values [30].
In order to achieve the set goal of the work, the following was done [30].
We have studied the process of piezo-optical transducer output signal generating in detail with the help of accurate numerical simulation. We determined the piezo-optical sensor GF and compared it with other types [30, 31].
We showed that cruciform photoelastic element (PE) allows us to significantly increase the stresses magnitude in the PE working area under the external force action and, thereby, increase the sensitivity to the force [32].
Fused quartz [33] was chosen as the photoelastic element material although it has a smaller stress-optical coefficient
Due to the cruciform PE, the remaining optical elements can be located within the PE dimension, and, consequently, the transducer can have its own unified casing and its technology is separated from the load cell technology. The attachment to the monitored object is carried out with the help of load elements, the design of which depends on the mounting method [34].
In the mounted state, the PE is under the preliminary compressive stresses along two orthogonal directions [35], which ensures: i) a reliable glueless force-closure between the PE and the load element; ii) the operation both in compression and in tension; iii) the temperature independence of the device output signal since temperature changes do not change the pre-stressed isotropy.
The output signal electrical circuit is located inside the transducer shielded housing and has any desired interfaces. As a result, the transducer is a complete device that does not require a secondary signal transducer as is the case with strain-resistive sensors [36].
As a result, we were able to optimize the transducer design and significantly reduce the production cost while maintaining high field-performance data. To confirm this, we compared its parameters with the parameters of most sensitive strain-resistive sensor used to calibrate the deadweight machines (see Section 6).
The optical scheme of the piezo-optical transducer is shown in Figure 3 and consists of an optically coupled light-emitting diode (LED), a polarizer (Pol), a quarter-wave plate (λ/4), a photoelastic element (PE), two analyzers (An1, An2) and two photodetectors (PD1, PD2) [30]. The measured force F is applied to the PE.
Optical scheme of piezo-optical transducer (left) and its design (right).
The analyzers axes are oriented at the angle of 90°. The photoelastic element is the main component of the piezo-optical transducer. The working area of the PE is limited by the part (dashed circle in Figure 3) passing through which the light rays hit the photosensitive areas of the photodetectors. The rest of the PE does not participate in photodetectors signals. A feature of the transducer’s optical scheme is the separation of the light beam along the front of the incident wave into two beams before falling onto the photoelastic element. This solution allows the use of film polarizers (Polaroid) reducing the optical path of light beams and, consequently, the dimensions of the converter and also allowing the use of an incoherent light source with low power consumption. The size of the optical scheme does not exceed a cubic centimeter.
The phase difference
We have optimized the PE shape and showed that the cruciform PE allows us to significantly increase the stresses magnitude in the PE working area for a given applied force [32]. The results of numerical modeling for stresses in PEs of various shapes (square, circular, rhombic, and cruciform) subjected to the same external force
(a) Isolines of stress difference ∆σ for the photoelastic elements of different shapes; (b) The dependences of the stress difference Δσav, averaged over the PE working area (1), and damage threshold fth (2) on depth h [32].
The transition to the cruciform PE and the increase in “dent” depth h (Figure 4) result in the stresses redistribution toward the PE center and the increase in the stress in the PE working area. For the PE shape shown in Figure 4a (bottom right), the increase in stresses averaged over the PE working area was 2.1 times higher compared to the square and circular shapes (dependence (1) in Figure 4b).
However, it is evident that the mechanical strength of a PE should go down as the “dent” h gets deeper. This issue was investigated by calculating the PE damage threshold for various PE shapes. The magnitude of stress arising in PEs of various shapes was compared to the ultimate strength of quartz (51.7 MPa) [37]. The dependence (2) in Figure 4b shows the threshold force fth under which the PE breakdown occurs. It can be seen that the damage threshold increases with a change in PE form from square to circular then to rhombus and even continues to grow with an increase in the “dent” depth h up to 2 mm. Further increase in h resulted in a reduction in fth. The threshold begins to decrease rapidly only when h > 3.5 mm. Thus, at the same damage threshold for h ≈ 3.5 mm, we have a significant increase in stresses in the PE working area.
The mathematical models of the transducer were created for the accurate numerical simulation of its operation. The first model is for the simulation of the light parameters transformation as it passes through the optical elements of the piezo-optical transducer. The second model is for the simulation of stresses spatial distribution in the PE body and its deformation under applied force. The models, the equations used are described in detail in [30]. The initial data and the main results obtained are briefly presented here.
The optical scheme of the piezo-optical transducer showed in Figure 3 on the left was used for the simulations. The simulations were performed using the Wolfram Mathematica™ package and took into account the design of the developed transducer: the radiation diagram of LEDs used, the dimensions of the photosensitive areas of photodiodes used, light refraction in the PE, the distances between the transducer elements.
A lot of different computing methods have been developed allowing coping with cumbersome quantitative methods that have to be used to determine the output states of the electromagnetic wave amplitude and polarization. The most successful and obvious is the Muller formalism, where matrix algebra is used to describe the amplitude and polarization transformations [38, 39, 40, 41]. The optical elements are represented in the form of a
The connection between light intensity
In case where polarizers are arranged perpendicularly to the incident light rays and the rays are parallel to the Z-axis, the polarizer and the analyzer are described by the linear transformation according to the Muller formalism [39]:
where
The quarter-wave plate and the photoelastic element are described by a matrix for linear delay [38]:
The elements are arranged perpendicularly to the incident light rays, and the rays are parallel to the Z-axis.
The Mueller matrix for refraction [41] in a PE is:
where
These matrices make it easy to study the dependence of the light intensity and polarization on the angles of all transducer elements optical axes. The results obtained make it possible to determine the tolerances for the inaccuracy of the optical elements installation. Here, for simplicity, the light rays were considered as plane wave rays that fall at right angles to the surface of each element of the optical layout. We neglected the point source of light. After substituting all Muller matrixes and taking the first components, the photocurrents
where
The output signal
where
The equation shows that the change of output signal
We used the COMSOL Multiphysics™ package and the finite-element method for the simulations of the spatial distribution of
The 3D model of the PE encased in the steel guard ring is shown in Figure 5a [30, 31]. The upper and lower steel conical elements transmitted the external force to the guard ring. The embedded in COMSOL Multiphysics parameters of the material needed for the calculation of the deformation were used. Due to the PE symmetry, the simulation was only for the 1/8 part of it as shown in Figure 5b. The dimensions of this model part are shown in detail in Figure 5c.
(a) 3D model of the photoelastic element in the guard ring made of steel. Force F is applied to the top and bottom of the conical elements; (b) 1/8 part of the model; (c) model dimensions are indicated in millimeters [30].
The results of accurate numerical simulations and experiments are also detailed in [30, 31], here is a summary of them.
The strain gauge sensitivity determination was based on the experimental determination of the minimum detectable force and numerical simulation of the deformation occurring under the force action. We used the device “rhombus” with frictionless hinges to apply a calibrated force to the photoelastic element (Figure 6a).
(a) Rhombus photo with the transducer; (b) Force application scheme; (c) Diagram of forces in the rhombus with a fixed transducer upon the application of calibrated force Fa.
The rhombus with a fixed sensor was placed into the device for applying a calibrated force to the rhombus (Figure 6b). The rhombus was firmly restrained from one side and a calibrated force
A diagram of the forces generated in the rhombus with a fixed sensor upon calibrated force
The equations for the static forces are:
Evaluating
Substituting the values used:
The minimum detectable force
We used an analogue loop interface with current 20 mA according to standard IEC 62056–21/DIN 66258. The electric current in the analogue loop is independent of the cable resistance (its length), load resistance, EMF inductive interference, and supply voltage. Therefore, such an interface is more preferable for information transfer with remote control. The circuit allowed us to simultaneously power the transducer and generate the output signal in range 4–20 milliamps using a two-wire cable. The multimeter Agilent 34461A was used to measure the output signal and record it to a computer using the multimeter software.
Typical time dependence of the sensor output current
Time dependence of the transducer output signal Iout when the load is applied consistently by means of identical calibrated weights.
The random noise
Furthermore, the magnitude of the PE deformation under the force
To simplifying the simulation, due to the symmetry of the model, the exerted force is estimated 1/4 of the experimentally applied that is 0.29 mN/4 = 0.073 mN. The accurate simulations of applied static force 0.073 mN to the model (Figure 5b) yield the magnitude of the model deformation along the radius and along the axis of applied load
Thus, it is assumed that it is the minimum of the absolute deformation detectable by this transducer. And it corresponds to the relative deformation
where 12 × 10−3 m – the photoelastic element diameter.
This result is significantly better than that for the known industrial deformation sensors (
The accurate numerical simulation of the stresses which are rising in the PE working area under the applied force
The “effective” elasticity modulus
The
where the
Now we need to define the gauge factor that works directly with photodetector output signals. If we take into account the output signal
were
Taking into account the precise quarter-wave plate parameters (thickness
The simulated
In order to determine the
When varying the geometric parameters of the PE, the magnitude of the force was chosen so as to provide the same PE deformation in the direction of force application (see Figure 4), namely, dL = 100 nm. Figure 8 shows the resulting dependence of
Piezo-optical sensor gauge factor versus the parameter h.
Experimental gauge factor. The direct measurement of the photocurrents (
This agrees well with the simulated gauge factor
Dynamic range. In our transducer design, as mentioned above, the PE has been affixed to the loading element in the initially stressed state that ensures the transducer operates at compressing and stretching deformation.
The transducer output signal varied from 4 to 20 mA. We set the initial output current value of 12 mA, corresponding to zero strain. The maximum change in the output signal
The resulting dynamic range value is much higher than the known values for strain gauges.
Sensitivity. The sensitivity
For experimental verification of the claimed parameters of the piezo-optical sensor, we carried out comparative testing with the most sensitive of the strain-resistive gauge sensor Ultra Precision LowProfile™ Load Cell Interface Force™ (Figure 9b) [42] used only to calibrate the deadweight machines due to its complexity and high cost. The Load Cell, selected for comparison, had the nominal load of 2000 lbs. (907.185 kg) and is based on a strain-resistive sensor. Our Load Element was a parallelepiped made of hardened steel with a transducer installed in it as shown in Figure 9a and had a nominal load of 1000 kg, which is close the Load Cell nominal load. Tests took place in a certified laboratory Detroit Calibration Lab Trescal [43] laboratory using a deadweight machine of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) [44].
(a)Ultra precision LowProfile™ Load Cell Interface force™; (b) Photos of our Load Element (left) with the piezo-optical transducer (right) and installed into a deadweight machine.
The Load Element and then Load Cell Interface Force™ were installed in a deadweight machine where they were consistently loaded by means of calibration weights. The most striking results of comparative tests were obtained under load with the help of small weights, many times less than the nominal load value. The preload for both sensors was 110 lbs. and then the sensors were subsequently loaded with the calibrated weights from 1 gram to 100 grams The results are shown in Figure 10. The upper part of Figure 10 corresponds to the presented piezo-optical transducer and the lower part – to the Load Cell Interface Force™. It can be seen that the piezo-optical transducer accuracy is approximately an order of magnitude higher than that for the Load Cell. This is less than the predicted calculations, and it is due to the fact that the Load Cell contains a vacuum chamber where a complex and expensive circuit is located to stabilize the output signal and reduce the noises. In our sensor, we used a design which was as simple as possible since the sensor is designed for a wide range of consumers. Nevertheless, this design showed higher sensitivity compared to the calibration Load Cell.
Time dependence of the piezo-optical transducer (upper) and Load Cell (lower) output signals at the sequential load with calibrated weights 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 g.
The piezo-optical transducer operation was studied in detail theoretically, experimentally, as well as with the help of accurate numerical simulation. In order to compare the main parameters of sensors based on different physical principles, expressions for the gauge factors of strain-resistive, piezoelectric and fiber-optic sensors were proposed and analyzed. Despite the high piezoelectric modules of new piezoelectric materials (electroactive polymers), the piezoelectric sensor gauge factors are similar to strain-resistive sensor gauge factors.
It was shown that the piezo-optical sensor gauge factor, in contrast to sensors of other types, depends on the sensor design and can be improved by optimizing the PE design. The PE cruciform shape allows stresses to be concentrated in its small working volume because fused quartz used has no plastic deformation and the compressive damage threshold is very high. The piezo-optical quartz sensor gauge factor (7389), obtained by numerical simulation of stresses and deformations in the PE, is confirmed by the experimental results (7340) and is two to three orders of magnitude greater than the gauge factors of sensors based on other physical principles.
Table 2 shows that piezo-optical transducer is superior to the known industrially usable strain gauges. The high sensitivity of the piezo-optical sensor opens up new possibilities in problems of deformation measuring and stress analysis. For example, the use of only one such sensor makes it possible to control all parameters of the elevator movement: acceleration and deceleration, jerk, vibration, sound, according to International standard ISO 18738-1:2012 (E) Measurement of ride quality — Part 1: Lifts (elevators), as well as friction between the elevator car and the rails [45]. The sensor can be used in all cases where winch mechanisms are used, for example, in mines, escalators, moving walks, conveyors, cranes, etc.
Parameter | Sensor type | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Strain-resistive | Fiber-optic | Piezo-electric | Piezo-optical | |
Gauge Factor (GF) | 2–4 | 0,78 | 0,1–36 | > 7000 |
Dependence of GF on sensor design | no | no | no | yes |
Deformation-to-current transfer function slope, μA/μm | — | — | 80 | 1100–50,000 |
Sensitivity to the relative deformation | ∼10−6 | ∼10−6 | ∼10−6 | < 6 × 10−10 |
Measurement error, % | 0.05–0.1 | 0.25–1.0 | — | 0.01–0.03 |
Dynamic range | 103–104 | 103 | 103 | > 5 × 104 |
Hysteresis, % | 0.5 | no | no | no |
Overload, % of nominal | < 20 | — | — | 300–1000 |
Parameters degradation | yes | no | yes | no |
Type of measured loads | Dynamic, static | Static | Dynamic | Dynamic, static |
Comparison of some basic strain sensors parameters.
Due to its high sensitivity, the sensor can be used for remote deformation monitoring by mounting at a certain distance away from the measured deformations zone: in bridge structures, cars and railway wagons weight remote control, liquids and gases flow control.
The theoretical, technological and design foundations for the highly sensitive piezo-optical transducers creation for strain gauges have been developed. It has been shown experimentally that such sensors have:
absence of hysteresis within ≈ 1.7 × 10−5 of the nominal load;
high sensitivity to mechanical stresses, significantly exceeding the sensitivity of strain-resistive, piezoelectric and fiber-optic gauges and allowing to register the value of force less than 3 × 10−4 N, with a transfer function slope of ≈ 440 μA/N and ≈37 μA/nm;
wide dynamic range, up to 6 × 104;
resistance to overload;
new functionalities corresponding to the sensitivity to relative deformations less than 10−9; the specified sensitivity is documented by tests in certified calibration laboratory Trescal (Detroit, USA) and other testing laboratories.
The authors are grateful to Alex Zaguskin, AZ Enterprise L.L.C. for his help in organizing the transducer test in the Detroit Calibration Lab Trescal, as well as to Robert Bolthouse for his help with the tests.
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