Metal ion vs. log βMY values.
\r\n\tnano-optics, nonlinear plasmonics, and nonlinear metamaterials emerged in the last decades due to the progress in nanotechnology.
\r\n\r\n\tThe essential subject of this book is the publication of novel theoretical and experimental results concerning the nonlinear optical phenomena in photonic and plasmonic nanostructures, nonlinear metamaterials including liquid crystals, and devices based on nonlinear optical waveguides. In particular, the following topics will be considered: the interaction of solid-state nanostructures with the intense electromagnetic fields, the surface plasmon polariton propagation and interaction near the metal-dielectric interface, active nano-photonic devices for lasing and optical sources, nonlinear metamaterials, the nonlinear optics of liquid crystals and the possible combination of liquid crystals with plasmonic and metamaterials. We do not limit the book to these topics.
\r\n\r\n\tThe novel results in other fields of nonlinear optics would be also welcome. We hope that the proposed book will be interesting for researchers and engineers occupied in optical fiber telecommunications, optical signal processing, novel active materials, and devices.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-836-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-835-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",bookSignature:"Dr. Boris I. Lembrikov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",keywords:"Nonlinear Optics, Nano-Photonics, Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP), Plasmonics, Plasmonic Nanostructure, Plasmonic Waveguide, Metamaterial, Nonlinearity, Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC), TE Mode, TM Mode, Cholesteric Liquid Crystals (CLC)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Lembrikov actively participated in numerous international scientific conferences, he is an author of a book, a large number of papers, and chapters in scientific books. He was an invited researcher at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2359/images/system/2359.jpg",biography:"Boris I. Lembrikov is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Electronics, Electrical and Communication Engineering of the Holon Institute of Technology (HIT), Holon, Israel. B. I. Lembrikov received his Ph.D. in Nonlinear Optics at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in 1996. Since then he was an invited researcher at the Haifa University, at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France, at the Technion, Haifa, Israel. Dr. B. I. Lembrikov is an author of the book \\Electrodynamics of Magnetoactive Media\\, a number of chapters in scientific books, a large number of papers in international peer reviewed journals and reports delivered at the international scientific conferences. He actively participated in a number of research projects concerning optics of nanoparticles, optical communications, UWB communications. The main research fields of interest of Dr. B. I. Lembrikov are nonlinear optics, optical and UWB communications, nanostructures, quantum dot lasers.",institutionString:"Holon Institute of Technology (HIT)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Holon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"345821",firstName:"Darko",lastName:"Hrvojic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345821/images/16410_n.",email:"darko@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3674",title:"Ultra Wideband",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"ultra-wideband",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"189",title:"Novel Applications of the UWB Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed2f8e92a107244ca4c22888843e374f",slug:"novel-applications-of-the-uwb-technologies",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/189.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54843",title:"Early Intervention in Pediatric Occupational Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68316",slug:"early-intervention-in-pediatric-occupational-therapy",body:'This term is using for the infant who has increasing risk for disability, but the exact disability is not actualized yet. The risk factors of infants can be divided into two main subheadings. The first subheading is biological risk factors. These are: intracranial hemorrhage, diabetic retinopathy, sepsis, necrotizing enterocolitis, apnea, asphyxia, intraventricular hemorrhage and the brachial plexus injury. The second subheading is environmental risk factors. These are: adolescence pregnancy, low socioeconomic status, mental health problems of parents, substance abuse of parents and the lack of family caregiving skills [1].
Many high risk infants begin to the first days of their lives in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) for provision of medical treatment. The occupational therapist should consider biological risk of infants, NICU’s environmental risk factors and early separation problems of infant caregivers when planning their assessments and interventions. Due to this reason, occupational therapy interventions in the NICU should involve infants, families, NICU staffs and environmental factors.
The early mother and infant separation are risking the mother‐infant bonding, which is critical role in infant development. Thus, occupational therapy intervention for high risk infants should start as soon as possible after the infant born. Occupational therapy intervention in NICU should include infant, family and environmental factors. Occupational therapist should motivate the parents to take care of their infants in NICU. This intervention provides positive social interaction between mother and infant at an early period. Occupational therapy program in NICU should include increasing the confidence of caregiving skills of mothers and establish strong relationship between infant and mother with increasing mother’s observation skills to infant behaviors. These interventions’ aim is providing the mother’s positive feeling to infants. Then occupational therapists should give opportunity to observe the infant. Family should sensitive to infant’s reaction to environmental stimuli and tries to provide a positive response from them. Thus, mother’s self‐confidence increase with ability to understand the response of the infant and mother can provide appropriate sensory stimuli to her infant [2].
Kangaroo care is another important intervention of occupational therapists working in the NICU. Kangaroo care is a technique that nude infant is positioned between the breast and under the clothes of his/her mother or primary caregiver in a vertical position to provide skin‐to‐skin contact. Mother sits on a rocking chair and swing rhythmically to provide vestibular stimulus to infant. Kangaroo care’s aims are providing mother‐infant bonding and preventing sensory processing disorders of infants. Due to that reason, kangaroo care should be initiated as early as possible even in the delivery room and infant‐mother separation should be finished [3].
NICU environmental risk factors and immaturity of infants’ biologic and neurologic systems are lead to sensory processing disorders in infants or even if loss of sense. All sensory interventions for infants who are taking medical treatment in the NICU, priority should be given to reduce sensory stimuli rather than provide sensory stimuli. Due to the reason, environmental adjustments in the NICU gain an important role for occupational therapists. Occupational therapist should adjust the environmental factors of NICU’s light and sound. NICU lighting design should include: (1) infants should be kept out of the direct light, (2) incubator must have covered with a thick blanket for reduction of light, (3) the provision of day‐night cycle by changing the light levels at specific times of day; this will be supporting the infant rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and (4) levels of lighting instruments should measure and reduction of light exposure should be provided. Sound level design in NICU should include: (1) noise reduction should be provided in NICU, (2) NICU’s sound level should not exceed 50 decibels, (3) temporary sound level in NICU should not exceed 70 decibels, (4) equipment noise level in NICU should not exceed 40 decibels, and (5) NICU staff training should be done for decreasing noise level [4].
Another important intervention of occupational therapist in the NICU is providing minimal touch to infant. Occupational therapists should coordinate taking blood samples, imaging techniques, aspiration, and chest physiotherapy for providing minimal touch and give a formal warning to other health care providers regarding the provision of enough and quiet rest time to infant.
Occupational therapy interventions in the NICU provide infant’s medical status get better, and infants can early discharge from the NICU. After discharge from NICU, parents should be educated for taking care at home for high risk infant and developmental follow‐up must be done. At this period, occupational therapists should evaluate and implement interventions for infant’s sensory processing disorders, social‐emotional development, feeding problems, motor development, cognitive development and playing skills.
Dr. J. Ayres developed sensory integration theory in the 1970s. She defined sensory integration as a neurological organization process enabling the effective use of one’s body through stimulus from his body and the environment [5].
Ayres’ the most important contribution to the understanding for the child’s development is highlighting the importance of senses, but especially proximal senses (vestibular, tactile and proprioceptive). From the point of sensory integration view, it was emphasized that proximal senses are very important. Child uses these senses for interacting with environment at early stages of life, because these senses are primitive and basic senses. The distal senses such as vision and hearing gain more importance as the child grows and gets more critical. Ayres hypothesis was that proximal senses are providing basic to child complex activities [5].
When infant behavior is examined from the sensory integration theory, both environmental and biological factors are effective on the of infants’ behavior. Infant’s related factors, “Four As” (arousal, attention, affect and action), the sensory threshold and self‐regulation skills. Each of these factors is interrelated and affects each other. “Four As” was defined by the Anzalone. These factors are:
There are three specific tests for determining sensory processing problems in the range of 0–3 years. These tests are: Test of Sensory Functions in Infants (TSFI), Sensory Rating Scale (SRS) and the Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile (ITSP) tests. The SRS and ITSP are both parent‐reported questionnaires, whereas the TSFI is a performance‐based assessment [8].
Sensory integration interventions can be applied in three different ways for infants/toddlers. The first type of these interventions is individualized sensory integration therapy. The second type of sensory intervention is the sensory diet. The third type of this intervention is family education [9].
Sensory integration interventions should include these parameters; desensitization of hyperreactive response, increasing the hyporeactive response, ensures attention continuity, providing purposeful activity and ensures appropriate behavior to sensory stimuli. The most important principle of sensory integration therapy is gaining ability to organize and process senses to provide purposeful activity. The occupational therapist uses individualized sensory integration interventions for treating atypical responses to sensory stimuli. For example, brushing techniques can be used for desensitization of hypersensitivity to touch or for gaining appropriate response to vestibular stimulus; hammock can be use in therapy. Such sensory integration techniques will help to normalize the child’s response to sensory stimuli [9].
A sensory diet is individualized home program that is carefully planned and has a positive effect on functional skills to regulate sensory stimulus. It is important to specify the intensity, duration and timing of sensory‐based activity to obtain optimal performance from the sensory diet.
One of the most important principles in the treatment of sensory processing disorder for infant/toddler is including sensory integration intervention into the activities of daily living and play activities. It can provide with modifying child’s daily routine, functional activities and play materials to meet the child’s sensory needs. House environment also should be configured in sensory diet [10].
Sensory integration theory provides the basic principles for the treatment of sensory modulation disorder. Sensory diet of children will provide optimum sensory modulation and optimum sensory modulation facilitates the appropriate adaptive response. This is an indirect treatment method for sensory modulation disorder. Sensory diet for infants should be included in activities of daily living such as bathing and feeding. Normal sensory response will gain with changing daily routines and the sensory parameters of home environment that ensuring optimum sensory stimulation [11].
Family education is often used for regulation disorders caused by sensory processing disorder, and constitutes an important part of the treatment process. There are two important benefits of family education. First, family will understand that sensory processing disorders are underlying factor of infant/toddlers’ behavioral problems. By this way, it helps the mother and infant bonding. Second, family education teaches coping strategies to families for infant/toddler’s behavioral problems [12].
Social‐emotional development process begins with infant‐primary caregiver bonding in infancy period. Infants’ first interaction is with their primary caregiver. Infants express needs with crying or gaze at something. Primary caregiver meet the infant’s needs and infant calm down; thus infant carry out first social communication. Children increase the social development interacting with other family members, peers and teachers. Social skills may be negatively influenced from the factors related to primary caregiver such as mother’s mental health problems or factors related to infants such as insufficient cognitive skills. Negative experiences in infancy may cause insufficient social skills in childhood [13].
Social‐emotional development in infancy can be evaluated with The Social‐Emotional Assessment/Evaluation Measure, Ages & Stages Questionnaire: Social‐Emotional (ASQ: SE), Brief Infant‐Toddler Social‐Emotional Assessment (BITS), the Temperament and Atypical Behavior Scale (TABS), Infant‐Toddler Social‐Emotional Assessment (ITSEA), the Functional Emotional Assessment Scale (FEAS), Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Infant Behavior Record, Parent‐Child Early Relational Assessment (PCER), the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment Clinical Form (DEC‐C), Social Skills Rating System (SSRS), Preschool Learning Behaviors Scale (PLBS) and Infant/Toddler Symptom Checklist [14, 15].
Occupational therapy interventions in this area can be classified in three subheadings. First is touch‐based interventions for providing self‐regulation of infant and infant‐caregiver bonding. Second is relation‐based interventions for providing positive mother‐children interaction. Third is increasing attention skills.
Touch‐based interventions include kangaroo care, deep pressure and massage interventions. These interventions’ aims are ensuring calming the infant and promotion of mother‐infant bonding.
The occupational therapists frequently use DIR‐Floortime method for relationship‐based intervention. DIR is the developmental, individual‐differences and relationship‐based model that was developed by Dr. Stanley Greenspan and Dr. Serena Wieder. Dr. Greenspan stated the goal of DIR model, as increasing social, emotional and intellectual capacities of children.
Joint attention is the process in which an infant learns to recognize the direction of an adult’s gaze, orient their own gaze to follow it, and then look in the same direction. Attention skills are critical for social development, and it seems related to language development [18].
Socio‐emotional behavior is a key factor of understanding the child because it will affect the other performance areas. Occupational therapist should help to determine the parents which behavior of the child most problematic in home environment for improving the fit between the child and the environment. The determined behaviors constitute the objective of intervention, and later therapist can make suggestions for compensation to cope with this behavior [19].
Swallowing is one of the two vital functions of humans along with respiration. Feeding disorders are occurring approximately 50% of high risk infants and toddlers. Feeding disorders may continue to older ages for most of the infants who experienced these disorders during infancy period [20].
Evaluation methods are: Neonatal Oral‐Motor Assessment Scale (NOMAS), Pediatrics Feeding Behavioral Assessment Scale (BPFAS), Pediatric Eating Assessment Tool (Pedi‐EAT), Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing (FEES) and Videofluoroscopic Swallow Study (VFSS) for infants and toddlers [23, 26].
The VFSS test is the gold standard for the diagnosis of oropharyngeal dysphagia. VFSS is a radiographic procedure that provides a direct, dynamic view of the oral, pharyngeal and upper esophageal function. Barium bolus is given to the clients during VFSS, and the movement of bolus is observed. Each episode of deglutition starting from the oral phase to until the end of the swallowing function is recorded, all phases of swallowing can be assessed at this time. VFSS provides the most detailed evidence to swallowing problems and provides specific recommendations about the content of food, feeding position (for reducing the aspiration and to provide oral motor skills) [27].
Intervention should plan according to the strength and weakness of infants/toddlers that informations gained from the evaluation process. Therapists’ first goal should be providing safety during the intervention session.
Occupational therapist can activate swallowing muscles of infants with cold application on the tongue and palate with frozen pacifier. This application helps swallowing muscles to get ready and swallowing duration time get shortened. Occupational therapist can use frozen popsicle or an ice for providing cold application to toddlers. Another method for enabling swallowing is cold or sour bolus (e.g., lemon juice). Therapist should carefully evaluate, and if needed, the cold applications should be carried out for providing swallowing [28, 29].
Respiratory disorders may cause problems in coordination sucking‐swallowing and breathing (SSwB) of infants, because increased respiratory rate leads to pausing sucking for breathing and cause problems in SSwB coordination. Oxygen support should be provided for infants with low oxygen level during feeding. Thus, respiratory rate gets normal range, and infant can swallow easier [30].
Infants with respiratory disorders usually struggling during the feeding. Because they cannot coordinate SSwB. As a result, breathing becomes an urgent requirement, infants cough or vomit. Glass and Wolf suggest “external pacing” technique for providing external support to SSwB coordination disorders. Occupational therapist should know the suck‐swallow‐breathe requirements for feeding by bottle and can determine the problems in SSwB coordination. After third to fifth suck without spontaneous suck, break the suction by inserting finger into corner of mouth while leaving the nipple in place, tilt the bottle downward to stop flow of liquid and remove the bottle. Therapist gives an opportunity for breathing and relaxation to infants with the interruption of the sucking [21].
Occupational therapists should consider age, motor developmental level, feeding skills of children to decide best feeding position. Because appropriate positioning provides necessary support during feeding. For newborns and infants, side‐lying position in caregiver’s arm is appropriate during breast feeding or bottle feeding. Supine position on caregiver’s thigh is another appropriate feeding position for infants. This position provides neutral alignment and midline orientation to infants. The caregiver’s both hands are free during this position. An another advantage of this position is providing caregivers and infants’ eye contact that can promote social interaction during feeding. For toddlers with good sitting posture, high chair or booster seat can be appropriate. The toddler can sit the table, and thus, social and communication skills may increase [19].
Infants/toddlers with feeding disorders are generally hyper responsive to touch near or within the mouth. Oral hypersensitivity is usually correlated with experiences during neonatal period. Newborns who experienced medical interventions in NICU such as intubation, orogastric or nasogastric tube feeding and the toddlers who cannot experience oral feeding for a prolonged period may exhibit oral hypersensivity. Preterm infants usually have increasing risks for sensory modulation disorders and may experience hyper responsive to tactile stimuli. Cerabral palsy, autism, developmental disorders, genetic disorders and neurologic disorders may lead to exhibition of oral hypersensitivity too [31, 32].
Occupational therapist generally uses desensizitation techniques for intervention to hypersensitivity to touch. Oral desensizitation activities for infants should begin with discovering the mouth with his/her fingers. Therapist may help to infant to take his/her hand to infant’s mouth and let the infant to suck the hand. NUK brushes, toothbrushes can use for providing tactile stimulation. Therapist can apply firm pressure to infant’s palate for decreasing oral hypersensitivity. Towel’s texture touch is easy to manage for infants/toddlers with oral hypersensitivity. Thus, therapist should use towel for brushing or applying pressure and let the infant/toddler suck or chew the towel [31].
Sensory integration activities should contain new flavors and textures for increasing acceptance of foods. Therapist may dip the rubber toy or toothbrush to pured foods or juice for providing oral activities to infants/toddlers. These activities should provide challenge but not disencourage feeding attempts [31].
Positioning adaptations should be done considering the sensory processing disorders in addition to these sensory‐based activities. Therapist should provide head and neck support when positioning infants/toddlers to make feel stable and safe, but not constraint whole body movements. Infants/toddlers with general sensory processing disorders may be more undisturbed when sitting on a chair rather than being held by mother’s hands, because human touch provides intense sensory stimuli [31].
Non‐oral feeding methods are using when the infant/toddlers cannot meet his/her nutrition or hydration orally. These methods are nasogastric and orogastric feeding, pharyngostomy, esophagostomy and gastrostomy. They may be used because of dysphagia, infant/toddler’s medical problems or infants/toddlers cannot feeding orally to provide adequate growth [33].
Infant/toddlers’ medical status and readiness to transition of oral feeding should be evaluated carefully by multidisciplinary team. The team should discuss with the family all the stages of transition process and show respect to family’s decisions about transition process (such as beginning time to transition). Occupational therapists should provide assistance to family during all the stages of transition [34].
Oral motor intervention is the first stage of the transition process. Infant/toddler should try to succeed the oral feeding. Occupational therapist should desensitize the near or within the mouth. Therapist tries to increase oral‐motor skills during the sensory‐based play activities. Desenzitation activities may involve sucking and chewing the rubber toys, NUK brushes and textured fabrics [35]. Babbling activities and blows toys may be other activities to provide oral motor activity. Therapist must emphasize all of the success of infants/toddlers and provide working toward the goals of interventions together with infants/toddlers and their families [36].
The families sometimes have an anxiety about feeding separate from infant/toddlers’ medical status or weight loss problems and show increased attention on feeding. This process sometimes cause to infants/toddlers’ avoidance or behavioral problems during feeding. Behavioral techniques should be implemented when the feeding problem originated from the behavioral problems of infants/toddlers [37].
The achievement of transition process is dependent on the providing support both infant/toddlers and their families. The prolonged non‐oral feeding duration causes difficulties in transition to oral feeding. The family support groups may be efficient for providing shortened transition to oral feeding [37].
High risk infants usually have problems in motor, cognitive and behavioral responses areas when compared with term infants. These problems may cause negative effects on both child’s school success and adolescent period even in adulthood [38, 39].
Motor system includes posture, muscle tonus, reflexes, movements and activities [40, 41]. Characteristically, hypotonia is observed in premature infants. Hypotonia’s severity is related to gestational age of infants [42, 43]. For example, an infant who was born at 28 weeks of gestation has wider range of motion than a full‐term infant and has more flexibility in shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. Typical positions of premature infant’s extremities are extension and abduction. There is an impairment in the midline orientation and flexor patterns. Random movements are generally decreased. Primitive reflexes are decreasing and disappearing or emerging in a contrary manner [44]. Functional motor skills and both gross and fine motor skills delay in premature infants when compared with term infants [45, 46].
Newborn motor skills are influenced by many factors such as autonomic instability, stress, environmental heat, infection, electrolyte irregularity, jaundice, respiratory distress and drugs [40]. One of the most important roles of neonatal occupational therapists is to determine the developmental level of the infant and plan the occupational therapy intervention. In particular, in the first 2 years of life, it is very important to determine the developmental impairment and problems in early motor development for providing early intervention [47].
Motor control or effective use of the body for infants means mobility, discovering the environment and increasing communication skills before talking. Motor control is often on the basis of most intervention programs because of the influence on the social, cognitive and emotional system [48].
Motor development in infants and toddlers can be evaluated with Pretechl’s Qualitative Assessment of General Movements, Naturalistic Observations of Newborn Behavior, Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale [40], The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Psychomotor Developmental Index I‐II, Griffiths Locomotor Subscale, Test of Infant Motor Performance, Alberta Infant Motor Scale, The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale, Denver II Gross Motor Sector, Wee Functional Independence Measure, Infant Motor Aktivite Log [49]. Canadian occupational performance measure is used to determine the motor developmental level of infants from the primary caregiver’s point of view [50, 51].
This intervention was developed by Bobath to provide motor control for children with cerebral palsy. It is a treatment approach widely used by the members of interdisciplinary team [52]. This intervention method is convenience during infancy period [53]. The aim of intervention is to improve function of infant and provide quality of movement with special handling techniques. The therapist and family members provide the physical movement of infant with handling techniques. In addition to therapeutic handling, the therapist can modify the infant’s environmental factors to improve function. Environmental adaptations can be simple (using a roll blanket in the cradle to facilitate side‐lying positioning) or complex (such as using an infant seat). Adaptations should design according to targets of both family and infant and also matched with treatment principles. For example, if the infant cannot achieve sitting position properly, the sitting adaptations should be done. Adaptations are particularly effective when only meet the goals of the family. The role of the occupational therapist in this intervention is shaping the philosophy in accordance with the function of the other team members [48].
Preterm infants often have positional problems that lead to different posture and movement problems. For example, the shoulder protraction and the posterior pelvic tilt occur because the preterm infant cannot perform the neonatal flexion position precisely. If these positions are not corrected, it may not be possible to bring the infant’s hands to the midline. These problems lead to delays in the area of fine motor skills and insufficiency in midline hand play. Positioning is not merely to provide of infant comfort, but also focuses on flexion and midline orientation. Positioning can reduce stress and provide psychological stability. This will provide the arrangement of sleep, which is vital for development and weight gain. Each infant’s specific positioning needs should be decided on the basis of individuality. The main criterion for selecting the position is infant’s presenting problems such as low muscle tone, prolonged extension position, and impaired movements caused by the infant [40].
This intervention suggests the restriction of the unaffected arm’s movements and providing the intense use of the affected arm. There are four main steps in the treatment of infants: (a) 24/7 casting of the less affected upper extremity for 23 days, followed by 4 days without casting; (b) intensive occupational therapy sessions for 4 weeks, 5 days a week; (c) family education to improve the use of the affected upper limb and (d) providing treatment services for infant’s home. The therapy sessions include functional, play‐based, sensory, and force‐enhancing activities to enhance the movement of the affected upper limb. The therapist ensures consistent and positive reinforcement for consistency of motor ability. Specific sensory‐motor targets can be created for each infant. Play activities are selected by considering the level of infant ability, motivation, environment and goals of the family. Therapists can often use the play in a supine, crawling and supported sitting position with the aim of weighting the affected limb. The tasks selected here are carried out according to the motor learning and are selected for the purpose of releasing the repetitive motions and motor patterns targeted in the therapy. The family is trained to perform targeted activities. These are the activities of the therapist and can be adapted to put in the routine of the family (such as facilitating eating or bathing with the affected hand) [54].
The basic movements revealed by infant should not be regarded as neurological function only. It should be kept in mind that these movements may be signs of pain and stress. These stress responses may appear as signs of incompatibility between the developmental capacity of the preterm infant and the environment. Occupational therapists can handle this situation with the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP) [55]. The NIDCAP can be integrated easily with the Person‐Environment‐Occupation Model, because NIDCAP assesses infant’s psychological and behavioral responses to different handling types together with the environment [56]. Movements observed in NIDCAP are categorized as stress signals or stability signals. These are general extremity movements, specific extremity movements and specific hand movements. In this approach, occupational therapists help preterm infants to self‐organizing and to provide engagement in their own environment [56, 57].
In children receiving developmental intervention, it has been shown that there is an increase in the organization of autonomic, motor and state systems and self‐regulation. In addition, infants receiving developmental intervention are in a decreased state of alert, and this leads to an increase in the quality of social and environmental interactions. Flexion posture is gained instead of extension posture with the intervention program [40, 58]. In this approach, which is a special developmental intervention, the environment is defined as an important area. The nature of the environment, especially the quality of the home environment, also affects gross motor function [46].
The intervention is based on active motor learning, family‐based care, family coaching and environmental enrichment. Family goals and environmental enrichment for motor learning are customized according to the child’s motor skills. This approach involves the activities according to the targets defined to increase of motor practices and the family with home programs [50]. Together with the family, the basic goals related to motor development are defined. The therapist helps the family to set realistic goals in terms of both developmental and temporal aspects. In this intervention, the family should learn how to help the child, the deviations from the target and the needs of the child. The family also should learn how much help they should offer to the child according to needs. The environment for the child is enriched with the right toy selection to find out the motor movement desired in the treatment. If the therapist sees appropriate, siblings take part in treatment. Therefore, the environment is enriched with mother, siblings, therapist and toys [51].
According to Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory, there are four stages of logical thinking: (1) sensory‐motor stage (0–2 years), (2) preoperational stage (2–7 years), (3) concrete operational stage (7–11/12 years), and (4) formal operational stage (11/12 years and over) [59].
Sensory motor phase (0–2 years): The infant tries to understand the environment with his/her senses and motor skills. They start to use simple symbols. The information about the world in that the infant is in is very limited, but he learns about the surroundings with motor movements. When they are about 7 months old, they lose the object permanence. This acquisition is especially important because it shows memory development. When children reach their second birthday, they start to use symbols to think and communicate. Language skills develop during this period. They can evaluate the events from a self‐centered point of view. They can classify objects. Symbolic plays take an important place in the daily life of the child [60].
This defined cognitive development may be delayed in premature infants. Immaturity in neurologic systems and mother infant separation causes impairments in executive functions in premature infants [61]. However, it has been reported that there is a deficiency in verbal and nonverbal abilities in cognitive development in these infants [62].
Occupational therapists try to determine the factors that disrupt successful activity performance in the framework of activity performance. Occupational therapist can obtain information about cognition by observing performance, asking questions to family members and using standardized cognitive tests. The standardized cognitive measures used by occupational therapists are usually related to functional tasks and/or daily objects. These are Wee Functional Independence Measure. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test‐Revised, Bayley Scale of Infant Development‐2nd edition [63].
Early intervention methods to increase cognitive skills of infants, which are applied by occupational therapists are family‐based approaches, developmental interventions and kangaroo care [64–68].
These interventions can be applied at neonatal intensive care unit, at home, child care services and kindergarten. Developmental interventions result in gains in early cognitive development (e.g., infant and preschool age) with inconclusive evidence for gains through school age [64].
Kangaroo care contributes to the neural maturation of prematurity in the neonatal period. There is a increase in autonomic function, maternal attachment and decrease maternal anxiety after care. This leads to the development of cognitive development and executive functions of the child [65].
The education of families of preterm infants is very sensitive to the needs of infants and is very responsive to increased cognitive and attention interaction. The theoretical framework of the intervention is based on the theory of self‐regulation and control. Being able to cope means cognition and behavioral change in order to meet specific internal and external demands. This concept of coping involves arranging emotional responses and problem solving. It is also very important to assess the ability of the mother to cope and its consequences. In such a program, mothers will be informed about their infants’ behavior and will be able to better understand their infants and what they can do. This will increase the infant and mother interaction in an appropriate manner. In the early period, high‐quality family‐infant interaction influences cognitive and social‐emotional development positively. Negative mode of mother, family stress and low level family confidence are problems in child development and behavior in the later period [66].
At the beginning of the practice, infant’s characteristics, stage of development, behaviors, and the intensive care unit where the infant is located are evaluated and recorded by mother. Then therapists should do recommendations to provide caregivers participation in the care and development of the infant, the identification of the infant’s signs of stress and communication readiness, the identification of strategies for calming, and the implementation of the strategies learned in the hospital in the post‐discharge period at home [66–68].
In home‐based therapy, occupational therapist learns how to interact with the infant’s environment and infant’s development of adaptations. More realistic and helpful approaches are offered. Targets are defined according to the needs of the infant, in accordance with the socio‐economic situation of the family. These goals are facilitating the play development, normal sensory‐motor development, and socio‐economic development of infant with the family‐infant interaction. At the same time, it is discussed with the family in relation to premature infants, general development, risk factors of premature infants and play development in children in this treatment [62].
In the context of occupational behavior, play is considered as the primary activity of the child and precondition for the fight/competition of occupational roles in the next life. Observation of the play is easy, but it is difficult to define it theoretically. The play is multidirectional behavior. Internal motivation and enjoyment are often considered in the construction of the play. Play has competing and exploration component. Work and play are developmental continuity; play continuity provides adaptive function in adulthood. During the play, children have the opportunity to explore the surrounding objects and people, how they affect it, develop and test their social and occupational roles. When children move around, they discover the world, receive information from the senses, learn about the properties and nature of the objects, understand their space and time localization. These abilities evolve during the play as children respond to the demands of the environment and interact with them. This provides perceptual, conceptual, intellectual and linguistic development, resulting in the final combination of the cognitive abilities [69]. Child establishes an interactive relationship with peers and learn different roles such as imagining scenarios and preparing food, being a cop or being a firefighter. The success of the role of the player gives meaningful occupational connection and increases the quality of life for child [70].
Children learn by playing games. One of the first steps in the learning process is that the child is self‐aware. After that, he is ready to practice and learn other things related to him. Then, the child moves one step and learns the names of the parts he touches. Then he may explain, “My mouth is under my nose, my ears on the sides of my head.” Then the child uses what they learn and relate to his toys. The baby moves and crawls to recognize both the space and the body. As a result, the child uses this information when feeding, washing and starting to self‐dress. At the same time, the child must learn and understand the world around him. Children learn differences between shapes and structures by playing plays. He does this when he starts taking objects into his mouth. While child learn what to do with the objects in the environment; also he learns to make sound from their toys, shoot and build them. Although the child learns all these and more while playing, as he grows asking questions, practices, learns the wrongs, and improves his skills [71].
Evaluation should be made in the natural environment of infant. The evaluation should be done in consideration of the infant’s position and the time spent in that position, play development, repertoire, play phase, play interests [41, 72]. However, play frequency, current toy variety, physical environment, social interaction with peers and caregivers should be considered in these processes. The cultural structure also affects the value of the play. The occupational therapist should use structured measures as well as the child observes in the unstructured environment. However, the occupational therapist should evaluate the play over as many as five factors: (1) What the infant/toddlers do. (2) Why the infant/toddlers enjoy chosen play activities. (3) How the infant/toddlers approach to the play? (4) Infant’s capacity to play. (5) The relative supportiveness of environment. Standard scales that can be used for play assessments are: Play history, test of playfulness version 4, Revised Knox Preschool Play Scale, Child‐Initiated Play Assessment, Transdisciplinary Play‐Based Assessment, Test of Environmental Supportiveness, Home Observation for Measurement of the environment [63].
Occupational therapist working in sensory integration, neurodevelopmental, occupational behavior and developmental contexts describe the social, constructive and sensorimotor benefits of play and widely use as a treatment modality [69]. Occupational therapists may encounter difficulties in combining plays with different treatments. For example, a spastic diplegic infant’s muscle tone may be exacerbated by effort spent. The therapist can benefit from the play of regulating the tone without disturbing the motivation, curiosity and discovery necessary for the play. Alternatively, it may facilitate cognitive and social development without producing abnormal motion patterns. The clinical decision requires that actual treatment targets be met within infinite total needs [48] or an infant who is hypersensitive to touch may not want to play textured toys. In this example, the occupational therapist can provide the toy that can be adapted to the sensory preference of the child, and giving information to the family about the toy preference of child during the play participation [73].
Occupational therapists define play as a therapeutic intervention, a way of strengthening intervention, a way of developing role. They also use the play as an evaluation tool [74]. Infants and toddlers spend most of their time with playing during the time they are awake. Therefore, play is a very important issue for occupational therapists. Research reveals clearly the relationship between play and learning as well as play and development [75].
According to infant space theory, infant’s play development happens in four stages up to 18 months. The first stage of development is visual play. During the first 2 months, infants are scanned with mothers, then, object tracking outside the visual field, choosing objects, playing with hiding, using eyes and hands together. The second stage of development is mapping and changing the infant’s house view. The third stage of development is play with a fixed object, and the fourth stage of development is play with a mobile object [76].
In play development, the first stage of playing with an object is called an exploratory play. Exploratory play (2–10th months) is the way to evaluate the environment to gain information from objects or toys for infants. The second phase is the relational use of objects (10–18th months). At this stage, objects are combined and defined by hand. Then, the use of functional objects (12–18th month) is learned. Finally, symbolic play is learned (18–30th month) [77]. As a result, therapists should consider treatment plans in view of all these developments.
Occupational therapists use play‐related approaches with interdisciplinary approaches. Piaget’s cognitive and play development theories and Gesell’s motor development theory are among them. It is stated that children show the best performance for play in their natural habitats. In the structured circles, it is stated that the play has less effect on the development than the play in the home environment. It is not easy to create natural environmental opportunities to develop infant skills, but it is very important for development. Occupational therapists use natural play opportunities to create enriched playing environment for infant. Occupational therapists find out what is limiting and makes the necessary adaptations for infant. However, how the spatial structure of the clinical and educational environment affects, development is also assessed. All approaches should be done with the family involvement [76].
The occupational therapist should fully understand the individual and environmental factors, the role of the player, and the time required for the play, in order to facilitate the infant’s play experience and specialize in the player role. The role of the occupational therapist is to improve the child’s potential and abilities for play, to ensure participation in play, to organize the cultural, social, temporal and physical environment that supports the play. The child’s abilities and interests are influenced by the barrier and support of the playing neighborhood, the difficulties and convenience of the play [69].
Playing without constraints allows the infant to discover his own capacity, experiment with objects, make decisions, understand cause‐effect relationships, learn, insist and understand the results. This kind of play strengthens the child’s creativity and improves social development, especially when played with a peer. It also provides the child to learn how to cope with anxiety, frustration and fatigue. Unfortunately, a disabled infant is deprived of the benefits of playing regularly. As a result of this situation, being dependent on another individuals, low motivation, loss of confidence, reduced social skills in unstructured situations can occur for infants. These results will adversely affect the development of the child both early and later in life. Preventing secondary problems is a very important role for the occupational therapist [72, 75].
Many obstacles are defined in front of non‐constraint play. The obstacle created by the caregiver (not knowing exactly what the child will do, risk of injury, etc.), physical and individual limitations of the child (such as inadequate mobility and communication, difficulty in reaching and understanding, impaired sensory responses, reduced internal motivation and concentration), environmental (limitations on home and playground) and social barriers (peer and family interaction problems), cause to the children be deprived from the play. The occupational therapist has the opportunity to work with these children at home, in the field of treatment, or in a wide range of social settings. Occupational therapist can facilitate this consulting process by being aware of the obstacles frequently encountered by the child and by defining the child’s abilities at the same time [69, 75].
In this context, opportunities for free play should be created. Play should be actualized at home, in the community, or during therapy. Opportunities must be created for the child to choose, explore, create, and respond to change in order to be free. At all possible times, the family should be encouraged to explore the child and to establish an independent relationship. The family must understand the value of the play as well as the importance of the play in terms of health and development [69].
The relationship between the family and child should be mutual. Family’s anticipations and beliefs will affect the quality of the play. Sometimes parents see negatively motivation, self‐concept development, and very active participation. In that case, it may be useful to increase the participation of siblings or peers at home or on the playground. The occupational therapist clearly displays the practices that the family will do at home and matches the objects and spaces in the house appropriately. The goals of typical play development take place in daily life experiences. With the treatment being understandable, the therapist and the family will put it in the target they want to see in the child. Thus, therapist uses the natural objects in the house more effectively, and the family contributes to this improvement by using many small play opportunities in everyday life. In this approach, the occupational therapist can place the objects near the child to develop the child’s visual play, follows child to create home memory, and plays along the edges of the room to create spatial development patterns. For playing with stationary objects occupational therapist can use single or combined object plays that can be found in house‐rich playgrounds. Any area of the house (curtains, bookshelf, corridors) and objects can be used for therapeutic toys, far from commercial toys. The therapist can actively take part in the typical development of mobile object play interventions such as dancing, climbing, driving and transporting. At the same time, the therapist can train the family on daily activities and routines for the child to explore the home environment and to promote movement [69, 77].
As a result, the play is child‐centered, organized in the form of flexible and needs‐based interventions with a holistic perspective with participation in the family in occupational therapy approaches.
Stability constant of the formation of metal complexes is used to measure interaction strength of reagents. From this process, metal ion and ligand interaction formed the two types of metal complexes; one is supramolecular complexes known as host-guest complexes [1] and the other is anion-containing complexes. In the solution it provides and calculates the required information about the concentration of metal complexes.
Solubility, light, absorption conductance, partitioning behavior, conductance, and chemical reactivity are the complex characteristics which are different from their components. It is determined by various numerical and graphical methods which calculate the equilibrium constants. This is based on or related to a quantity, and this is called the complex formation function.
During the displacement process at the time of metal complex formation, some ions disappear and form a bonding between metal ions and ligands. It may be considered due to displacement of a proton from a ligand species or ions or molecules causing a drop in the pH values of the solution [2]. Irving and Rossotti developed a technique for the calculation of stability constant, and it is called potentiometric technique.
To determine the stability constant, Bjerrum has used a very simple method, and that is metal salt solubility method. For the studies of a larger different variety of polycarboxylic acid-, oxime-, phenol-containing metal complexes, Martel and Calvin used the potentiometric technique for calculating the stability constant. Those ligands [3, 4] which are uncharged are also examined, and their stability constant calculations are determined by the limitations inherent in the ligand solubility method. The limitations of the metal salt solubility method and the result of solubility methods are compared with this. M-L, MLM, and (M3) L are some types of examples of metal-ligand bonding. One thing is common, and that is these entire types metal complexes all have one ligand.
The solubility method can only usefully be applied to studies of such complexes, and it is best applied for ML; in such types of system, only ML is formed. Jacqueline Gonzalez and his co-worker propose to explore the coordination chemistry of calcium complexes. Jacqueline and et al. followed this technique for evaluate the as partial model of the manganese-calcium cluster and spectrophotometric studies of metal complexes, i.e., they were carried calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine in acetonitrile and calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine by them.
Spectrophotometric programming of HypSpec and received data allows the determination of the formation of solubility constants. The logarithmic values, log β110 = 5.25 for calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine, log β110 = 4.072 for calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine, and log β110 = 4.69 for calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, are obtained for the formation constants [5]. The structure of Cimetidine and histamine H2-receptor is a chelating agent. Syed Ahmad Tirmizi has examined Ni(II) cimetidine complex spectrophotometrically and found an absorption peak maximum of 622 nm with respect to different temperatures.
Syed Ahmad Tirmizi have been used to taken 1:2 ratio of metal and cimetidine compound for the formation of metal complex and this satisfied by molar ratio data. The data, 1.40–2.4 × 108, was calculated using the continuous variation method and stability constant at room temperature, and by using the mole ratio method, this value at 40°C was 1.24–2.4 × 108. In the formation of lead(II) metal complexes with 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexene, Thanavelan et al. found the formation of their binary and ternary complexes. Glycine, l-proline, l-alanine, l-isoleucine, l-valine, and l-leucine are α-amino acids, and these are important biologically [6]. These α-amino acids are also investigated by potentiometric technique at 32°C. The mixed ligands were also studied using these methods. 50% (v/v) DMSO-water medium used for the determination of acidity constants and their stability constants these type ligands. In a stepwise manner, the ternary complexes were synthesized.
Using the stability constant method, these ternary complexes were found out, and using the parameters such as Δ log
The above acids (gallic and aliphatic dicarboxylic acid) were taken to determine the acidity constants. For the purpose of determining the stability constant, binary and ternary complexes were carried in the aqueous medium using the experimental conditions as stated above. The potentiometric pH-metric titration curves are inferred for the binary complexes and ternary complexes at different ratios, and formation of ternary metal complex formation was in a stepwise manner that provided an easy way to calculate stability constants for the formation of metal complexes.
The values of Δ log
A study by Kathrina and Pekar suggests that pH plays an important role in the formation of metal complexes. When epigallocatechin gallate and gallic acid combine with copper(II) to form metal complexes, the pH changes its speculation. We have been able to determine its pH in frozen and fluid state with the help of multifrequency EPR spectroscopy [8]. With the help of this spectroscopy, it is able to detect that each polyphenol exhibits the formation of three different mononuclear species. If the pH ranges 4–8 for di- or polymeric complex of Cu(II), then it conjectures such metal complexes. It is only at alkaline pH values.
The line width in fluid solutions by molecular motion exhibits an incomplete average of the parameters of anisotropy spin Hamilton. If the complexes are different, then their rotational correlation times for this also vary. The analysis of the LyCEP anisotropy of the fluid solution spectra is performed using the parameters determined by the simulation of the rigid boundary spectra. Its result suggests that pH increases its value by affecting its molecular mass. It is a polyphenol ligand complex with copper, showing the coordination of an increasing number of its molecules or increasing participation of polyphenol dimers used as ligands in the copper coordination region.
The study by Vishenkova and his co-worker [8] provides the investigation of electrochemical properties of triphenylmethane dyes using a voltammetric method with constant-current potential sweep. Malachite green (MG) and basic fuchsin (BF) have been chosen as representatives of the triphenylmethane dyes [9]. The electrochemical behavior of MG and BF on the surface of a mercury film electrode depending on pH, the nature of background electrolyte, and scan rate of potential sweep has been investigated.
Using a voltammetric method with a constant-current potential sweep examines the electrical properties of triphenylmethane dye. In order to find out the solution of MG and BF, certain registration conditions have been prescribed for it, which have proved to be quite useful. The reduction peak for the currents of MG and BF has demonstrated that it increases linearly with respect to their concentration as 9.0 × 10−5–7.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for MG and 6.0 × 10−5–8.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for BF and correlation coefficients of these values are 0.9987 for MG and 0.9961 for BF [10].
5.0 × 10−5 and 2.0 × 10−5 mol/dm3 are the values used as the detection limit of MG and BF, respectively. Stability constants are a very useful technique whose size is huge. Due to its usefulness, it has acquired an umbrella right in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. No science subject is untouched by this. Stability constants of metal complexes are widely used in the various areas like pharmaceuticals as well as biological processes, separation techniques, analytical processes, etc. In the presented chapter, we have tried to explain this in detail by focusing our attention on the applications and solutions of stability of metal complexes in solution.
Stability or formation or binding constant is the type of equilibrium constant used for the formation of metal complexes in the solution. Acutely, stability constant is applicable to measure the strength of interactions between the ligands and metal ions that are involved in complex formation in the solution [11]. A generally these 1-4 equations are expressed as the following ways:
Thus
K1, K2, K3, … Kn are the equilibrium constants and these are also called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the metal-ligand-n complex may also be expressed as equilibrium constants by the following steps:
The parameters K and β are related together, and these are expressed in the following example:
Now the numerator and denominator are multiplied together with the use of [metal-ligand] [metal-ligand2], and after the rearranging we get the following equation:
Now we expressed it as the following:
From the above relation, it is clear that the overall stability constant βn is equal to the product of the successive (i.e., stepwise) stability constants, K1, K2, K3,…Kn. This in other words means that the value of stability constants for a given complex is actually made up of a number of stepwise stability constants. The term stability is used without qualification to mean that the complex exists under a suitable condition and that it is possible to store the complex for an appreciable amount of time. The term stability is commonly used because coordination compounds are stable in one reagent but dissociate or dissolve in the presence of another regent. It is also possible that the term stability can be referred as an action of heat or light or compound. The stability of complex [13] is expressed qualitatively in terms of thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability.
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is a state in which the concentration of reactants and products does not change over time. Often this condition occurs when the speed of forward reaction becomes the same as the speed of reverse reaction. It is worth noting that the velocities of the forward and backward reaction are not zero at this stage but are equal.
If hydrogen and iodine are kept together in molecular proportions in a closed process vessel at high temperature (500°C), the following action begins:
In this activity, hydrogen iodide is formed by combining hydrogen and iodine, and the amount of hydrogen iodide increases with time. In contrast to this action, if the pure hydrogen iodide gas is heated to 500°C in the reaction, the compound is dissolved by reverse action, which causes hydrogen iodide to dissolve into hydrogen and iodine, and the ratio of these products increases over time. This is expressed in the following reaction:
For the formation of metal chelates, the thermodynamic technique provides a very significant information. Thermodynamics is a very useful technique in distinguishing between enthalpic effects and entropic effects. The bond strengths are totally effected by enthalpic effect, and this does not make any difference in the whole solution in order/disorder. Based on thermodynamics the chelate effect below can be best explained. The change of standard Gibbs free energy for equilibrium constant is response:
Where:
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
At 25°C,
ΔG = (− 5.708 kJ mol−1) · log β.
The enthalpy term creates free energy, i.e.,
For metal complexes, thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability are two interpretations of the stability constant in the solution. If reaction moves from reactants to products, it refers to a change in its energy as shown in the above equation. But for the reactivity, kinetic stability is responsible for this system, and this refers to ligand species [14].
Stable and unstable are thermodynamic terms, while labile and inert are kinetic terms. As a rule of thumb, those complexes which react completely within about 1 minute at 25°C are considered labile, and those complexes which take longer time than this to react are considered inert. [Ni(CN)4]2− is thermodynamically stable but kinetically inert because it rapidly exchanges ligands.
The metal complexes [Co(NH3)6]3+ and such types of other complexes are kinetically inert, but these are thermodynamically unstable. We may expect the complex to decompose in the presence of acid immediately because the complex is thermodynamically unstable. The rate is of the order of 1025 for the decomposition in acidic solution. Hence, it is thermodynamically unstable. However, nothing happens to the complex when it is kept in acidic solution for several days. While considering the stability of a complex, always the condition must be specified. Under what condition, the complex which is stable or unstable must be specified such as acidic and also basic condition, temperature, reactant, etc.
A complex may be stable with respect to a particular condition but with respect to another. In brief, a stable complex need not be inert and similarly, and an unstable complex need not be labile. It is the measure of extent of formation or transformation of complex under a given set of conditions at equilibrium [15].
Thermodynamic stability has an important role in determining the bond strength between metal ligands. Some complexes are stable, but as soon as they are introduced into aqueous solution, it is seen that these complexes have an effect on stability and fall apart. For an example, we take the [Co (SCN)4]2+ complex. The ion bond of this complex is very weak and breaks down quickly to form other compounds. But when [Fe(CN)6]3− is dissolved in water, it does not test Fe3+ by any sensitive reagent, which shows that this complex is more stable in aqueous solution. So it is indicated that thermodynamic stability deals with metal-ligand bond energy, stability constant, and other thermodynamic parameters.
This example also suggests that thermodynamic stability refers to the stability and instability of complexes. The measurement of the extent to which one type of species is converted to another species can be determined by thermodynamic stability until equilibrium is achieved. For example, tetracyanonickelate is a thermodynamically stable and kinetic labile complex. But the example of hexa-amine cobalt(III) cation is just the opposite:
Thermodynamics is used to express the difference between stability and inertia. For the stable complex, large positive free energies have been obtained from ΔG0 reaction. The ΔH0, standard enthalpy change for this reaction, is related to the equilibrium constant, βn, by the well thermodynamic equation:
For similar complexes of various ions of the same charge of a particular transition series and particular ligand, ΔS0 values would not differ substantially, and hence a change in ΔH0 value would be related to change in βn values. So the order of values of ΔH0 is also the order of the βn value.
Kinetic stability is referred to the rate of reaction between the metal ions and ligand proceeds at equilibrium or used for the formation of metal complexes. To take a decision for kinetic stability of any complexes, time is a factor which plays an important role for this. It deals between the rate of reaction and what is the mechanism of this metal complex reaction.
As we discuss above in thermodynamic stability, kinetic stability is referred for the complexes at which complex is inert or labile. The term “inert” was used by Tube for the thermally stable complex and for reactive complexes the term ‘labile’ used [16]. The naturally occurring chlorophyll is the example of polydentate ligand. This complex is extremely inert due to exchange of Mg2+ ion in the aqueous media.
The nature of central atom of metal complexes, dimension, its degree of oxidation, electronic structure of these complexes, and so many other properties of complexes are affected by the stability constant. Some of the following factors described are as follows.
In the coordination chemistry, metal complexes are formed by the interaction between metal ions and ligands. For these type of compounds, metal ions are the coordination center, and the ligand or complexing agents are oriented surrounding it. These metal ions mostly are the transition elements. For the determination of stability constant, some important characteristics of these metal complexes may be as given below.
Ligands are oriented around the central metal ions in the metal complexes. The sizes of these metal ions determine the number of ligand species that will be attached or ordinated (dative covalent) in the bond formation. If the sizes of these metal ions are increased, the stability of coordination compound defiantly decreased. Zn(II) metal ions are the central atoms in their complexes, and due to their lower size (0.74A°) as compared to Cd(II) size (0.97A°), metal ions are formed more stable.
Hence, Al3+ ion has the greatest nuclear charge, but its size is the smallest, and the ion N3− has the smallest nuclear charge, and its size is the largest [17]. Inert atoms like neon do not participate in the formation of the covalent or ionic compound, and these atoms are not included in isoelectronic series; hence, it is not easy to measure the radius of this type of atoms.
The properties of stability depend on the size of the metal ion used in the complexes and the total charge thereon. If the size of these metal ions is small and the total charge is high, then their complexes will be more stable. That is, their ratio will depend on the charge/radius. This can be demonstrated through the following reaction:
An ionic charge is the electric charge of an ion which is formed by the gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons from an atom or group of atoms. If we talk about the stability of the coordination compounds, we find that the total charge of their central metal ions affects their stability, so when we change their charge, their stability in a range of constant can be determined by propagating of error [18]. If the charge of the central metal ion is high and the size is small, the stability of the compound is high:
In general, the most stable coordination bonds can cause smaller and highly charged rations to form more stable coordination compounds.
When an electron pair attracts a central ion toward itself, a strong stability complex is formed, and this is due to electron donation from ligand → metal ion. This donation process is increasing the bond stability of metal complexes exerted the polarizing effect on certain metal ions. Li+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, etc. are such type of metal cation which is not able to attract so strongly from a highly electronegative containing stable complexes, and these atoms are O, N, F, Au, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, and Pb. Such type of ligands that contains P, S, As, Br and I atom are formed stable complex because these accepts electron from M → π-bonding. Hg2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, and Bi3+ metal ions are also electronegative ions which form insoluble salts of metal sulfide which are insoluble in aqueous medium.
Volatile ligands may be lost at higher temperature. This is exemplified by the loss of water by hydrates and ammonia:
The transformation of certain coordination compounds from one to another is shown as follows:
A ligand is an ion or small molecule that binds to a metal atom (in chemistry) or to a biomolecule (in biochemistry) to form a complex, such as the iron-cyanide coordination complex Prussian blue or the iron-containing blood-protein hemoglobin. The ligands are arranged in spectrochemical series which are based on the order of their field strength. It is not possible to form the entire series by studying complexes with a single metal ion; the series has been developed by overlapping different sequences obtained from spectroscopic studies [19]. The order of common ligands according to their increasing ligand field strength is
The above spectrochemical series help us to for determination of strength of ligands. The left last ligand is as weaker ligand. These weaker ligand cannot forcible binding the 3d electron and resultant outer octahedral complexes formed. It is as-
Increasing the oxidation number the value of Δ increased.
Δ increases from top to bottom.
However, when we consider the metal ion, the following two useful trends are observed:
Δ increases with increasing oxidation number.
Δ increases down a group. For the determination of stability constant, the nature of the ligand plays an important role.
The following factors described the nature of ligands.
The size and charge are two factors that affect the production of metal complexes. The less charges and small sizes of ligands are more favorable for less stable bond formation with metal and ligand. But if this condition just opposite the product of metal and ligand will be a more stable compound. So, less nuclear charge and more size= less stable complex whereas if more nuclear charge and small in size= less stable complex. We take fluoride as an example because due to their smaller size than other halide and their highest electro negativity than the other halides formed more stable complexes. So, fluoride ion complexes are more stable than the other halides:
As compared to S2− ion, O22− ions formed more stable complexes.
It is suggested by Calvin and Wilson that the metal complexes will be more stable if the basic character or strength of ligands is higher. It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high [20].
It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high. In the case of complex formation of aliphatic diamines and aromatic diamines, the stable complex is formed by aliphatic diamines, while an unstable coordination complex is formed with aromatic diamines. So, from the above discussion, we find that the stability will be grater if the e-donation power is greater.
Thus it is clear that greater basic power of electron-donating species will form always a stable complex. NH3, CN−, and F− behaved as ligands and formed stable complexes; on the other hand, these are more basic in nature.
We know that if the concentration of coordination group is higher, these coordination compounds will exist in the water as solution. It is noted that greater coordinating tendency show the water molecules than the coordinating group which is originally present. SCN− (thiocynate) ions are present in higher concentration; with the Co2+ metal ion, it formed a blue-colored complex which is stable in state, but on dilution of water medium, a pink color is generated in place of blue, or blue color complex is destroyed by [Co(H2O)6]2+, and now if we added further SCN−, the pink color will not appear:
Now it is clear that H2O and SCN− are in competition for the formation of Co(II) metal-containing complex compound. In the case of tetra-amine cupric sulfate metal complex, ammonia acts as a donor atom or ligand. If the concentration of NH3 is lower in the reaction, copper hydroxide is formed but at higher concentration formed tetra-amine cupric sulfate as in the following reaction:
For a metal ion, chelating ligand is enhanced and affinity it and this is known as chelate effect and compared it with non-chelating and monodentate ligand or the multidentate ligand is acts as chelating agent. Ethylenediamine is a simple chelating agent (Figure 1).
Structure of ethylenediamine.
Due to the bidentate nature of ethylenediamine, it forms two bonds with metal ion or central atom. Water forms a complex with Ni(II) metal ion, but due to its monodentate nature, it is not a chelating ligand (Figures 2 and 3).
Structure of chelating configuration of ethylenediamine ligand.
Structure of chelate with three ethylenediamine ligands.
The dentate cheater of ligand provides bonding strength to the metal ion or central atom, and as the number of dentate increased, the tightness also increased. This phenomenon is known as chelating effect, whereas the formation of metal complexes with these chelating ligands is called chelation:
or
Some factors are of much importance for chelation as follows.
The sizes of the chelating ring are increased as well as the stability of metal complex decreased. According to Schwarzenbach, connecting bridges form the chelating rings. The elongated ring predominates when long bridges connect to the ligand to form a long ring. It is usually observed that an increased a chelate ring size leads to a decrease in complex stability.
He interpreted this statement. The entropy of complex will be change if the size of chelating ring is increased, i.e., second donor atom is allowed by the chelating ring. As the size of chelating ring increased, the stability should be increased with entropy effect. Four-membered ring compounds are unstable, whereas five-membered are more stable. So the chelating ring increased its size and the stability of the formed metal complexes.
The number of chelating rings also decides the stability of complexes. Non-chelating metal compounds are less stable than chelating compounds. These numbers increase the thermodynamic volume, and this is also known as an entropy term. In recent years ligands capable of occupying as many as six coordination positions on a single metal ion have been described. The studies on the formation constants of coordination compounds with these ligands have been reported. The numbers of ligand or chelating agents are affecting the stability of metal complexes so as these numbers go up and down, the stability will also vary with it.
For the Ni(II) complexes with ethylenediamine as chelating agent, its log K1 value is 7.9 and if chelating agents are trine and penten, then the log K1 values are 7.9 and 19.3, respectively. If the metal ion change Zn is used in place of Ni (II), then the values of log K1 for ethylenediamine, trine, and penten are 6.0, 12.1, and 16.2, respectively. The log βMY values of metal ions are given in Table 1.
Metal ion | log βMY (25°C, I = 0.1 M) |
---|---|
Ca2+ | 11.2 |
Cu2+ | 19.8 |
Fe3+ | 24.9 |
Metal ion vs. log βMY values.
Ni(NH3)62+ is an octahedral metal complex, and at 25 °C its log β6 value is 8.3, but Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ complex is also octahedral in geometry, with 18.4 as the value of log β6. The calculated stability value of Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ 1010 times is more stable because three rings are formed as chelating rings by ethylenediamine as compared to no such ring is formed. Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) is a hexadentate ligand that usually formed stable metal complexes due to its chelating power.
A special effect in molecules is when the atoms occupy space. This is called steric effect. Energy is needed to bring these atoms closer to each other. These electrons run away from near atoms. There can be many ways of generating it. We know the repulsion between valence electrons as the steric effect which increases the energy of the current system [21]. Favorable or unfavorable any response is created.
For example, if the static effect is greater than that of a product in a metal complex formation process, then the static increase would favor this reaction. But if the case is opposite, the skepticism will be toward retardation.
This effect will mainly depend on the conformational states, and the minimum steric interaction theory can also be considered. The effect of secondary steric is seen on receptor binding produced by an alternative such as:
Reduced access to a critical group.
Stick barrier.
Electronic resonance substitution bond by repulsion.
Population of a conformer changes due to active shielding effect.
The macrocyclic effect is exactly like the image of the chelate effect. It means the principle of both is the same. But the macrocyclic effect suggests cyclic deformation of the ligand. Macrocyclic ligands are more tainted than chelating agents. Rather, their compounds are more stable due to their cyclically constrained constriction. It requires some entropy in the body to react with the metal ion. For example, for a tetradentate cyclic ligand, we can use heme-B which forms a metal complex using Fe+2 ions in biological systems (Figure 4).
Structure of hemoglobin is the biological complex compound which contains Fe(II) metal ion.
The n-dentate chelating agents play an important role for the formation of more stable metal complexes as compared to n-unidentate ligands. But the n-dentate macrocyclic ligand gives more stable environment in the metal complexes as compared to open-chain ligands. This change is very favorable for entropy (ΔS) and enthalpy (ΔH) change.
There are so many parameters to determination of formation constants or stability constant in solution for all types of chelating agents. These numerous parameters or techniques are refractive index, conductance, temperature, distribution coefficients, refractive index, nuclear magnetic resonance volume changes, and optical activity.
Solubility products are helpful and used for the insoluble salt that metal ions formed and complexes which are also formed by metal ions and are more soluble. The formation constant is observed in presence of donor atoms by measuring increased solubility.
To determine the solubility constant, it involves the distribution of the ligands or any complex species; metal ions are present in two immiscible solvents like water and carbon tetrachloride, benzene, etc.
In this method metal ions or ligands are present in solution and on exchanger. A solid polymers containing with positive and negative ions are ion exchange resins. These are insoluble in nature. This technique is helpful to determine the metal ions in resin phase, liquid phase, or even in radioactive metal. This method is also helpful to determine the polarizing effect of metal ions on the stability of ligands like Cu(II) and Zn(II) with amino acid complex formation.
At the equilibrium free metal and ions are present in the solution, and using the different electrometric techniques as described determines its stability constant.
This method is based upon the titration method or follows its principle. A stranded acid-base solution used as titrate and which is titrated, it may be strong base or strong acid follows as potentiometrically. The concentration of solution using 103− M does not decomposed during the reaction process, and this method is useful for protonated and nonprotonated ligands.
This is the graphic method used to determine the stability constant in producing metal complex formation by plotting a polarograph between the absences of substances and the presence of substances. During the complex formation, the presence of metal ions produced a shift in the half-wave potential in the solution.
If a complex is relatively slow to form and also decomposes at measurable rate, it is possible, in favorable situations, to determine the equilibrium constant.
This involves the study of the equilibrium constant of slow complex formation reactions. The use of tracer technique is extremely useful for determining the concentrations of dissociation products of the coordination compound.
This method is based on the study of the effect of an equilibrium concentration of some ions on the function at a definite organ of a living organism. The equilibrium concentration of the ion studied may be determined by the action of this organ in systems with complex formation.
The solution of 25 ml is adopted by preparing at the 1.0 × 10−5 M ligand or 1.0 × 10−5 M concentration and 1.0 × 10−5 M for the metal ion:
The solutions containing the metal ions were considered both at a pH sufficiently high to give almost complete complexation and at a pH value selected in order to obtain an equilibrium system of ligand and complexes.
In order to avoid modification of the spectral behavior of the ligand due to pH variations, it has been verified that the range of pH considered in all cases does not affect absorbance values. Use the collected pH values adopted for the determinations as well as selected wavelengths. The ionic strengths calculated from the composition of solutions allowed activity coefficient corrections. Absorbance values were determined at wavelengths in the range 430–700 nm, every 2 nm.
For a successive metal complex formation, use this method. If ligand is protonate and the produced complex has maximum number of donate atoms of ligands, a selective light is absorbed by this complex, while for determination of stability constant, it is just known about the composition of formed species.
Bjerrum (1941) used the method stepwise addition of the ligands to coordination sphere for the formation of complex. So, complex metal–ligand-n forms as the following steps [22]. The equilibrium constants, K1, K2, K3, … Kn are called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the complex metal-ligandn may also be expressed by the following steps and equilibrium constants.
Where:
M = central metal cation
L = monodentate ligand
N = maximum coordination number for the metal ion M for the ligand
If a complex ion is slow to reach equilibrium, it is often possible to apply the method of isotopic dilution to determine the equilibrium concentration of one or more of the species. Most often radioactive isotopes are used.
This method was extensively used by Werner and others to study metal complexes. In the case of a series of complexes of Co(III) and Pt(IV), Werner assigned the correct formulae on the basis of their molar conductance values measured in freshly prepared dilute solutions. In some cases, the conductance of the solution increased with time due to a chemical change, e.g.,
It is concluded that the information presented is very important to determine the stability constant of the ligand metal complexes. Some methods like spectrophotometric method, Bjerrum’s method, distribution method, ion exchange method, electrometric techniques, and potentiometric method have a huge contribution in quantitative analysis by easily finding the stability constants of metal complexes in aqueous solutions.
All the authors thank the Library of University of Delhi for reference books, journals, etc. which helped us a lot in reviewing the chapter.
As a company committed to the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the OAI Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAI-PMH Version 2.0).
',metaTitle:"OAI-PMH",metaDescription:"As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the OAI Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAI-PMH Version 2.0).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/oai-pmh",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) is used to govern the collection of metadata descriptions and enables other archives to access our database. The Protocol has been developed by the Open Archives Initiative, based on ensuring interoperability standards in order to ease and promote broader and more efficient dissemination of information within the scientific community.
\\n\\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\\n\\nAs a Data Provider, metadata for published Chapters and Journal Articles are available via our interface at the base URL: http://mts.intechopen.com/oai/index.php
\\n\\nREQUESTS
\\n\\nYou can find out more about the Protocol by visiting the Open Archives website. For additional questions please contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nDATABASES
\\n\\nDatabases, repositories and search engines that provide services based on metadata harvested using the OAI metadata harvesting protocol include:
\\n\\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
\\n\\nOne of the world's most powerful search engines, used primarily for academic Open Access web resources.
\\n\\n\\n\\nA search engine for online catalogues of publications from all over the world.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) is used to govern the collection of metadata descriptions and enables other archives to access our database. The Protocol has been developed by the Open Archives Initiative, based on ensuring interoperability standards in order to ease and promote broader and more efficient dissemination of information within the scientific community.
\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\n\nAs a Data Provider, metadata for published Chapters and Journal Articles are available via our interface at the base URL: http://mts.intechopen.com/oai/index.php
\n\nREQUESTS
\n\nYou can find out more about the Protocol by visiting the Open Archives website. For additional questions please contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\nDATABASES
\n\nDatabases, repositories and search engines that provide services based on metadata harvested using the OAI metadata harvesting protocol include:
\n\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
\n\nOne of the world's most powerful search engines, used primarily for academic Open Access web resources.
\n\n\n\nA search engine for online catalogues of publications from all over the world.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5816},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5281},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1754},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:906},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15912}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119060},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3805b3d2fceb9d33e1fa805687cd296",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10689.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Calorimetry - New Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb239599406f0b731bbfd62c1c8dbf3f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10709",title:"Heart Valve Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cb3479fd272d968ee7eee95ae09ea9db",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10712",title:"Thrombectomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"853e71d74c3dd5007277d3770e639d47",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10712.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10715",title:"Brain MRI",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d56c88c53776966959f41f8b75daafd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10715.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10730",title:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2ac3ed12d9db14ee4bc66d7808c82295",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10730.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:44},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:215},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5315},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9536",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",bookSignature:"Sharon Waller, Lee Waller, Vongai Mpofu and Mercy Kurebwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9524",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef47e03cd4e6476946fc28ca51de825",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation",bookSignature:"Vassil Mihaylov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassil",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylov",slug:"vassil-mihaylov",fullName:"Vassil Mihaylov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"289",title:"Industrial Engineering",slug:"technology-industrial-engineering",parent:{title:"Technology",slug:"technology"},numberOfBooks:17,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:346,numberOfWosCitations:180,numberOfCrossrefCitations:127,numberOfDimensionsCitations:273,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"technology-industrial-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9288",title:"Design and Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29172b8e746a303c2c48f39292fd4c10",slug:"design-and-manufacturing",bookSignature:"Evren Yasa, Mohsen Mhadhbi and Eleonora Santecchia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9288.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219594",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Evren",middleName:null,surname:"Yasa",slug:"evren-yasa",fullName:"Evren Yasa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8540",title:"Current Drying Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3ebb761607fa27f2d32dd269ee2f2c0f",slug:"current-drying-processes",bookSignature:"Israel Pala-Rosas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8540.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"284261",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Israel",middleName:null,surname:"Pala-Rosas",slug:"israel-pala-rosas",fullName:"Israel Pala-Rosas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9428",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e089eec484ce8e9eb32198c2d8b34ea",slug:"new-trends-in-the-use-of-artificial-intelligence-for-the-industry-4-0",bookSignature:"Luis Romeral Martínez, Roque A. Osornio Rios and Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9428.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9426",title:"Industry 4.0",subtitle:"Current Status and Future Trends",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9d1cc5119410371683c26acc0239d22",slug:"industry-4-0-current-status-and-future-trends",bookSignature:"Jesús Hamilton Ortiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9426.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"97704",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús Hamilton",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jesus-hamilton-ortiz",fullName:"Jesús Hamilton Ortiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7529",title:"Industry 4.0",subtitle:"Impact on Intelligent Logistics and Manufacturing",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a750fbddad49434288a89b9eb40a893",slug:"industry-4-0-impact-on-intelligent-logistics-and-manufacturing",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai, Antonella Petrilloand Fabio De Felice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7529.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9278",title:"Mass Production Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"789ba305188dfbafa096787e75c14ffc",slug:"mass-production-processes",bookSignature:"Anil Akdogan and Ali Serdar Vanli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9278.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190673",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Akdogan",slug:"anil-akdogan",fullName:"Anil Akdogan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"165b06fe031e98420855654b0a5e25c4",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6736",title:"Abrasive Technology",subtitle:"Characteristics and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"928e702841e3f565da642039ea0c31ce",slug:"abrasive-technology-characteristics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6736.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110857",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Rudawska",slug:"anna-rudawska",fullName:"Anna Rudawska"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6245",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02d43c16cfb998c3a76fb4aab8d88403",slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",bookSignature:"Salim Newaz Kazi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6245.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6652",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",subtitle:"Advances in Modelling and Experimental Study for Industrial Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7981cc291e9ee4ff4634384466570ec6",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-modelling-and-experimental-study-for-industrial-applications",bookSignature:"Yong Ren",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6652.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177059",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",slug:"yong-ren",fullName:"Yong Ren"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6594",title:"Temperature Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"598e9ad9be0629fa35cf14915a8da943",slug:"temperature-sensing",bookSignature:"Ivanka Stanimirovi? and Zdravko Stanimirovi?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6594.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivanka",middleName:null,surname:"Stanimirović",slug:"ivanka-stanimirovic",fullName:"Ivanka Stanimirović"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:17,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"34671",doi:"10.5772/35299",title:"The Micro Injection Moulding Process for Polymeric Components Manufacturing",slug:"the-micro-injection-moulding-process-for-polymeric-components-manufacturing",totalDownloads:10961,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:26,book:{slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",title:"New Technologies",fullTitle:"New Technologies - Trends, Innovations and Research"},signatures:"R. Surace, G. Trotta, V. Bellantone and I. Fassi",authors:[{id:"11409",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Fassi",slug:"irene-fassi",fullName:"Irene Fassi"},{id:"103804",title:"Dr.",name:"Rossella",middleName:null,surname:"Surace",slug:"rossella-surace",fullName:"Rossella Surace"},{id:"114909",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Bellantone",slug:"vincenzo-bellantone",fullName:"Vincenzo Bellantone"},{id:"118566",title:"MSc.",name:"Gianluca",middleName:null,surname:"Trotta",slug:"gianluca-trotta",fullName:"Gianluca Trotta"}]},{id:"34672",doi:"10.5772/33302",title:"Recent Advances in Multi-Dimensional Packing Problems",slug:"recent-advances-in-multi-dimensional-packing-problems",totalDownloads:3058,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",title:"New Technologies",fullTitle:"New Technologies - Trends, Innovations and Research"},signatures:"Teodor Gabriel Crainic, Guido Perboli and Roberto Tadei",authors:[{id:"94832",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Tadei",slug:"roberto-tadei",fullName:"Roberto Tadei"},{id:"95093",title:"Dr.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Perboli",slug:"guido-perboli",fullName:"Guido Perboli"},{id:"119947",title:"Prof.",name:"Teodor Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Crainic",slug:"teodor-gabriel-crainic",fullName:"Teodor Gabriel Crainic"}]},{id:"36717",doi:"10.5772/36553",title:"Optical Measurements: Polarization and Coherence of Light Fields",slug:"the-state-of-the-art-ande-prospects-of-metrology",totalDownloads:2808,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"modern-metrology-concerns",title:"Modern Metrology Concerns",fullTitle:"Modern Metrology Concerns"},signatures:"O. V. Angelsky, P. V. Polyanskii, I. I. Mokhun, C. Yu. Zenkova, H. V. Bogatyryova, Ch. V. Felde, V. T. Bachinskiy, T. M. Boichuk and A. G. Ushenko",authors:[{id:"108799",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Angelsky",slug:"oleg-angelsky",fullName:"Oleg Angelsky"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62223",title:"Pulping and Papermaking of Non-Wood Fibers",slug:"pulping-and-papermaking-of-non-wood-fibers",totalDownloads:2504,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Zhong Liu, Huimei Wang and Lanfeng Hui",authors:[{id:"218005",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhong",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"zhong-liu",fullName:"Zhong Liu"},{id:"220665",title:"Prof.",name:"Lanfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Hui",slug:"lanfeng-hui",fullName:"Lanfeng Hui"},{id:"220666",title:"Dr.",name:"Huimei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"huimei-wang",fullName:"Huimei Wang"}]},{id:"63362",title:"Pulping of Non-Woody Biomass",slug:"pulping-of-non-woody-biomass",totalDownloads:1287,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"}]},{id:"64172",title:"Application of Six Sigma in Semiconductor Manufacturing: A Case Study in Yield Improvement",slug:"application-of-six-sigma-in-semiconductor-manufacturing-a-case-study-in-yield-improvement",totalDownloads:1148,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly"},signatures:"Prashant Reddy Gangidi",authors:[{id:"248796",title:"Mr.",name:"Prashant",middleName:null,surname:"Gangidi",slug:"prashant-gangidi",fullName:"Prashant Gangidi"}]},{id:"70465",title:"Industry 4.0: Current Status and Future Trends",slug:"industry-4-0-current-status-and-future-trends",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"industry-4-0-current-status-and-future-trends",title:"Industry 4.0",fullTitle:"Industry 4.0 - Current Status and Future Trends"},signatures:"Jesús Hamilton Ortiz, William Gutierrez Marroquin and Leonardo Zambrano Cifuentes",authors:[{id:"283288",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Hamilton",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jesus-hamilton-ortiz",fullName:"Jesus Hamilton Ortiz"},{id:"308289",title:"Mr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:"Leonardo",surname:"Zambrano Cifuentes",slug:"rafael-zambrano-cifuentes",fullName:"Rafael Zambrano Cifuentes"}]},{id:"59931",title:"Abrasive for Chemical Mechanical Polishing",slug:"abrasive-for-chemical-mechanical-polishing",totalDownloads:1663,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"abrasive-technology-characteristics-and-applications",title:"Abrasive Technology",fullTitle:"Abrasive Technology - Characteristics and Applications"},signatures:"Hong Jin Kim",authors:[{id:"235449",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong Jin",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"hong-jin-kim",fullName:"Hong Jin Kim"}]},{id:"69320",title:"Big Data Analytics and Its Applications in Supply Chain Management",slug:"big-data-analytics-and-its-applications-in-supply-chain-management",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"new-trends-in-the-use-of-artificial-intelligence-for-the-industry-4-0",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",fullTitle:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0"},signatures:"Saeid Sadeghi Darvazeh, Iman Raeesi Vanani and Farzaneh Mansouri Musolu",authors:[{id:"296039",title:"Dr.",name:"Iman",middleName:null,surname:"Raeesi Vanaei",slug:"iman-raeesi-vanaei",fullName:"Iman Raeesi Vanaei"},{id:"309983",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Saeid",middleName:null,surname:"Sadeghi Darvazeh",slug:"saeid-sadeghi-darvazeh",fullName:"Saeid Sadeghi Darvazeh"},{id:"310095",title:"Ms.",name:"Farzaneh",middleName:null,surname:"Mansouri Musolu",slug:"farzaneh-mansouri-musolu",fullName:"Farzaneh Mansouri Musolu"}]},{id:"62258",title:"Different Solvents for Organosolv Pulping",slug:"different-solvents-for-organosolv-pulping",totalDownloads:1030,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Alejandro Rodríguez, Eduardo Espinosa, Juan Domínguez-Robles,\nRafael Sánchez, Isabel Bascón and Antonio Rosal",authors:[{id:"218209",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"alejandro-rodriguez",fullName:"Alejandro Rodríguez"},{id:"221719",title:"Mr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Espinosa",slug:"eduardo-espinosa",fullName:"Eduardo Espinosa"},{id:"221720",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Domínguez-Robles",slug:"juan-dominguez-robles",fullName:"Juan Domínguez-Robles"},{id:"221722",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez",slug:"rafael-sanchez",fullName:"Rafael Sánchez"},{id:"221723",title:"Mrs.",name:"Isabeñ",middleName:null,surname:"Bascón",slug:"isaben-bascon",fullName:"Isabeñ Bascón"},{id:"221724",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rosal",slug:"antonio-rosal",fullName:"Antonio Rosal"}]},{id:"63861",title:"Digital Twin Technology",slug:"digital-twin-technology",totalDownloads:586,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"industry-4-0-impact-on-intelligent-logistics-and-manufacturing",title:"Industry 4.0",fullTitle:"Industry 4.0 - Impact on Intelligent Logistics and Manufacturing"},signatures:"Zongyan Wang",authors:[{id:"255874",title:"Dr.",name:"Zongyan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zongyan-wang",fullName:"Zongyan Wang"}]},{id:"62158",title:"Environmentally Friendly Method for the Separation of Cellulose from Steam-Exploded Rice Straw and Its High-Value Applications",slug:"environmentally-friendly-method-for-the-separation-of-cellulose-from-steam-exploded-rice-straw-and-i",totalDownloads:774,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"pulp-and-paper-processing",title:"Pulp and Paper Processing",fullTitle:"Pulp and Paper Processing"},signatures:"Guangjun Gou, Wei Wei, Man Jiang, Shengli Zhang, Tingju Lu,\nXiaoli Xie, Fanbin Meng and Zuowan Zhou",authors:[{id:"143059",title:"Prof.",name:"Zuowan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"zuowan-zhou",fullName:"Zuowan Zhou"},{id:"221027",title:"Mr.",name:"Guangjun",middleName:null,surname:"Gou",slug:"guangjun-gou",fullName:"Guangjun Gou"},{id:"221028",title:"Mr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",slug:"wei-wei",fullName:"Wei Wei"},{id:"221029",title:"Dr.",name:"Man",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"man-jiang",fullName:"Man Jiang"},{id:"221030",title:"Dr.",name:"Shengli",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"shengli-zhang",fullName:"Shengli Zhang"},{id:"221031",title:"MSc.",name:"Tingju",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"tingju-lu",fullName:"Tingju Lu"},{id:"221032",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoli",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"xiaoli-xie",fullName:"Xiaoli Xie"},{id:"221033",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanbin",middleName:null,surname:"Meng",slug:"fanbin-meng",fullName:"Fanbin Meng"}]},{id:"29653",title:"Strategies to Increase Energy Efficiency of Centrifugal Pumps",slug:"strategies-to-increase-energy-efficiency-of-centrifugal-pumps",totalDownloads:12320,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"centrifugal-pumps",title:"Centrifugal Pumps",fullTitle:"Centrifugal Pumps"},signatures:"Trinath Sahoo",authors:[{id:"64817",title:"Dr.",name:"Trinath",middleName:null,surname:"Sahoo",slug:"trinath-sahoo",fullName:"Trinath Sahoo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"technology-industrial-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"book.detail",path:"/books/the-role-of-technology-in-education",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"the-role-of-technology-in-education"},fullPath:"/books/the-role-of-technology-in-education",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()