",isbn:"978-1-83962-718-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-717-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-754-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",keywords:"Water Cycle, Water Use Strategy, Vegetation Dynamics, Plant Community, Precipitation, Carbon Emission, Soil Respiration, Autotrophic Respiration, Algae Crust, Wind, Temperature, Vegetation Stability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 26th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 13th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Zhu holds a Ph.D. in Ecology and is currently an Associate Research Professor at the Chinese Academy of Forestry at the Institute of Desertification Studies, she has led a number of national projects while working there.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Luo holds a Ph.D. in Physical Geography and is currently a Research Professor at the Institute of Afforestation and Sand Control, Xinjiang Academy of Forestry. 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1. Introduction
Polyphenols are the most common phytochemicals in human diet and comprise a variety of compounds with a great diversity of structures, ranging from simple molecules to polymers with high molecular weight. Polyphenols are plant secondary metabolites present in all plant tissues, and their primary role is to protect plants from insects, ultraviolet radiation, and microbial infections and to attract pollinators [1]. According to the chemical structures of aglycones, polyphenols are classified as flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans, and stilbenes [2]. Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, chocolate, and drinks like tea and wine are good sources of polyphenols, but due to diverse chemical structures, it is difficult to estimate the total polyphenol content in foods. Beneficial health effects of these phytochemicals are directly linked to regular daily intake and bioavailability. The aim of this review is to present current knowledge regarding evidence on chronic disease prevention, factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability and bioaccessibility, and new trends in the production of polyphenol-enriched functional foods.
2. Classification and food sources of polyphenols
Dietary polyphenols comprise a variety of compounds among which flavonoids and several classes of non-flavonoids are usually distinguished. In nature, polyphenols are bound to sugars in the form of glycosides. However, classification of polyphenols in this review will be presented according to the chemical structures of aglycones. These compounds contain at least one aromatic ring and are classified into different groups according to the number of aromatic rings and the structural elements that bind these rings together. Therefore, polyphenols are classified as flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans, and stilbenes [2].
Flavonoids are the largest group of phenolic compounds and are widely distributed in plants, especially in fruits. Their structures consist of two aromatic rings that are bound together with a three-carbon bridge that form an oxygenated heterocycle (Figure 1). Their biological activities, including antioxidant activity, depend considerably on both structural difference and glycosylation patterns [3]. According to the degree of oxidation of the central ring and the number and position of –OH groups, flavonoids can be divided in six subclasses: flavonols, flavones, isoflavones, flavanones, anthocyanidins, and flavanols.
Figure 1.
Chemical structures of flavonoids [2].
Flavonols are one of the most ubiquitous flavonoids in food, and their main representatives are quercetin and kaempferol, typically found as glycosides [2]. Data on the content of flavonols in commonly consumed fruits, vegetables, and drinks can vary significantly due to local growing conditions (microclimate and agrotechnical requirements), seasonal changes, and varietal differences. The most significant dietary sources of this group of flavonoids are yellow and red onion and spinach, but the richest sources are capers, saffron, and dried Mexican oregano (Table 1).
Flavonoid subgroup
Food source
Content (mg/100 g)
Flavonols
Capers
654.71
Saffron
509.99
Mexican oregano (dried)
272.07
Red onion (raw)
128.51
Spinach (raw)
119.27
Flavones
Celery seed
2094.00
Peppermint (dried)
1486.29
Common verbena (fresh)
790.00
Mexican oregano (dried)
733.77
Celery leaves (fresh)
133.38
Isoflavones
Soy (flour)
466.99
Soy paste (cheonggukang)
264.40
Soybean (roasted)
246.95
Soy (tempeh)
147.72
Soy paste (nato)
103.90
Flavanones
Peppermint (dried)
8739.98
Mexican oregano (dried)
1049.67
Grapefruit/pummelo hybrid (pure juice)
67.08
Orange (juice from concentrate)
61.29
Rosemary (fresh)
55.05
Anthocyanidins
Black elderberry
1316.65
Black chokeberry
878.12
Black currant (raw)
592.23
Lowbush blueberry (raw)
187.23
Blackberry (raw)
172.59
Flavanols
Cocoa (powder)
511.62
Chocolate (dark)
212.36
Broad bean pod (raw)
154.45
Black tea (infusion)
73.30
Green tea (infusion)
71.17
Table 1.
The richest food sources of flavonoid groups determined by liquid chromatography [8].
The most common flavones, such as apigenin and luteolin, are not widely distributed in the plant kingdom although significant amounts are found in celery, parsley, and some herbs (Table 1). Tangeretin and nobiletin are polymethoxylated flavones, occurring only in tissues and peels of citrus fruits such as tangerine, grapefruit, and orange. These flavones have methylated hydroxyl groups, which increase their metabolic stability and improve oral bioavailability [4].
The best sources of isoflavones are legumes, especially soybeans, and their processed products containing significant amounts of daidzein and genistein (Table 1). Although the fermentation of soybeans during the manufacturing of certain foods, such as miso and tempeh, does not cause the loss of isoflavones, they are, however, in the form of aglycones due to bacterial hydrolysis of glycosides [2]. Unlike fermentation, the use of high temperature (the production of soy milk or tofu) can significantly reduce the concentration of isoflavones. Isoflavones possess pseudohormonal properties because of their structural similarity to estrogen, and they are consequently classified as phytoestrogens. Due to their ability to bind to estrogen receptors, soy foods and isoflavone supplements can be potential alternatives to conventional hormone therapy [5].
The most important flavanones in food are naringenin and hesperetin. The highest concentrations are found in dried herbs and citrus fruits (Table 1), and their glycosides are responsible for the bitter taste of grapefruit and some varieties of oranges.
Anthocyanidins are a subgroup of flavonoids that provide color to plant tissues (flowers, leaves, fruits, and roots), ranging from blue, purple, and red, depending on the pH and their structural composition. Anthocyanidins are considered the most important group of flavonoids in plants, having more than 600 compounds identified in nature [6]. They are widely distributed in colored fruits like berries, plums, and cherries as well as in many dark colored vegetables such as red cabbage, eggplant, red onion, and red radish, while the food content is generally proportional to color intensity. The most common anthocyanidin aglycones are pelargonidin, delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin, malvidin, and cyanidin, which is the most widespread in fruits and vegetables. Being highly unstable in the aglycone form, they are in the form of glycosides (anthocyanins) in plants, enabling them to be resistant to light, pH, and oxidation process [2].
Flavanols are the most complex subclass of flavonoids, ranging from simple monomers (catechin and its isomer epicatechin) to oligomers and polymers (proanthocyanidins) and other derived compounds (e.g., theaflavins and thearubigins) [7]. Catechins and epicatechin are found in many types of fruits such as strawberry, apple, and peach, but cocoa products and black and green tea are the richest sources (Table 1). In contrast to other classes of flavonoids, flavanols are stable and are not glycosylated in foods. The production of black tea decreases the concentration of catechins, mainly due to the action of polyphenol oxidase during fermentation, but at the same time, theaflavins and thearubigins are accumulating agents [1]. The oligomers and polymers of flavanols are also referred to as condensed tannins or proanthocyanidins that mainly consist of (epi)catechin units called procyanidins. They are responsible for the astringent character of some fruits and beverages and for the bitterness of chocolate [2].
Phenolic acids can be divided into two main groups—benzoic and cinnamic acids and their derivatives (Figure 2). The most important derivatives of benzoic acids are gallic and ellagic acid, which are found in various types of fruit such as raspberries, cranberries, and pomegranates and in nuts (e.g., chestnut contains 1215.22 mg of hydroxybenzoic acids per 100 g). Hydroxybenzoic acids are also components of complex structures like hydrolyzable tannins (gallotannins in mangoes and ellagitannins in red fruit such as strawberries and raspberries) [2].
Figure 2.
Chemical structure of phenolic acids [2].
The most important derivatives of cinnamic acids are coumaric, caffeic, ferulic, and sinapic acids. In food, they are often in the bound form and can only be released upon acid or alkaline hydrolysis or by enzymes. Caffeic acid is the most abundant phenolic acid and represents about 87% of the total hydroxycinnamic acid content of most fruits [2]. Caffeic and quinic acid together form chlorogenic acid, which makes up about 10% of green Robusta coffee beans. Regular consumption of coffee may provide more than 1 g of chlorogenic acid, which means that for many people it is the main source of dietary polyphenol [1].
Lignans are formed with two phenylpropane units and a four-carbon bridge, leading to many different chemical structures in nature (Figure 3). The highest amount of these compounds is found in flaxseeds, and other valuable sources are grains and certain vegetables. Lignans are one of the major classes of phytoestrogens, together with isoflavones mentioned earlier. In plants, they are typically found as glycosides and are converted by intestinal bacteria to give metabolites with estrogen activity like equol, enterodiol, and enterolactone [9].
Figure 3.
Chemical structure of lignans [2].
Stilbenes are phytoalexins produced by plants in response to injury and infections. They are present in human diet in low quantities, and only resveratrol is considered important to human health (Figure 4). The most important dietary source of resveratrol is grapes and red wine. Resveratrol is directly linked to the French paradox, in which it was observed that the French consume significant amounts of saturated fatty acids while rarely suffering from cardiovascular disease and having a lower mortality rate compared with populations from other European countries. It is believed that their regular consumption of red wine plays a key role in preventing heart disease [10].
Figure 4.
Chemical structure of stilbenes [2].
3. Health benefits
Polyphenols are the most common phytochemicals in human diet and are in the focus of scientific research due to their biological properties, bioavailability, and bioaccessibility, as well as their effects on the prevention of chronic diseases. Epidemiological studies confirm that moderate and prolonged intake of foods rich in polyphenols could prevent the formation of cancer and chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity, which are the most common in Western populations [1].
A large primary prevention trial tested the long-term effects of the Mediterranean diet, containing polyphenol-rich foods, on the incidence of cardiovascular disease in participants with high risk but free of cardiovascular disease at baseline (the PREDIMED study). Data on their dietary habits were collected with a validated food frequency questionnaire, and the polyphenol content in foods was obtained from the Phenol-Explorer database. Results showed a significant reduction of cardiovascular events and cardiovascular mortality with a higher intake of total polyphenols, especially flavanols, lignans, and hydroxybenzoic acids [11]. The aim of this study was also to investigate the effect of polyphenol intake on all-cause mortality. Among high-risk subjects, those with higher polyphenol intake showed a 37% lower mortality risk, compared with those with lower intake. Subgroups of polyphenols with the strongest inverse association were stilbenes and lignans, while flavonoids and phenolic acids had no significant effect on mortality reduction [12]. However, the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) reported that higher flavonoid intake in the diet was associated with a 29% reduction in all-cause mortality, in particular for the subclasses of flavanones and flavonols, which decreased the incidence of cardiovascular disease by 40 and 41%, respectively [13]. Although a beneficial effect has been proven, more controlled trials are needed to definitively clarify the benefits of different polyphenol subgroups and to define minimum levels of dietary intake. Beneficial effects of polyphenols on cardiovascular disease have been attributed to their antioxidant activities, but recent evidence suggests that vasodilatory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-atherogenic properties may also contribute to cardiovascular risk reduction, indicate their ability to improve lipid profile, and modulate apoptotic processes in the vascular endothelium [14].
Growing evidence also indicates that polyphenols may prevent neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease by decreasing inflammatory stress signaling, leading to the expression of genes that encode antioxidant enzymes and cytoprotective proteins [15]. A study conducted by Schmidt et al. [16] showed that green tea extracts can increase the number of connections between neurons of frontal and parietal brain regions which positively correlated with the improvement in the task performance. A double-blind study included 12 healthy volunteers who received either a milk solution with 27.5 g of green tea extract or a milk solution without the extract. The effect of green tea extract on working memory was visualized with functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) while performing memory test. Another intervention study confirmed the beneficial effect of blueberries. During 12 weeks of blueberry juice consumption, cognitive function (paired associate learning and word list recall) was significantly improved in older patients with early symptoms of dementia. In addition, symptoms of depression and blood glucose levels were reduced [17].
Many studies investigated the impact of polyphenols on carbohydrate metabolism and possible prevention of diabetes type 2. Polyphenols have the potential to inhibit key enzymes that are responsible for the digestion of dietary carbohydrates (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) and thus modify the postprandial glycemic response [18]. In vitro studies have shown that polyphenol-rich extracts from berries are effective in the inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase at low levels. Tannin-like components (ellagitannins and proanthocyanidins) from raspberry and rowanberry were the most effective for amylase inhibition. A rowanberry fraction rich in proanthocyanidins was as equally strong an inhibitor as the whole rowanberry extract for α-amylase inhibition but was considerably less effective for α-glucosidase inhibition which suggests that tannins are poor inhibitors of α-glucosidase. Among the tested berry extracts, black currants rich in anthocyanins and flavonols had the strongest inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase [19]. The aim of an interesting study conducted by Yang and Kong [20, 21] was to investigate the effect of green tea polyphenols and green, black, and oolong tea extracts on α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity. All tested samples showed a strong inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase, and their inhibitory potency is mainly attributed to tea polyphenols. In contrast, all three types of tea extract significantly enhanced α-amylase activity, whereas green tea showed the highest activation effect. Green tea polyphenols significantly increased α-amylase activity in low concentrations. A high concentration, however, resulted in a mild inhibitory effect, suggesting that other constituents in the tea counteract the inhibitory effect of polyphenols. A large prospective EPIC-InterAct study examined the association between dietary flavonoid and lignan intake and the risk of developing diabetes type 2 in eight European countries. High intake of flavonoids was associated with a significant risk reduction, while the intake of lignans had no effect. Among flavonoid subclasses, flavonols and flavanols were associated with a significantly reduced risk of diabetes [22]. A comprehensive review by Kim et al. [18] summarizes epidemiological and clinical studies that investigated the relationship between food rich in polyphenols and risk of diabetes type 2. Despite promising data from in vitro and animal studies, the number of intervention surveys conducted on human beings is small. Most studies showed that polyphenols were associated with a lower risk of diabetes type 2, but this association was not entirely consistent. Potential mechanisms of the action of polyphenols in preventing diabetes type 2 include the stimulation of insulin secretion and protection of pancreatic β-cells against glucose toxicity, in addition to the inhibition of salivary and pancreatic α-amylase and α-glucosidase.
Obesity is considered one of the most serious health problems that have assumed the character of a global epidemic. According to the data published by Eurostat in 2014, 51.6% of adults in the European Union are overweight (35.7% pre-obese and 15.9% obese). The in vitro and some in vivo studies suggested that consumption of particular polyphenols (such as catechin in green tea, anthocyanins in blueberries, resveratrol in wine, and curcumin in turmeric) may facilitate weight loss and prevent weight gain due to changes in lipid and energy metabolism [23]. A survey conducted by Basu et al. [24] showed that using a freeze-dried blueberry beverage in obese people with metabolic syndrome for 8 weeks decreased blood pressure and the concentrations of oxidized LDL cholesterol and products of lipid peroxidation. Some researchers suggested that polyphenols may inhibit lipase activity and consequently reduce lipid absorption [25, 26]. Uchiyama et al. [27] have shown that black tea polyphenols in rats with diet-induced obesity can inhibit intestinal lipase activity and suppress the increase of triglyceride levels.
The cause of the aforementioned chronic disease can be associated with oxidative stress resulting from reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Many in vitro studies have demonstrated that polyphenols can decrease inflammatory markers, reduce oxidative stress, and improve cancer biomarkers, but intervention studies have not always confirmed these positive effects. The reasons which could explain these differences include different doses of administered compounds, polyphenol instability in food and in the gastrointestinal system, a synergistic effect with other antioxidants from the whole food, differences in bioavailability as a result of release from the food matrix, and the presence of food components in the matrix which may enhance or reduce polyphenol bioavailability [28].
4. Dietary intake
The beneficial effects of polyphenols on human health depend considerably on dietary intake. Due to the great diversity of their chemical structures, it is difficult to estimate the total polyphenol content in foods. Hence, a comprehensive database was developed to help estimate the polyphenol content in certain foods and has been available online since 2009 [8]. Data summarized there were derived from more than 1300 scientific publications. According to this database, Pérez-Jiménez et al. [29] established a list of the 100 richest dietary sources of polyphenols per 100 g of food and in a food serving, using common serving sizes. Data on the total content of polyphenols were calculated based on the sum of all individual polyphenol contents determined by chromatography. In addition, the results were compared with data obtained by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, one of the most commonly used method for estimating total phenolic content. The results showed that the richest sources per 100 g of foods are various herbs and cocoa products (as shown in Table 1), while at the top of the list, expressed per serving size, are various darkly colored berries such as black elderberry, chokeberry, black currant, and blueberry. Comparison of the data obtained by different methods showed that the values obtained by the Folin-Ciocalteu method systematically exceed the total amount of polyphenols because this method is not specific and interference with other antioxidants present in the food is possible.
With the aim of estimating polyphenol intake, a large European cohort study was recently conducted in ten countries on more than 36,000 subjects. The results showed that the largest intake of phenolic compounds is in Denmark (1706 mg/day), while the lowest is in Greece (664 mg/day). Similar findings were observed after comparison of intake according to regions; the total polyphenol intake in the non-Mediterranean countries was higher compared with the Mediterranean countries. The most significant sources of phenolic compounds are coffee, tea, and fruit, with phenolic acids contributing to the total intake with more than 50% [30]. This was the first study that applied retention factors from the Phenol-Explorer database to assess the effects of cooking and processing on polyphenol contents in foods. Although the usual cooking of common plant foods causes substantial losses of polyphenols, in this study it did not have a high impact on the estimated total polyphenol intake because vegetables and legumes were not major contributors to polyphenol intake [31].
Research on the dietary intake of phenolic compounds has been conducted also in certain European countries, and the results show that the average intake in France is 1193 mg/day [32], in Poland 1756.5 mg/day [33], and in Spain 820 mg/day [34]. The main dietary sources of the total polyphenols in Spain and France are fruits and nonalcoholic beverages (principally coffee and tea). In Spain, fruits accounted for 44% of the total polyphenol intake and nonalcoholic beverages for 23%, whereas in France fruit accounted for only 17% and nonalcoholic beverages for 55% of the total polyphenol intake. Considering individual foods, the main source of total dietary polyphenols is coffee with 18 and 44% of contribution in Spain and France, respectively. In Spain, in contrast to other countries, olives and olive oils are important sources of polyphenols, accounting for 11% of the total polyphenol intake. Nonalcoholic beverages were the main food contributors to polyphenol intake in Poland and accounted for fully 67% of the total polyphenol intake due to high consumption of coffee and tea. The third main contributor to total polyphenol intake is chocolate, whereas fruits accounted for a lower percentage of intake.
5. Bioavailability and bioaccessibility
The beneficial effects of phenolic compounds on health depend not only on food sources but also on their stability, which can vary depending on the method of raw material processing, the matrix in which they are incorporated, and endogenous factors such as microbiota and digestive enzymes. The fraction of the phenolic compounds that can be released from the food matrix by digestive enzymes or intestinal bacterial flora in the colon is bioaccessible and, therefore, potentially bioavailable for absorption [28]. The FDA has defined bioavailability as the rate and extent to which the active substances or therapeutic moieties contained in a drug are absorbed and become available at the site of the action [35].
Understanding the effects of food processing on polyphenol content and bioavailability is important since most of the food consumed on a daily basis is in a processed form. Conventional methods of thermal processing, such as pasteurization that is still most commonly used, provide microbiological stability and extend shelf life but also cause some undesirable changes such as degradation of polyphenols and other bioactive compounds. The possibility of ensuring food safety and at the same time preserving biologically active compounds has resulted in increased interest in the minimal processing of foods using nonthermal methods, such as high-pressure processing and ultrasound. Studies have demonstrated that in comparison with high-pressure processing, pasteurization causes more degradation of polyphenol, anthocyanins, vitamin C, and the color of strawberry puree [36]. Treatment with high-intensity ultrasound, due to the cavitation effect, can break down cell walls and facilitate the extraction of bioactive compounds, thus increasing their bioavailability. Additionally, increased antioxidant capacity and monomeric anthocyanin content in red raspberry puree treated with high-intensity ultrasound were achieved by Golmohamadi et al. [37].
Food matrix composition and other food components significantly influence bioaccessibility, uptake, and further metabolism of polyphenols. Before becoming bioavailable, polyphenols must be released from the food matrix and hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes or microflora to aglycones. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion models are a useful tool for assessing the impact of the food matrix and other endogenous factors on the stability and biological activity of phenolic compounds and can be well correlated with results from human studies and animal models [38]. Simulation of the physiological parameters, such as variation in the enzymes, acid and bile salt excretion, availability of the substrate, and the transit time of food through the stomach and duodenum, is challenging in all in vitro digestion models. Gastric digestion is simulated by pepsin-HCl at pH 2 and small intestinal digestion with pancreatin-bile mixture at pH 7, while the absorption step can be simulated with polarized human colon carcinoma cell line (Caco-2 cells) [39]. Commercial digestive enzymes, collected or extracted from omnivorous animals, are most commonly used, but their role in the simulation of the human digestion process is still questionable. On the other hand, human digestive juices contain a complex mixture of different enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, and bile salts, which together contribute to the digestion process of food; therefore, the use of human digestive juices may represent a great advantage over commercial digestive enzymes [40]. Phenolic acids and flavonoids with small molecular weight such as gallic acid, catechins, and quercetin glucosides are easily absorbed through the tract, whereas large polyphenols such as proanthocyanidins are poorly absorbed [41]. In most of conducted studies, gastric digestion did not have a significant effect on polyphenol stability. In fact, the majority of polyphenols appear to be released in the stomach. Bouayed et al. [38] observed that approximately 65% of apple total phenolics and flavonoids were released in the stomach and only an additional 10% in the small intestine. Results of the study conducted by Correa-Betanzo et al. [42] showed a high stability of total polyphenols and anthocyanins (7 and 1% of reduction, respectively) during simulated gastric digestion, while intestinal digestion caused a significant decrease of 51 and 83%, respectively, in comparison with the non-digested wild blueberry samples. Similar results were obtained by Bermúdez-Soto et al. [43] who reported a significant reduction of anthocyanins (43%) and flavonols (26%) after intestinal digestion of chokeberry. Mild alkaline intestinal environment was shown to influence all phenolic compounds, especially anthocyanins, and it is generally accepted that their bioavailability is low (<1%). An interesting study was conducted by Czank et al. [44] who proved that bioavailability of anthocyanins has been underestimated. The participants consumed an isotopically labeled anthocyanin tracer (cyanidin-3-glucoside), and the concentration was determined in blood, urine, breath, and feces samples. Results showed a high combined recovery from urine and breathe, which was approximately 12%. To date, a little research has been conducted in investigating polyphenol stability by using human gastrointestinal enzymes. Zorić et al. [45] conducted a study on the stability of rosmarinic acid in an aqueous extract of thyme, lemon balm, and winter savory using human digestive juices of the stomach and small intestine. The results showed lower gastrointestinal stability of rosmarinic acid in comparison with similar studies with commercial digestive enzymes.
In the food matrix, polyphenols are usually mixed with different macromolecules such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Large polyphenols and those with a high number of hydroxyl groups have a high affinity for proteins, which can result in a complex formation that reduces polyphenol absorption [28]. Food rich in polyphenols, such as coffee or tea, is usually consumed with milk. Studies have shown that interactions between polyphenols and milk proteins, especially casein, can decrease the antioxidant activity of coffee and tea [46]. The effect of milk was confirmed in an intervention study by Serafini et al. [47] whose aim was to determine the total antioxidant capacity and (−)epicatechin content in blood plasma after consumption of plain dark chocolate, dark chocolate with full-fat milk, and milk chocolate. Results have shown that the addition of milk, either during ingestion or in the manufacturing process, caused a significant reduction in total antioxidant activity and absorption of (−)epicatechin in the bloodstream. The explanation was in the formation of a complex between chocolate flavonoids and milk proteins. However, not all studies showed the negative impact of milk addition to food on polyphenol absorption. Keogh et al. [48] monitored the concentration of catechin and epicatechin in the blood after consumption of chocolate polyphenols with and without milk proteins. Results showed that milk protein did not influence the average plasma polyphenol concentration after ingestion. Contradictory results of these and many other studies were explained by the influence of polyphenol concentration. Milk could inhibit absorption in the case of lower polyphenol concentration, while it could have only minimal impact if the concentration is high [35]. In addition to food proteins, polyphenols can also bind to digestive enzymes and act as effective inhibitors as previously described in Chapter 3.
Only a few studies have investigated the interactions between polyphenols and dietary lipids. Since most polyphenols are water soluble, dietary lipids are considered to have a limited influence. Some studies, however, have observed a positive relationship. Ortega et al. [49] found that higher fat content has a positive effect on the stability of cocoa polyphenols in an in vitro digestion model.
Interactions between polyphenols and dietary fibers are important since these interactions have a significant role in the human body. Most non-extractable polyphenols with higher molecular weight (such as tannins and proanthocyanidins) are usually attached with covalent bounds to dietary fibers [28]. The bioavailability of polyphenols depends on the release of polyphenols from such a complex, which, in turn, depends on the polyphenols’ structure, the complexity of the polyphenol-carbohydrate structure, and the possibility of enzymes to reach the carbohydrates [35]. According to Ortega et al. [50], soluble dietary fibers, in the in vitro digestion model, enhanced the stability of phenolic compounds during duodenal digestion. Since dietary fibers act as an entrapping matrix and restrict the diffusion of the enzymes to their substrates in the stomach and small intestine, many polyphenols reach the large intestine [51]. Regardless of their bioavailability, polyphenols, as strong antioxidants, may contribute to a healthy antioxidant environment, thus protecting the colonic lumen from oxidative stress, and, furthermore, polyphenols and carbohydrates that have reached the large intestine can have a beneficial effect on colon microflora growth.
6. Polyphenols as functional food components
Today’s consumers’ expectations of food, besides appropriate taste, appearance, and price, are more focused on positive health effects. Since consumers’ awareness of health benefits associated with the consumption of food rich in polyphenols and preferences of herbal over synthetic products are increasing, meeting the consumers’ expectations is a key to success.
The global polyphenol market was valued USD 757 million in 2015, and it is estimated to exceed USD 1 billion by 2022 [52]. The most successful applications of plant extracts containing polyphenols are fortification of beverages, while the most popular plant extracts used in beverages and other types of functional food are grape seed, green tea, and apple extract. The market for functional food and the number of studies focused on functional food with a positive effect on health beyond basic nutrition are constantly growing. The bioavailability of functional food components and the levels required in humans are critical factors necessary to optimize health benefits [53]. Polyphenols are the most numerous and widely distributed group of functional molecules. Studies have shown that products enriched with polyphenols could be useful for the dietary management of diabetes and cardiovascular disease prevention. Blueberry polyphenol-enriched defatted soybean flour was incorporated into a very high-fat diet of obese and hyperglycemic mice for 13 weeks. Compared with the control group (very high-fat diet containing defatted soybean flour), the diet supplemented with blueberry polyphenols reduced weight gain, improved glucose tolerance, and lowered fasting blood glucose levels and serum cholesterol [54]. The aim of an intervention study conducted by Sarriá et al. [55] was to evaluate the effect of two cocoa functional products (one rich in dietary fibers and the other rich in polyphenols) on the markers of cardiovascular health. The most significant finding observed after consumption of both products was an increase in HDL cholesterol which was attributed to flavanols, the most common flavonoids in cocoa, while the fiber-rich product was associated with the hypoglycemic and anti-inflammatory effect. As recently reviewed by Tomé-Carneiro and Visioli [56], polyphenol-based nutraceuticals and functional food might be used as adjunct therapy for cardiovascular disease.
Since it is generally accepted that the bioavailability of polyphenols is rather low, recent scientific studies are focused on the enhancement of polyphenol bioaccessibility and the bioavailability rate in the body using encapsulation techniques such as spray-drying, freeze-drying, emulsions, and liposomes. Encapsulated polyphenols are more stable and are protected from light, oxygen, temperature, and moisture. Spray-drying is the most commonly applied encapsulation method in the food industry, transforming liquids into stable and easily applied powders, and can help in the controlled release of phenolic functional ingredients in the human body for more efficient nutraceutical usage [57]. Idham et al. [58] studied the degradation kinetics and color stability of spray-dried encapsulated anthocyanins with four different encapsulation agents (maltodextrin, gum Arabic, a combination of maltodextrin and gum Arabic, and soluble starch). Results have shown that the combination of maltodextrin and gum Arabic resulted in the highest encapsulation efficiencies as well as the longest shelf life and the smallest change in pigment color.
Emulsions are considered one of the most promising techniques for the protection and delivery of polyphenols, due to high-efficiency encapsulation, maintenance of chemical stability, and controlled release [59]. An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible liquids, usually oil and water, with one of the liquids (the dispersed phase) being dispersed as small droplets in the other liquid (the continuous phase). Ru et al. [60] have shown that epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the most abundant polyphenol in green tea, encapsulated in oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions demonstrated an improved anticancer effect, compared with free EGCG, on human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. The unpleasant bitter taste of flavanol monomers (catechin and epicatechin) could be successfully masked by using encapsulation, thus increasing flavanol delivery in the gut [61].
7. Conclusion
Polyphenols comprise a large group of phytochemicals with very diverse chemical structures and are considered as being the most common antioxidants in the diet. Since many foods and beverages contain a diversity of polyphenols, it is difficult to determine which specific compounds are directly responsible for beneficial health effects in vivo. The health effects of polyphenols depend on both dietary intake and bioavailability, which can vary greatly. The strongest evidence for the beneficial effects of polyphenols with regard to chronic disease, cardiovascular diseases in particular, exists for flavanol-rich foods. Most dietary polyphenols have relatively short half-lives once ingested, due to rapid metabolism, so it is important that their consumption is maintained throughout the life span. More detailed knowledge on the relationship between the food matrix, processing, and bioavailability of polyphenols should lead to a better understanding of their role in human health and to the development of novel functional foods.
\n',keywords:"polyphenols, dietary intake, chronic diseases, bioavailability, functional food",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/55271.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/55271.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55271",totalDownloads:1623,totalViews:949,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"November 12th 2016",dateReviewed:"March 28th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 2nd 2017",dateFinished:"May 10th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The current scientific knowledge on the relationship between diet and human health is greatly focused on the effects of phytochemicals, especially polyphenols, on chronic diseases, due to their preventive effect as shown by many epidemiological studies. Herbs, cocoa products, and darkly colored berries, such as black elderberries, chokeberries, and black currants, are the richest dietary sources that contribute to the average intake of polyphenols of about 1 g/day. Polyphenols that are the most common in the human diet are not necessarily the most active in the body because their beneficial effects depend on the plant matrix in which they are incorporated and on processing methods and endogenous factors such as microbiota and digestive enzymes. Polyphenol-rich foods are considered as being potential functional foods due to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, anticancer, vasodilating, and prebiotic-like properties. This review will outline findings on the preventive effects of polyphenols on chronic diseases, the factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability and bioaccessibility, and new trends in functional food production.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/55271",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/55271",book:{slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food"},signatures:"Nikolina Mrduljaš, Greta Krešić and Tea Bilušić",authors:[{id:"190981",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Greta",middleName:null,surname:"Krešić",fullName:"Greta Krešić",slug:"greta-kresic",email:"greta.kresic@fthm.hr",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Rijeka",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"202696",title:"MSc.",name:"Nikolina",middleName:null,surname:"Mrduljaš",fullName:"Nikolina Mrduljaš",slug:"nikolina-mrduljas",email:"nikolm@fthm.hr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"205908",title:"Prof.",name:"Tea",middleName:null,surname:"Bilušić",fullName:"Tea Bilušić",slug:"tea-bilusic",email:"tea@ktf-split.hr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification and food sources of polyphenols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Health benefits",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Dietary intake",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Bioavailability and bioaccessibility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Polyphenols as functional food components",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Del Rio D, Rodriguez-Mateos A, Spencer JPE , Tognolini M, Borges G, Crozier A. Dietary (Poly)phenolics in human health: Structures, bioavailability, and evidence of protective effects against chronic diseases. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 2013;18(14):1818-1892. DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4581'},{id:"B2",body:'Manach C. Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;79:727-747'},{id:"B3",body:'Tsao R. Chemistry and biochemistry of dietary polyphenols. Nutrients. 2010;2(12):1231-1246. 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Food Technology and Biotechnology. 2016;54(1):97-102. DOI: 10.17113/ftb.54.01.16.4033'},{id:"B46",body:'Zhang H, Yu D, Sun J, Liu X, Jiang L, Guo H et al. Interaction of plant phenols with food macronutrients: Characterisation and nutritional–physiological consequences. Nutrition Research Reviews. 2013;27(1):1-15. DOI: 10.1017/S095442241300019X'},{id:"B47",body:'Serafini M, Bugianesi R, Maiani G, Valtuena S, De Santis S, Crozier A. Plasma antioxidants from chocolate. Nature. 2003;424(August):1013. DOI: 10.1038/4241013a'},{id:"B48",body:'Keogh JB, McInerney J, Clifton PM. The effect of milk protein on the bioavailability of cocoa polyphenols. Journal of Food Science. 2007;72(3):S230-S233. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00314.x'},{id:"B49",body:'Ortega N, Reguant J, Romero MP, Macià A, Motilva MJ. Effect of fat content on the digestibility and bioaccessibility of cocoa polyphenol by an in vitro digestion model. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2009;57(13):5743-5749. DOI: 10.1021/jf900591q'},{id:"B50",body:'Ortega N, Maciá A, Romero MP, Reguant J, Motilva MJ. Matrix composition effect on the digestibility of carob flour phenols by an in-vitro digestion model. Food Chemistry. 2011;124(1):65-71. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.05.105'},{id:"B51",body:'Palafox-Carlos H, Ayala-Zavala JF, González-Aguilar GA. The role of dietary fiber in the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of fruit and vegetable antioxidants. Journal of Food Science. 2011;76(1):6-15. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01957.x'},{id:"B52",body:'Prasad E. Polyphenol Market – Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast, 2014-2022 [Internet]. January 2011. Available from: https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/polyphenol-market [Accessed: 06-03-2017]'},{id:"B53",body:'Abuajah CI, Ogbonna AC, Osuji CM. Functional components and medicinal properties of food: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2014;52(May):2522-2529. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-014-1396-5'},{id:"B54",body:'Roopchand DE, Kuhn P, Rojo LE, Lila MA, Raskin I. Blueberry polyphenol-enriched soybean flour reduces hyperglycemia, body weight gain and serum cholesterol in mice. Pharmacological Research. 2013;68(1):59-67. DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.11.008'},{id:"B55",body:'Sarriá B, Martínez-López S, Sierra-Cinos JL, Garcia-Diz L, Goya L, Mateos R et al. Effects of bioactive constituents in functional cocoa products on cardiovascular health in humans. Food Chemistry. 2015;174:214-218. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.11.004'},{id:"B56",body:'Tomé-Carneiro J, Visioli F. Polyphenol-based nutraceuticals for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease: Review of human evidence. Phytomedicine. 2016;23(11):1145-1174. DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2015.10.018'},{id:"B57",body:'Yousuf B, Gul K, Wani AA, Singh P. Health benefits of anthocyanins and their encapsulation for potential use in food systems: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2016;56:2223-2230. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2013.805316'},{id:"B58",body:'Idham Z, Muhamad II, Sarmidi MR. Degradation kinetics and color stability of spray-dried encapsulated anthocyanins from Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Journal of Food Process Engineering. 2012;35(4):522-542. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4530.2010.00605.x'},{id:"B59",body:'Lu W, Kelly AL, Miao S. Emulsion-based encapsulation and delivery systems for polyphenols. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2016;47(October):1-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.10.015'},{id:"B60",body:'Ru Q, Yu H, Huang Q. Encapsulation of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) using oil-in-water (O/W) submicrometer emulsions stabilized by ι-carrageenan and β-lactoglobulin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010;58(19):10373-10381. DOI: 10.1021/jf101798m'},{id:"B61",body:'Vitaglione P, Lumaga RB, Ferracane R, Sellitto S, Morello JR, Miranda JR, Shimoni E et al. Human bioavailability of flavanols and phenolic acids from cocoa-nut creams enriched with free or microencapsulated cocoa polyphenols. British Journal of Nutrition. 2013;109(10):1832−1843. DOI: 10.1017/S0007114512003881'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nikolina Mrduljaš",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Rijeka, Opatija, Croatia
Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Malnutrition is a universal public health problem in both children and adults globally [1]. It is not only a public health concern but it is an impediment to global poverty eradication, productivity and economic growth. By eliminating malnutrition, it is estimated that 32% of the global disease burden would be removed [2]. As a widespread serious problem affecting children in developing countries, progress towards tackling the different forms of malnutrition remains relatively slow [3]. Malnutrition occurs due to an imbalance in the body, whereby the nutrients required by the body and the amount used by the body do not balance [1]. There are several forms of malnutrition and these include two broad categories namely undernutrition and over nutrition. Undernutrition manifests as wasting or low weight for height (acute malnutrition), stunting or low height for age (chronic malnutrition), underweight or low weight for age, and mineral and vitamin deficiencies or excessiveness. Over nutrition includes overweight, obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes mellitus, heart disease, some forms of cancer and stroke [1]. Malnutrition is an important global issue currently, as it affects all people despite the geography, socio-economic status, sex and gender, overlapping households, communities and countries. Anyone can experience malnutrition but the most vulnerable groups affected are children, adolescents, women, as well as people who are immune-compromised, or facing the challenges of poverty [3].
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According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 462 million adults are underweight, while 1.9 billion adults are overweight and/or obese. In children under 5 years of age, 155 million are stunted, 52 million are wasted, 17 million are severely wasted and 41 million are overweight and/or obese [1]. The manifestation of malnutrition is multifold, but the paths to addressing prevention are key and include exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 years of life, diverse and nutritious foods during childhood, healthy environments, access to basic services such as water, hygiene, health and sanitation, as well as pregnant and lactating women having proper maternal nutrition before, during and after the respective phases (levels and trends) [3].
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It is vital that malnutrition is addressed in children as malnutrition manifestations and symptoms begin to appear in the first 2 years of life [4]. Coinciding with the mental development and growth periods in children, protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is said to be a problem at ages 6 months to 2 years. Thus, this age period is considered a window period during which it is essential to prevent and/or manage acute and chronic malnutrition manifestations [4, 5, 6]. Child and maternal malnutrition together have contributed to 3.5 million annual deaths. Furthermore, children less than 5 years of age have a disease burden of 35% [7]. In 2008, 8.8 million global deaths in children less than 5 years old were due to underweight, of which 93% occurred in Africa and Asia. Approximately one in every seven children faces mortality before their fifth birthday in sub Saharan Africa (SSA) due to malnutrition [8].
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Young malnourished children are affected by compromised immune systems by succumbing to infectious diseases and are prone to cognitive development delays, damaging long term psychological and intellectual development effects, as well as mental and physical development that is compromised due to stunting [7, 9, 10, 11]. A malnutrition cycle exists in populations experiencing chronic undernutrition and in this cycle, the nutritional requirements are not met in pregnant women. Thus, infants born to these mothers are of low birth weight, are unable to reach their full growth potential and may therefore be stunted, susceptible to infections, illness, and mortality early in life. The cycle is aggravated when low birth weight females grow into malnourished children and adults, and are therefore more likely to give birth to infants of low birth weight as well [9]. Malnutrition is not just a health issue but also affects the global burden of malnutrition socially, economically, developmentally and medically, affecting individuals, their families and communities with serious and long lasting consequences [1].
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Studies in Sudan, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, and Haiti have indicated that the causes of malnutrition are multi-faceted, with both environmental and dietary factors contributing to malnutrition risk in young children [12]. Diet and disease have been identified as primary immediate determinants; with household food security, access to health facilities, healthy environment, and childcare practices influenced by socio-economic conditions [13]. Mother’s antenatal visit and body mass index were also identified as risk factors for malnutrition [14]. In children under 3 years of age some of the main factors included poor nutrition, feeding practices, education and occupation of parent/caregiver, residence, household income, nutrition knowledge of mother [15]. These studies have suggested that nutrition education for the mother is important, as it is a resource that mothers can utilize for better care of their children. It can also provide the necessary skills required for childcare, improvement of her feeding practices, enable her to make choices and have preference of health facilities available, increase her nutritional needs awareness, and give her the chance of changing her beliefs regarding medicine and disease [16]. Some of the nutritional interventions that have had some success in addressing malnutrition include exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, vitamin A supplementation, deworming, zinc treatment and rehydration salts for diarrhea, food fortification, and folic acid/iron for lactating and pregnant women, improvement of access to piped water and hygiene [17]. These interventions have positively influenced the development, growth and survival of children [18]. Malnutrition is not a uniform condition and therefore groups and areas that experience high risk of malnutrition must be identified and targeted interventions available to assist [17].
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To determine both over and undernutrition, assessment of the nutritional status is important. This identifies those individuals who are vulnerable and at risk, and how to guide a response [19]. In determining the nutritional status of a child, it must be referenced in comparison to a healthy child [20]. Most of the anthropometric indices are used with reference tables such as that of the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and the currently widely recommended and used 2006 WHO child growth standards [21]. In expressing anthropometric indices relative to a reference population, the measurements are developed using the median and standard deviations of the reference populations, which are known as Z scores [22, 23, 24]. The Z score classification system interprets weight for age (W/A), weight for height (W/H) and height for age (H/A). Z scores describe a child’s mid upper arm circumference (MUAC)/weight/height in comparison to the median and the mid upper arm circumference (MUAC)/weight/height of the child relative to the reference population [25]. The anthropometric value is expressed by the two score system as “a number of standard deviations or Z scores below or above the reference mean or median value” [26]. Thus, the Z score is calculated as follows:
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\n\nZ\n\nscore\n=\n\n\nobserved value\n−\nmedian value of the reference population\n\nstandard deviation value of reference population\n\n\nE1
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2. Classification of malnutrition
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As previously mentioned malnutrition consists of both over and undernutrition (Table 1).
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2.1 Undernutrition
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Undernutrition does not only affect the health of individuals but impacts greatly on the growth of the economy and productivity, as well as the eradication of poverty. To support their growth and development, infants and young children have increased nutritional needs and therefore are most affected by undernutrition [27, 28]. Prolonged malnourished status in children can lead to the development of motor function and physical growth delays, lack of social skills, and low infection resistance, thus making them susceptible to common ailments and infections [28, 29]. Additionally, due to frequent infection, susceptible children become engaged in a negative cycle whereby infections lead to growth delays and their learning abilities are hindered, and infections in malnourished children may lead to childhood mortality [30].
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Undernutrition is subdivided into two categories that include micronutrient malnutrition and growth failure. To differentiate between acute or chronic malnutrition, the nutritional status of an individual is assessed by using anthropometry [27]. According to Zere and McIntyre [31], anthropometry is advantageous over biochemical evaluation, as it is less invasive and cost effective; hence, in addressing child survival nutritional status anthropometry is one of the favored predictors [32]. To assess the growth status of children the most common indices used in anthropometry include low weight for height or wasting, stunting or low height for age, underweight or a low weight for age and waist/arm circumference.
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2.2 Undernutrition/protein energy malnutrition (PEM)
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In PEM the condition is characterized by the individual being susceptible to infection due to long-term consumption of protein and energy that is insufficient to meet the body’s needs. While the body may first attempt to utilize the nutrients to meet the energy demands, if there is insufficient intake of energy then the consumed protein is used to meet the energy demands and does not address the functions of the protein in the body, hence leading to PEM. While PEM requires the measuring of growth parameters such as height and weight as it is not immediately obvious, in severe PEM children present with marasmus and kwashiorkor [33, 34]. Marasmus is characterized by a lack of protein and energy in the diet, while an inadequate intake of protein causes kwashiorkor. Marasmus or severe wasting (below −3SD) presents with a MUAC less than 115 mm in children under age five. Children with marasmus present with an “old man” appearance and are very thin [33]. In kwashiorkor, a child does not necessarily appear as undernourished but there is the presence of oedema. The children present with hair that is discolored and skin that is shiny and very tight. The weight for height is greater than or equal to −2SD. In marasmic-kwashiorkor bilateral oedema is present, with a weight for height less than −2SD [33, 34, 35].
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2.3 Underweight (weight for age or W/A)
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A common presentation of PEM in children is underweight. Underweight is seen as children having a weight for age with a Z score of −2SD, with severe underweight at −3SD [36, 37]. Since proteins and/or energy are insufficient in a diet, there is weight loss or failure to gain weight. This can be accompanied by a decline in linear height [38]. While the children may present with normal body proportions such as weight to height ratios, they will be undersized and underweight [39]. Through regular monitoring of growth indices such as height and weight, underweight can be identified at an early stage [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. In 2013, 99 million children less than 5 years of age were underweight. Of this figure, one third of the children were from Africa and two-thirds present in Asia. An estimated 14.6% of newborns were with low birth weight in 2015, and approximately nine out of 10 of the newborns were from low and middle income countries (LMICs). Approximately 45% of deaths in LMICs in children under age five is due to underweight. In adolescent girls the underweight prevalence increased from 5.5% in 2000 to 5.7% in 2016 [40].
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2.4 Stunting (height for age or H/A)
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Stunting is a major public health concern that begins in intrauterine life although children are only classified as stunted at approximately age 2 years. The detrimental effects of stunting include intrauterine growth retardation, as well as inadequate nutrition required for growth and development of children [41]. High frequency of infection and decreased disease resistance such as diarrhea and pneumonia are influenced by stunting. Childhood stunting may also lead to increased mortality, poor recovery from disease and is also an obesity risk factor in adulthood [41, 42]. Stunting causes growth impairment during childhood that is associated with increased cardio-metabolic disease and obesity risk and cognitive development delay in adulthood [43]. This creates both short and long term effects that indicate the importance of stunting being identified and monitored in early life [42].
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In children the initial 1000 days of life are an important window period for intervention implementation and tracking for the improvement of child growth and development [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Often stunting is correlated with poor socio-economic status, as well as environmental conditions surveys in South Africa (SA) have identified an increased stunting prevalence in black people compared to their Indian or white counterparts [31]. Some surveys looked at a wider age range of children (0–14 years) and higher stunting prevalence was found in children living informal settlements within urban and rural areas [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45].
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In stunting or low height for age the Z score is below 2 standard deviations [21]. It is prevalent usually in infants and children younger than 5 years [36], who are susceptible to infection and have an insufficient intake of nutrients over the long term. Low height for age is seen as the failure of an individual to reach full linear growth and if stunting occurs before age two then irreversible poor cognitive and motor developments may occur [41]. Severe stunting is indicated by a height for age that is lesser than the median by 85% to represent a standard deviation of −3SD [46]. In 2013 in children under 5 years of age, 161 million were identified as stunted globally. The trend of global decrease were evident from the period 2000–2013, during which figures declined from 199 million to 161 million (33–25%). However, one third of stunted children were still found in Africa [47]. During 2000–2018 the number and proportion of stunted children under age five rose by 6.5 million in Central and Western Africa and by 1.4 million in Southern and Eastern Africa. Thus, the stunting burden continues to escalate in Africa, creating serious human capital development complications [40].
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2.5 Overweight and obesity
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In the last five decades overweight and obesity appears to be reaching epidemic levels in both developing and developed countries [48, 49]. Eclipsing infectious disease and under-nutrition as a significant mortality and ill-health contributor, overweight and obesity have presented as the most prevalent global nutritional problem over the last two decades. Globally an estimated 1 billion adults are overweight, with 300 million of them being obese [49]. An estimated 155 million obese children contribute to this epidemic [50]. Obese children tend to become obese adults. Obesity-related health problems occur in early years of life and progress into adulthood [51]. Several chronic disease conditions in later life are associated with childhood obesity. These chronic diseases include diabetes, stroke, high blood pressure, cancers and heart disease [52]. Despite the increased prevalence of overweight and obesity in children, research evaluating treatment in these age groups is minimal. Middle-income countries such as South Africa (SA), Brazil and China have increased overweight and obesity rates across all age groups and economic levels [49]. However, over the last few years overweight has increased in every continent. It has been postulated that the number of overweight children under age five will rise from over 40 million to approximately 43 million by 2025 [53]. As of 2018, approximately half of the overweight under five children were in Asia, with a quarter in Africa. Between 2000 and 2018 in Africa, the number of overweight under five children rose by just under 44%. In children and adolescents aged 5–19 years old, the proportion of overweight in 2000 rose from one in 10 (10.3%) to just under one in five (18.4%) in 2016 [40].
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2.6 Stunting versus overweight/obesity
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Some developing countries such as SA are currently facing a nutrition transition with the dual burden of over and undernutrition. This nutrition transition is the replacement of traditional home cooked balanced diet meals by energy-dense foods, as well as sedentary lifestyles due to technology and urbanization. A review study highlighted the dual burden in SA in children aged 0–20 years. The prevalence of wasting and stunting was higher in younger male children and predominant in rural areas, whereas overweight/obesity prevalence was highest in females and children in urban settings. It is important for tracking of over and undernutrition in children at a district level that can also be used to prioritize, monitor and evaluate government policies regarding malnutrition [54]. More recent years have seen the double burden of malnutrition being accompanied by a triple burden of malnutrition, affecting families, communities and countries. In countries such as India and Egypt, the problem is increasing and therefore highlights the urgent need to consider child malnutrition in the greater familial and household contexts [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. A study in Ghana addressed the concurrent occurrence of obesity and stunting in children aged under 5 years, providing data for the first time on such an occurrence. The study reported a stunting prevalence of 27.5%, overweight prevalence of 2.4% and an overall concurrent stunting and overweight prevalence of 1.2% [56]. A study in South Africa, with children aged 6–12 years old, reported that 9.1% were stunted, while 14.9% were overweight/obese [57]. This highlights the need for urgent targeted interventions in children to address this double burden to prevent these malnutrition issues as they transition into adulthood.
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2.7 Wasting (weight for length/height or W/H)
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In wasting or low weight for height the Z score is below 2 standard deviations [21]. Wasting is reflective of a body mass that is low in comparison to the age and may be due to disease or starvation. Weight loss and retardation of growth occur due to inadequate intake of food and long term it leads to wasting and becomes more severe with emaciation [58]. A child falls behind another child who is growing actively when his/her own growth is affected acutely [38], and the body height and weight become less than ideal for the age of the child [59]. Severe wasting occurs when the weight for height is less than the median by 70% to represent a standard deviation of −3SD [46]. According to the national Department of Health (DoH) height measurements in all children should be conducted at least every 3 months [60]. In measuring overall growth to compare growth standards, both height and weight measurements are essential. Globally, in 2013, in children less than 5 years of age, 51 million were wasted and 17 million severely wasted. Global wasting prevalence in 2013 approximated 8%, of which 3% accounted for severe wasting. A postulated third of wasted children were present in Africa and an estimate of the children severely wasted in Africa followed the same trend [61]. As of 2018–2019 52 million children are wasted, with an estimated 16.6 suffering from severe wasting in 2018 [62]. Children left untreated with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) are at least 12 times more likely to die than healthy children [63]. South Asia is the global wasting epicenter as 15.2% of children under five are wasted. Together with other hotspots such as Oceania, Southeast Asia and SSA, improvements regarding wasting are minimal [64] (Table 2).
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Classification
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Z score values
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Adequately nourished
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−2 < Z-score < +1
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Moderately malnourished
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−3 < Z-score < −2
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Severely malnourished
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Z-score < −3
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Table 1.
Malnutrition classification of children based on Z scores [20].
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Country
\n
Year of last survey
\n
Wasting
\n
Overweight
\n
Stunting
\n
Underweight
\n
\n\n\n
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Angola
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2015–2016
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4.9
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3.4
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37.6
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19.0
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\n
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Benin
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2017–2018
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5.0
\n
1.9
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32.2
\n
16.8
\n
\n
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Botswana
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2007–2008
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7.2
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11.2
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31.4
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11.2
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\n
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Burkina Faso
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2017
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8.6
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1.7
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21.1
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16.2
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Burundi
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2016–2017
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5.1
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1.4
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55.9
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29.3
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Cabo Verde
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1994
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6.9
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—
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21.4
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11.8
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Cameroon
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2014
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5.2
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6.7
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31.7
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14.8
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Central African Republic
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2012
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7.6
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1.9
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39.6
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24.6
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Chad
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2014–2015
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13.3
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2.8
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39.8
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29.4
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Comoros
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2012
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11.3
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10.6
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31.1
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16.9
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The Congo
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2014–2015
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8.2
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5.9
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21.2
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12.3
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Cote d’Ivoire
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2016
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6.1
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1.5
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21.6
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12.8
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Democratic Republic of Congo
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2013–2014
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8.1
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4.4
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42.7
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23.4
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Djibouti
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2012
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21.6
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8.1
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33.5
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29.9
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Equatorial Guinea
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2011
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3.1
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9.7
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26.2
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5.6
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Eritrea
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2010
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15.3
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2.0
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52.0
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39.4
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Eswatini (former Swaziland)
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2014
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2.0
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9.0
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25.5
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5.8
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Ethiopia
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2016
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10.0
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2.9
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38.4
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23.6
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Gabon
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2012
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3.4
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7.7
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17.0
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6.4
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The Gambia
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2013
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11.0
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3.2
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24.6
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16.5
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Ghana
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2014
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4.7
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2.6
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18.8
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11.2
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\n
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Guinea
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2016
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8.1
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4.0
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32.4
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18.3
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Guinea—Bissau
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2014
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6.0
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2.3
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27.6
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17.0
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Kenya
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2014
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4.2
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4.1
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26.2
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11.2
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Lesotho
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2014
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2.8
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7.5
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33.4
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10.5
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Liberia
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2013
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5.6
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3.2
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32.1
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15.3
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Madagascar
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2012–2013
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7.9
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1.1
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48.9
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32.9
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\n
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Malawi
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2015–2016
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2.8
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4.6
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37.4
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11.8
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Mali
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2015
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13.5
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1.9
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30.4
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25.0
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\n
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Mauritania
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2015
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14.8
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1.3
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27.9
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24.9
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Mauritius
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1995
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15.7
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6.5
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13.6
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13.0
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Mozambique
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2011
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6.1
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7.8
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42.9
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15.6
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\n
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Namibia
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2013
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7.1
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4.0
\n
22.7
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13.2
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\n
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Niger
\n
2016
\n
10.1
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1.1
\n
40.6
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31.4
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Nigeria
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2016–2017
\n
10.8
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1.5
\n
43.6
\n
31.5
\n
\n
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Rwanda
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2014–2015
\n
2.3
\n
7.9
\n
38.2
\n
9.6
\n
\n
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Sao Tome and Principe
\n
2014
\n
4.0
\n
2.4
\n
17.2
\n
8.8
\n
\n
\n
Senegal
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2017
\n
9.0
\n
0.9
\n
16.5
\n
14.4
\n
\n
\n
Seychelles
\n
2012
\n
4.3
\n
10.2
\n
7.9
\n
3.6
\n
\n
\n
Sierra Leone
\n
2013
\n
9.5
\n
8.8
\n
37.8
\n
18.2
\n
\n
\n
Somalia
\n
2009
\n
15.0
\n
3.0
\n
25.3
\n
23.0
\n
\n
\n
South Africa
\n
2016
\n
2.5
\n
13.3
\n
27.4
\n
5.9
\n
\n
\n
South Sudan
\n
2010
\n
24.3
\n
5.8
\n
31.3
\n
29.1
\n
\n
\n
Togo
\n
2013–2014
\n
6.6
\n
2.0
\n
27.6
\n
16.1
\n
\n
\n
Uganda
\n
2016
\n
3.5
\n
3.7
\n
28.9
\n
10.4
\n
\n
\n
United Republic of Tanzania
\n
2015–16
\n
4.5
\n
3.7
\n
34.5
\n
13.7
\n
\n
\n
Zambia
\n
2013–14
\n
6.2
\n
6.2
\n
40.0
\n
14.9
\n
\n
\n
Zimbabwe
\n
2015
\n
3.3
\n
5.6
\n
27.1
\n
8.5
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Joint malnutrition country estimates of anthropometric indicators in children aged 0–59 months [65].
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3. Malnutrition in South Africa
\n
As a developing or middle-income country, SA is still undergoing major transitions socially, economically and in the population’s health. The country is currently facing a quadruple disease burden, with non-communicable diseases linked to diet and lifestyle; the burden of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS); infectious diseases and poverty linked to under nutrition; and deaths due to injuries [66]. As a developing country SA is in a nutrition transition where both over and undernutrition coexist [67]. The first 2 years of life are a vulnerable time frame as it is during this period that malnutrition begins. According to Faber and Wenhold [68], chronic malnutrition or stunting is more prevalent in children in SA compared to wasting. Since the post-apartheid era in 1994, SA has faced great challenges in addressing the nutritional status of infants, young children and adults [69]. However, large-scale nationwide surveys were conducted to trace the progress, failures and successes in addressing malnutrition. In 1994 the South African Vitamin A Consultative Group (SAVACG) conducted a national survey on the nutritional status of children aged 6–71 months [70]. Anthropometric results revealed that approximately 10% or 660,000 children were underweight, with one in every four children (1.5 million) affected by stunting. Severe wasting was only recorded in 0.4% of children. KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), Eastern Cape and Northern Province revealed the greatest prevalence of malnutrition [70]. In 1999 the National Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) was conducted in children aged 1–9 years [71], collecting a larger set of data in comparison to the SAVACG survey. The NFCS reported 10% underweight in children, with 20% affected by stunting and 17.1% as overweight and/or obese. The NFCS secondary analysis, focusing on children aged 1–5 years, reported underweight at 6.8%, stunting at 20.1%, overweight at 20.6% and obesity at 9.5% [69]. In 2005, the National Food Consumption Survey-Fortification Baseline (NFCS-FB) reported that of children aged 1–9 years old, 20% were affected by stunting, 9.3% were underweight, wasting was found in 4.5%, and 14% were overweight or obese [72]. The South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) conducted in 2012 reported that in children aged 0–14 years stunting prevalence was 15.4%, with 3.8% having severe stunting. Wasting was reported at 2.9%, with severe wasting at 0.8%. Underweight was reported at 5.8%, with severe underweight at 1.1%. Regarding over nutrition, SANHANES identified 18.1% of children as overweight and 4.6% as obese [36]. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was significantly greater in females (25% and 40.1%) compared to males (19.6% and 11.6%) respectively. Underweight was significantly higher in males (13.1%) in comparison to females (4.0%) [36]. Thus, it is evident that SA is facing the malnutrition epidemic at a young age and context-specific and targeted interventions are required to prevent child malnutrition before it progresses into adulthood.
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
During 2012–2013, WHO member states recognized the seriousness of malnutrition and its effect on global health [3]. Thus, at the United Nation’s General Assembly in 2016, the United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition 2016–2025 was announced. This set a time frame for all forms of malnutrition to be addressed and for diet-related and nutrition targets to be met by 2025. This also set the time frame for the Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) to be achieved before 2030, particularly SDG 2 that aims to improve nutrition, achieve food security and end hunger, as well as SDG 3 that aims to ensure healthy living and promote well-being for all [1]. To tackle the malnutrition epidemic food fortification is important to ensure that children with good weight do not risk becoming overweight or obese [73]. All malnutrition indicators must be included in interventions, and more importantly treated together rather than stand-alone issues [74]. As part of the health system strengthening and with the goal of combatting malnutrition, existing policies on child malnutrition must be evaluated. The coexistence of stunting and overweight/obesity remains a challenge in LMICs that requires multi-sectoral action. During infancy and early childhood optimal nutrition is vital to ensure that, development and rapid growth demands are met. In the efforts to tackle the nutrition disparities, the first 1000 days of life are an important window period, presenting the opportunity to prevent both stunting and overweight/obesity [75]. Interventions must be inclusive of both linear growth and appropriate weight, beginning in early life and preferably during this important window period. To further tackle the double and triple burdens of malnutrition, early screening and identification of at risk children, including those already with malnutrition, is essential at healthcare facilities [76]. Thus, a more holistic, context-specific approach is required, whereby interventions not only take into consideration the risk factors, but also consider the inclusion of nutritionists and educating mothers on self and childcare regarding nutrition [77]. Furthermore, child malnutrition research and interventions must be up-scaled from community level to provincial and national levels so that it informs policy on the intervention strategies that can address the burden of child malnutrition. This is vital as children left untreated transition into malnourished adulthood, increasing the healthcare costs and needs, weakening the healthcare systems, and perpetuating the vicious malnutrition cycle.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"malnutrition, children, wasting, stunting, obesity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71665.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71665.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71665",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71665",totalDownloads:856,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"August 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 5th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 5th 2020",datePublished:"November 11th 2020",dateFinished:"April 5th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Malnutrition is a widespread problem, affecting the global population at some life stage. This public health epidemic targets everyone, but the most vulnerable groups are poverty-stricken people, young children, adolescents, older people, those who are with illness and have a compromised immune system, as well as lactating and pregnant women. Malnutrition includes both undernutrition (wasting, stunting, underweight, and mineral- and vitamin-related malnutrition) and overnutrition (overweight, obesity, and diet-related noncommunicable diseases). In combating malnutrition, healthcare costs increase, productivity is reduced, and economic growth is staggered, thus perpetuating the cycle of ill health and poverty. The best-targeted age for addressing malnutrition is the first 1000 days of life as this window period is ideal for intervention implementation and tracking for the improvement of child growth and development. There is an unprecedented opportunity to address the various forms of malnutrition, especially the 2016–2025 Decade of Action on Nutrition set by the United Nation. This aims to achieve the relevant targets of the Sustainable Development Goals that aim to end hunger and improve nutrition, as well as promote well-being and ensure healthy lives.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71665",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71665",signatures:"Natisha Dukhi",book:{id:"8030",title:"Malnutrition",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Malnutrition",slug:"malnutrition",publishedDate:"November 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Muhammad Imran and Ali Imran",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194146",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Imran",slug:"muhammad-imran",fullName:"Muhammad Imran"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"311182",title:"Dr.",name:"Natisha",middleName:null,surname:"Dukhi",fullName:"Natisha Dukhi",slug:"natisha-dukhi",email:"doctordukhi@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Human Sciences Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of malnutrition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Undernutrition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Undernutrition/protein energy malnutrition (PEM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Underweight (weight for age or W/A)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Stunting (height for age or H/A)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Overweight and obesity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Stunting versus overweight/obesity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7 Wasting (weight for length/height or W/H)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Malnutrition in South Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nWorld Health Organization (WHO). Malnutrition [Internet] 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malnutrition\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nWorld Health Organization (WHO). Nutrition [Internet] 2020. 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SAJCH. 2011;5(3):72-77. DOI: http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/19087\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nLabadarios D, Van Middelkoop A, The South African Vitamin A Consultative Group (SAVACG). Children Aged 6 to 71 Months in South Africa, 1994: Their Anthropometric, Vitamin a, Iron and Immunisation Coverage Status. Isando: SAVACG. 1995\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nLabadarios D, Steyn NP, Maunder E, et al. The National Food Consumption Survey (NFCS): South Africa, 1999. Public Health Nutrition. 2005;8:533-543\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nLabadarios D. National Food Consumption Survey-Fortification Baseline (NFCS-FB): South Africa 2005 [Internet]. Pretoria: Directorate: Nutrition, Department of Health; 2007. Available from: http://www.sajcn.co.za/index.php/SAJCN/article/view/286\n\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nRachmi CN, Agho KE, Li M, Baur LA. Stunting, underweight and overweight in children aged 2.0–4.9 years in Indonesia: Prevalence trends and associated risk factors. PLoS One. 2016;11(5):e0154756. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154756\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nShrimpton R, Rokx C. The Double Burden of Malnutrition in Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: World Bank Jakarta. Contract No.: Report 76192-ID [Internet]; 2013. Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/955671468049836790/The-double-burden-of-malnutrition-in-Indonesia\n\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nPerez-Escamilla R, Bermudez O, Buccini GS, Kumanyika S, Lutter CK, Monsivais P, et al. Nutrition disparities and the global burden of malnutrition. BMJ. 2018;361:1-8. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.k2252\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nSteenkamp L, Lategan R, Raubenheimer J. Moderate malnutrition in children aged five years and younger in South Africa: Are wasting or stunting being treated? South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016;29(1):27-31 Available from: http://www.sajcn.co.za/index.php/SAJCN/article/view/1030\n\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nModjadji P, Madiba S. The double burden of malnutrition in a rural health and demographic surveillance system site in South Africa: A study of primary schoolchildren and their mothers. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1087):1-11 . Available from. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-7412-y\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Natisha Dukhi",address:"doctordukhi@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
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Here you will find interesting reports on cutting-edge science and technology related to materials, fabrication processes, and real device applications of OLEDs. I hope that the book will lead to systematization of OLED study, creation of new research field and further promotion of OLED technology for the bright future of our society.",editors:[{id:"33170",title:"Prof.",name:"Seung Hwan",surname:"Ko",slug:"seung-hwan-ko",fullName:"Seung Hwan Ko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Unconventional, Laser Based OLED Material Direct Patterning and Transfer Methods",slug:"unconventional-laser-based-oled-material-direct-patterning-and-transfer-methods",abstract:null,signatures:"Seung Hwan Ko and Costas P. 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IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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ALPSP
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The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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iThenticate
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Enago
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SPi Global
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SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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DHL
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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SPi Global
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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