\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1816",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Biosphere",title:"The Biosphere",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'In this book entitled "The Biosphere", researchers from all regions of the world report on their findings to explore the origins, evolution, ecosystems and resource utilization patterns of the biosphere. 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Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9538",leadTitle:null,title:"Demographic Analysis - Selected Concepts, Tools, and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe book Demographic Analysis - Selected Concepts, Tools, and Applications, aims to present basic definitions, practical techniques, and methods as well as examples of studies based on usage of demographic analysis in various institutions and economic entities. The authors are welcome to introduce the specifics of demographic information, data collection, demographic software as well as measures and analyses of fertility, mortality, life tables, migration, and demographic events.
\r\n\r\n\tThe volume aims to cover studies related to population distribution, urbanization, migration, population change and dynamics, aging, longevity, population theories, and population projections. The collection also aims to show relations of demographic analysis with areas such as demographic economics, political demography, population geography, epidemiology, and social gerontology.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-188-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-187-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-189-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f335c5d0a39e8631d8627546e14ce61f",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Andrzej Klimczuk",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9538.jpg",keywords:"Statistical Studies, Quantitative Studies, Censuses, Sample Surveys, Registers, Gender, Education Differentiation, Nationality, Religion, Human Population Planning, Migration Policies, Demographic Economics",numberOfDownloads:4,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 22nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Andrzej Klimczuk is a sociologist and public policy expert, member of various scientific organizations such as the Polish Sociological Association, Polish Society of Gerontology, and European Sociological Association. He also works as an external expert of institutions such as the European Commission, URBACT III Programme, Interreg CENTRAL EUROPE Programme, and Fondazione Cariplo.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320017",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Klimczuk",slug:"andrzej-klimczuk",fullName:"Andrzej Klimczuk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320017/images/system/320017.jpg",biography:'Andrzej Klimczuk, Ph.D., a sociologist and public policy expert, assistant professor in the Department of Public Policy of the Collegium of Socio-Economics at the Warsaw School of Economics, Poland. He worked as the external expert of institutions such as the European Commission, URBACT III Programme, Interreg CENTRAL EUROPE Programme, and Fondazione Cariplo. Member of various scientific organizations such as the Polish Sociological Association, Polish Society of Gerontology, and European Sociological Association. Author of many scientific papers in the fields of gerontology, labor economics, public management, and social policy. His recent monographs include "Economic Foundations for Creative Ageing Policy" (the two-volume set, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, 2017), "Generations, Intergenerational Relationships, Generational Policy" (17 languages; co-edited with K. Lüscher and M. Sanchez, Universität Konstanz, 2017), "Selected Contemporary Challenges of Ageing Policy" (co-edited with Ł. Tomczyk; Pedagogical University of Kraków, 2017), "Between Successful and Unsuccessful Ageing: Selected Aspects and Contexts" (co-edited with Ł. Tomczyk; Pedagogical University of Kraków, 2019), and "Perspectives and Theories of Social Innovation for Ageing Population" (co-edited with Ł. Tomczyk; Frontiers Media, 2020). He is an editor of sections "Aging and Public Policy" and "Aging and Financial Well-Being" in the "Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging" (Springer Nature, forthcoming).',institutionString:"Warsaw School of Economics",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Warsaw School of Economics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"75431",title:"Age at First Marriage of Women in Bangladesh: Levels, Trends and Determinants",slug:"age-at-first-marriage-of-women-in-bangladesh-levels-trends-and-determinants",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50483",title:"Possible Role of Microcrystallinity on Surface Properties of Titanium Surfaces for Biomedical Application",doi:"10.5772/62914",slug:"possible-role-of-microcrystallinity-on-surface-properties-of-titanium-surfaces-for-biomedical-applic",body:' \nSince Swedish orthopedic surgeon and researcher Per-Ingvar Brånemark discovered the particular connection titanium was capable to develop within bone [1], the concept of osseointegration has been developed as a stable and direct interlock between bone and implant [2, 3]. Currently, commercially pure titanium (Grade 4 titanium) and Ti–6Al–4V alloy (Grade 5 titanium) have become the preferred material in implant dentistry, although ceramic materials with the use of zirconium dioxide and innovative metallic alloys are also attracting growing interest in dentistry [4]. Indeed, the number of dental implant brands on the market increased remarkably during the last three decades from 45 systems in 1988 [5], to 225 systems in 2002 [6], reaching an estimate of 1600 systems nowadays.
\nIn such a competitive field, among all the possible approaches experimented in order to improve the properties of titanium implant surfaces, the main route adopted by the research and industry to enhance osseointegration has successfully entailed roughening techniques [7, 8]. Briefly, the different essential types of modification available on the market can be achieved by applying physical or chemical agents on the implant surface, as follows:\n
blasting (sand, glass or ceramic microspheres accelerated toward the surface);
wet etching (exposition to acid or alkali chemicals);
anodization;
plasma spray;
exposition to laser radiation;
exposition to electron beams.
Other treatments will be briefly outlined including exposition to cold plasmas and inorganic coatings.
\nAbrasive blasting (also called sandblasting or grit blasting) is a very common type of surface modification, thanks to the simplicity, low cost, and easy application. Microspheres of diameter in the range 10–540 μm are typically accelerated toward the surface to be treated, using a compressed air or nitrogen blow. Corundum (Al2O3) [9, 10], silicon carbide (SiC) [11], titania (TiO2) [12], hydroxyapatite (HA) [13], zirconia (ZrO2) [14], silica (SiO2) [15], and aluminum powders [15] are the most used grit materials. Increasing roughness is the main effect sandblasting obtains on the morphology of the treated surface. Several parameters contribute to the roughening process, including: the material type, the sphere dimension, the treatment duration, and the energy and angle at the moment of the impact on the surface. The roughness of dental implants normally spans from Ra = 0.3 μm to Ra = 3 μm [15, 16], while polished Ti surfaces assume Ra values lower than 0.1 μm [15, 16]. A side effect of the sandblasting process is, however, the contamination of the surface resulting from the material released by the microspheres during their interaction with the surface. Recently, it has been pointed out [15] that the different types of grit materials and the microsphere dimensions can lead to different amounts of surface contamination. In particular, alumina blasting with microspheres of 54 μm diameter was found to effectively remove Si contamination from the machined titanium surface, but it was also responsible for the Al contamination as high as ~15%.
\nAcid treatment is often used to remove contamination and obtain clean and uniform surface finishes. A combination of acids such as HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, and HF is frequently used to pretreat titanium. A solution composed of 10–30 vol% of HNO3 and 1–3 vol% of HF in distilled water has been recommended to be a standard solution for acid pretreatment. To reduce the possible incorporation of hydrogen in titanium and thus the embrittlement of the surface layer, a ratio of nitric acid to hydrofluoric acid of 10–1 is suggested [17]. Acid etching generally leads to a thin surface oxide layer (<10 nm). Although the oxide is predominantly TiO2, residues from the etching solution are frequently observed, especially chemicals containing fluorine.
\nOf great interest is the dual thermo-etching process first proposed by Beaty that has become the paradigm for the dual acid-etched surfaces [18]. Titanium surface is immersed in 15% HF solution and then etched in a mixture of H2SO4/HCl (6:1) and heated at 60–80°C for 3–10 min. The main effect of the acid-etching processes is to modify the implant morphology by producing micropits of a few microns diameter on titanium surfaces [16, 19] (Figure 1A).
\nSEM images of a dual acid-etched surface treatment commercially known as DM (A) and a sandblasted acid-etched surface treatment commercially known as SL (B). The samples were provided courtesy of Titanmed s.r.l. (Milan, Italy).
Acid etching is also commonly applied after sandblasting. The complete process, usually referred to as sandblasting and large grit acid etching (SLA) [20], is often considered the reference surface treatment in dental implantology [12, 16, 1920]. This process and its derivatives involve the use of alumina microspheres of 200–540 μm diameter, followed by the etching with a mixture of HCl and H2SO4 [16] (Figure 1B). The SLA surface treatment combines the macroroughness generated by the sandblasting process with the microroughness achieved through the acid-etching process [21].
\n\nEmployed together, alkali and heat treatment [22] enable the formation of a biologically active bone-like apatite layer on the surface of titanium [23]. Due to the strong tendency of titanium to oxidize, the heat treatment is performed at a pressure of 10−4–10−5 Torr. Crystalline sodium titanate (when using NaOH as a base) as well as rutile and anatase precipitates after thermal treatment. The whole process generates a surface capable of promoting the HA precipitation in simulated body fluid following Kokubo’s test [ISO 23317:2014(E)].
\nA native oxide layer grows slowly and spontaneously on titanium kept in air, with an estimated rate of 3–6 nm during a 400-day period [24]. To substitute this thin layer with a thick porous layer of titanium oxide, anodization is widely used. This process consists in either a potentiostatic or a galvanostatic electrochemical oxidation, usually carried out in strong acids, such as HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4, and HF [19, 25]. To some extent, it is also possible to choose the phase of the titanium oxide layer among its amorphous, brookite, rutile, and anatase forms [25].
\nTitanium plasma spraying (TPS) consists in projecting titanium powders onto the implant surface by means of plasma torch at high temperature. Thus, the titanium particles condense and fuse together, forming a film about 30–50 μm thick [4]. The resulting coating has an average roughness of Sa 4 μm [26]. This three-dimensional topography was reported to increase the tensile strength at the bone–implant interface in vivo [20].
\nIn an endless endeavor to improve the properties of Ti surfaces [27–30], laser treatments have also been proposed. As a result of the heating generated by the absorption of the high-density radiation, the main effect of laser radiation on metals, such as Ti, is to produce a localized melting of the material. The melting process involves only a very thin metal layer under the surface, which is quickly recrystallized after the radiation beam is moved to another portion of the surface, while a titanium oxide layer is formed because of the interaction between solidifying metal and air [27]. Although several types of lasers suit for the modification of metals and oxides, including ruby, like Nd–YAG, argon ion, CO2 and excimer lasers [29], Nd–YAG appears to be the most diffused one for titanium and its alloys in dentistry [27–30]. Laser-treated Ti is usually rougher than machined Ti surfaces, with typical Ra values ranging from 0.5 to 2 μm [29, 30].
\nElectron beams have been introduced [31, 32] and used mainly as a pretreatment for the deposition of CaP coatings on titanium [31]. The process was found to reduce the roughness while improving the nanohardness of the material [32] and permitting the deposition of smoother CaP layers [31].
\nAs plasma treatments could prove advantageous compared to wet techniques, such as acid etching, owing to the absence of chemical residuals on the surface, the avoidance of chemical waste, and the reduced safety concerns during manufacturing [33], their application has greatly increased recently.
\nDepending on the pressure conditions at which they are carried out, plasma treatments can be subdivided into vacuum plasma treatments (reduced pressure plasma treatments) and atmospheric pressure plasma (APP) treatments. APP treatments are simple and user friendly, however, when dealing with industrial application, reduced pressure plasma displays some advantages. At low pressure, a lower power is required to activate a plasma discharge and, even more importantly, the process performed in vacuum ensures a controlled environment less prone to external contaminations. Although plasma processes have mostly been applied for cleaning and sterilizing dental implants, owing to their capacity to strongly affect the surface energy, they have also been tested for the acceleration of osseointegration [33–36] and the application of antibacterial features to implants [33, 34, 37]. To this aim, argon and oxygen were preferably selected [33–38]. Speaking of plasma treatments, plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) techniques are also noteworthy as a promising future research avenue in intrabony biomaterials. Here, plasma is used as a source of ions, which are accelerated toward the treated surface and there implanted [38]. Very recently, the incorporation of specific chemical elements such as fluorine (F) [39], calcium (Ca) [40], and zinc [41] was described to confer suitable biological properties.
\nFor the sake of completeness, it is convenient to briefly outline some additive surface modifications, in spite of their limited human use. Calcium phosphate (CaP)-based alloys [42, 43] including HA [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] [42] and calcium phosphate cements (CPC) [43] result among the most studied coating materials for the enhancement of osseointegration. Several methods have been tested for the deposition of CaP coating on Ti implants, including plasma spray, sputtering, sol–gel deposition, and electrophoretic deposition processes, but plasma spray is considered the most successful so far [33]. Plasma-sprayed coatings can be deposited with a thickness ranging from a few micrometers to a few millimeters, which are characterized by their own roughness and show low density and high porosity [44]. Within the body fluids, these materials lead to the formation of HA nanocrystals. Calcium plays a relevant role in binding biologically active proteins as in its ionized form it adsorbs to the TiO2 surface and further to macromolecules with high affinity for Ca2+ [45, 46].
\nPlasma-sprayed HA coatings are usually composed of large crystalline HA particles embedded into a highly soluble amorphous calcium phosphate phase. Numerous clinical studies were reported for HA-coated implants [47–49]. Unfortunately, plasma-sprayed HA-coated dental implants have been associated with clinical problems [50–54], due to the possible delamination of the coating from the bulk underneath. This break at the implant-coating interface obviously implies the implant failure despite the fact that the coating is well attached to the bone tissue [50–53]. Coating delamination has been described when the efficacy of plasma spraying was not optimal owing to the size of the dental implants [50]. Loosening of the coating has been reported, especially when the implants have been inserted into dense bone. Inflammatory reaction caused most of long-term failures. Tsui et al. [55, 56] associated the presence of metastable and amorphous phases in the HA coating during the plasma-spraying process to the low crystallinity of HA coating and to the deriving poor mechanical strength [57]. Despite their negative reputation in dental practice, a meta-analytic review could not detect significantly inferior long-term survival rates of plasma-sprayed HA-coated dental implants compared to other dental implants [51].
\nAccurate surface characterization is a fundamental topic in material science. Several relevant surface parameters can be characterized easily using standard analytical methods, such as contact or optical profilometry, electron microscopy and contact angle determination, independently of the production process. This permits to classify the surface of a given implant based on two key characteristics:\n
topography at the microscale (roughness) and nanoscale;
wettability
At the microscale, the topography of an implant surface is supposed to increase the contact surface and thus the biomechanical interlocking between bone and implant [58]. However, as bone is continuously remodeled [59], the functional osseointegrated area is lower than the theoretical surface developed area [60]. The effects of the various microtopography patterns on bone apposition are still unclear and require more investigations. The quantitative description of surface topography is usually based on roughness, which can be determined either as a profile (2d) or evaluating the whole area (3d). In the former case Ra, Rz, and Rms are the key parameters, while in latter case, it occurs to mention Sa, Sds, and Sdr%. Height deviation amplitude (Sa) is conveniently used for classifying osseointegrated implants into four categories: smooth 0–0.4 μm, minimal 0.5–1 μm, moderate 1–2 μm, and maximal >2 μm [58, 61]. As for spatial density, surfaces are either rugged (Sdr% > 100%) or flattened out (Sdr% < 100%), while the morphology of the microstructures may be described as rough, patterned, or particled, with respect to the number of dimensions. Specifically, following Dohan Ehrenfest et al., “microrough surfaces have one micrometric dimension (the peak heights). Micropatterns have two micrometric dimensions (dimensions of the repetitive pattern), such as the micropores created by anodization (…). Microparticles have three micrometric dimensions.”
\nAt the nanoscale, a more textured surface topography is known to increase the surface energy. The higher the surface energy the greater becomes the wettability. To an increased, wettability is due to the improved adsorption of fibrin and matrix proteins on the surface, which, in turn, favors cell attachment, tissue healing, and eventually the osseointegration process. Nanotopography might also directly influence cell behavior through the influence nanopatterning has on the cytoskeleton [62–66]. Even though all surfaces have their own nanotopography, by definition, not all of them possess significant nanostructures. A nanostructure is conventionally defined as an object of size comprised between 1 and 100 nm. Dealing with nanostructures, it may be helpful to specify the number of nanoscale dimensions. One dimension at the nanoscale implies the concept of nanoroughness [67], while nanopatterns are endowed with two nanoscale dimensions, like the nanotubes produced by anodization [68, 69], or the chemically produced nanopatterned surfaces [64, 70] (Figure 2).
\nThe picture depicts morphologically the cytoskeleton arrangement of murine osteoblasts (MC3T3-E1) grown, respectively, on smooth (A) and nanostructured titania surfaces (B). Cells were stained with Rodamine–phalloidin (red), anti-paxillin antibody (green), and DAPI (blue). The effect of the surface pattern on the cells is clearly appreciable from the number of focal adhesions as visualized by marking paxillin in green.
The presence of three nanoscale dimensions is typical of the nanoparticles. If nanostructures are not clearly detectable (no patterns, no particles, insignificant texture) or not homogeneous and repetitive, the surface should be considered as nanosmooth. Repetitiveness and homogeneity are indeed important yet difficult to define—morphological parameters that may be deemed qualitative.
\nThe wetting features of a solid material are usually determined through the sessile drop technique. Briefly, a drop of a given liquid is placed on the surface sample and the angle between the tangent of this drop at the three-phase boundary and the solid surface is measured. Thus, the contact angle CA expressing the surface wetting is quantified according to the liquid employed. For instance, if water is used, the CA will characterize the hydrophilicity of the surface. In principle, the CA can assume values from 0° to 180°, in case of complete spreading or beading of the drop, respectively. Water CAs lower than 90° ascribe surfaces a hydrophilic feature, while water CAs above 90° designate surfaces as hydrophobic. As the “the drop rests on an ideal homogeneous and flat surface in thermodynamic equilibrium, the drop shape with the characteristic ideal CA θ is formed as a result of the liquid/vapor γlv, solid/liquid γsl, and solid/vapor γsv interfacial tensions, according to Young’s equation”. (…) Surface tension is caused by the asymmetry of the cohesive forces of molecules at a surface compared to molecules in the bulk where each molecule has surrounding partners resulting in a net force of zero. Correspondingly, the surface energy is minimized in the bulk, whereas at the surface, the energy is increased due to the missing surrounding molecules. Therefore, to reduce surface energy, the surface area has to be minimized, thus resulting in phenomena like spherical water drops or the spreading of aqueous liquids on higher energetic surfaces.” [71]
\n\nHigh energetic solid surfaces enhance wetting, which has been associated with improved implant success [72] (Figure 3).
\n(A) Schematic diagram depicting contact angle CA as measured by sessile drop technique, along with the graphical derivation of Youngs equation. (B) Relations between wetting tension and the wetting of a solid surface. Figure concept has been taken from Rupp et al. [71].
The outstanding chemical inertness, repassivation ability, corrosion resistance, and ultimately biocompatibility of titanium result from an oxide layer that is usually only a few nanometers thick. As titanium exists in many different stable oxidation states and oxygen is highly soluble in titanium, titanium oxide is known to have varying stoichiometries. Among the common compounds, there are Ti3O, Ti2O, Ti3O2, TiO, Ti2O3, Ti3O5, and TiO2 [73]; however, the most stable titanium oxide is TiO2, also known as titania. TiO2 is thermodynamically very stable and the Gibbs free energy of formation is highly negative for a variety of oxidation media, such as water or oxygen containing organic molecules.
\nAlthough the fundamental biological role of titania in osseointegration has attracted a lot of interest, there is limited knowledge regarding its structure, especially on commercially available products. TiO2 exists in three crystalline polymorph phases: rutile (tetragonal), anatase (tetragonal), and brookite (orthorhombic), but only rutile and anatase phases are practically important. Brookite is the largest phase, with eight titania groups per crystal unit cell, anatase possesses four groups per unit cell, and finally, rutile has two groups per unit cell. Rutile is the most diffused and stable isoform. In all phases, a six-coordinated Ti participates in unit cells [74]. Titania may be found on implant surfaces in either the amorphous or crystal phase with heterogeneous results [75], as a consequence of the surface treatment the implants underwent [76, 77]. X-ray diffraction (XDR) is the technique of choice whenever the crystalline structure is to be investigated, for instance, in terms of main crystal orientation, grain size, crystallinity, and strain [78]. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is instead used to determine the quantitative mean atomic composition of wide and thin surface areas (typically 300 mm in diameter, 5–7 nm depth). When XPS is applied to pure titanium samples exposed to the atmosphere at room temperature after milling, beside the stable titania film, hydroxide, and chemisorbed water bond with Ti cations are detected on the surface. In addition, some organic species like hydrocarbons adsorb and alkoxides or carboxylates of titanium also exist on the outmost surface layer. Currently, microcrystallinity has almost never been assessed in commercially available surfaces [79, 80].
\nDuring implant manufacturing, anatase, rutile, or amorphous TiO2 are produced depending on the conditions. Upon heating, amorphous titania converts to anatase (<400°C) and then to rutile (600–1000°C) [81, 82]. The two crystalline phases, and especially anatase, have been studied as regards photocatalysis and photon–electron transfer [83], hydrophilicity [84], and biological decontamination capacity [85]. Notwithstanding its increased biological activity [79, 86], anatase has been claimed to be more prone to ionic dissolution in than rutile [87]. On the other hand, rutile renders surfaces hydrophobic, whereas anatase improves wetting [85], which may be beneficial for the healing process at early stages.
\nRecently, these properties have attracted growing interest, as they may provide a synergistic effect to the wide range of the surface treatments used. As mentioned above, the information available on the TiO2 phases formed on the implant surfaces present in the market is surprisingly limited. The rapid growth of the oxide layer during manufacturing is thought to lead to an amorphous phase on implant surfaces [88]. Despite the well-documented interaction of amorphous TiO2 layer with bone, HA cannot readily grow on such a surface, in simulated bodily fluid, which may be due to the arrangement of the oxygen portions. In rutile and anatase, however, oxygen groups match better the hydroxyl groups of HA, resulting in deposition of biomimetic apatite, thus possibly facilitating osseointegration [88]. As these phases require additional treatments to be grown from native amorphous TiO2, Gaintantzopoulou et al. [89] hypothesized that the various surface treatments performed on titanium implants to enhance osseointegration were aimed at creating anatase and rutile crystalline domains. Briefly, they found that anatase is more pronounced in arc-oxidized implants, alone or with rutile, dependent on the oxidation conditions. Rutile and/or amorphous phases are more common in machined, double-etched, sandblasted, sandblasted acid-etched.
\nDistinct minorities of the implant manufacturers have undertaken basic, animal and human research when designing new or altering the components of existing implant systems. Consequently, many currently commercially available dental implants have insufficient, questionable, or simply totally lacking scientific justification of the product designs and material compositions. Potential alterations of the implants include surface chemical and biochemical properties, corrosion characteristics and wear debris release, surface energy and wettability as well as topography on micrometer and nanometer scales. Considering the possible role in their biological activity, the identification of the titania phases found in the surface layers of implants should be deemed unavoidable by the manufacturers and the scientific community.
\n‘There’s a way to do it better - find it.’
Edison’s words are as relevant to today’s start-up scene as they were at the turn of the twentieth century when a flurry of electro-mechanical invention was the touchstone of innovation. In this sense, the innovator’s talent is therefore a combination of illuminating a problem or opportunity with insight and identifying an improvement with imagination. The improvement might be incremental or revolutionary. Edison embodied an approach that was built on systematic experimentation. Design Thinking holds the promise of reducing the time taken for this kind of deductive effort through creative collaboration. This chapter provides an overview of how Design Thinking has evolved and how the stages of convergence and divergence can be harnessed to enable non-designers ideate effectively.
Design Thinking (DT) has developed from its academic roots in the 1970s into a widely adopted business-critical capability today [1]. The value of DT continues to diffuse through ever-increasing numbers of innovation agencies and consultancies, aided by a number of do-it-yourself toolkits that have been devised by high-profile design organisations such as LUMA and IDEO. The popularity of DT, within many fields, has embedded the notion that design is a practical means to help drive innovation (at the level of new ideas and concepts) as a distinctive and human-centred approach that rivals traditional marketing-led and scientific/engineering strategies. The popularity of ‘design-led’ organisations, the visibility of high-profile advocates including Jonny Ives, a growing awareness in the media and prevalence of an agile, diverse, empowered and lean oriented workforce have all contributed to DTs notoriety.
DT is itself an innovation and one that ‘productises’ the problem-solving strategies creatives apply when envisioning new experiences, products and services in three ways. Firstly, through advocating a human-centred design methodology based on research and iterative solution development. Secondly, through a defined and distinctive (if not unique) mindset of creative thought cultivated in art and design schools. Lastly, it embodies a set of traditional applied practices and principles that span the diversity of design of new products and services from the archaic (drawing) to the modern (ethnography).
The notion that designers are ‘futurologists’ in speculating about what could be is a strong current in the literature, as is the idea that design is about realising how things ought to be as utopian endeavour. Buchanan [2] argues that DT can be used to tackle ‘wicked problems’ that defy deductive thinking or logical progression from problem to solution. Rittel and Webber [3] coined this phrase ‘wicked problems’ to describe the kind of intractable issues where ‘the problem is not understood until after the formulation of a solution’ [4] that are amenable to creative strategies.
Unpicking the kinds of pithy problems (e.g. climate change) typified by fuzzy or wicked problems and creating good solutions to them is, so the rationale for DT suggests, best done by reframing (via provisional concepts and iteration) rather than applying sequential problem-solving techniques. Lawson cites Schön’s [5] use of such cognitive (re)framing where problem definition and solutioning are in a continual dialogical loop only resolved when problem and solution are harmonised into a viable future state. This influential construct (reframing) underlies a popular visualisation of effective creative thinking (the double-diamond model [6]) where creative thinking progresses through phases of convergent and divergent thinking:
Convergent thinking – thinking is reductive, narrowing and solution oriented
Divergent thinking – thinking is generative, open-ended and outward
DT is the product of at least three distinct and related traditions that span design but also connect to proximal practices as diverse as anthropology, business consulting, open innovation, agile-style product development and lean manufacturing techniques. Service design is also an influence in positioning designers as creative facilitators of collaboration rather than as creative specialists. In the broadest sense, DT encompasses holistic set of principles, techniques and methods that cover all aspects of innovation, specifically through the lens of creativity and also importantly underpinned by a broad humanistic approach that spans the methodological realisation of those principles through bottom up integration of human needs within supporting research and concept development (Ethnography) to practical ways of empowering people to innovate themselves (Participatory Design).
DT’s overarching approach aligns to a Human-Centred Design (HCD) perspective, where innovation is focused on ensuring new products and services capitalise on human capabilities as well as their limitations. Optimal innovation with new technology augments and enhances human physical and cognitive abilities in order to achieve goals that would otherwise be difficult (or impossible) to achieve by humans or machines alone. In most cases, user involvement is focused on refining pre-defined solutions through incremental ‘tweaks’. This means that the scope of innovation is generally limited to shaping the way a solution is manifested as a marketable product or service (e.g. screens for a shopping cart flow) rather than the broader solution itself (e.g. online purchasing).
This strand in DT emerged from socio-technical design [7] in the 1970s and is explicitly aimed at addressing the introduction of new technology. Balancing human needs with the potential risks and benefits of technology was extended in Participatory Design (PD). The PD movement [8] originated in the Scandinavian and Nordic countries during the 1970s and was overtly political in promoting social democracy especially in designing interactive systems for the workplace. This focus was predicated on the realisation that new systems often failed because of conflicting interests among stakeholders and also that workers loss of control of their work had a detrimental effect of productivity and industrial relations. Lastly, Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) synthesised these two traditions into a multidisciplinary approach that unequivocally focuses on innovation through developing novel ways of interacting with technology and removing barriers to adoption through advocating usability. HCI research usually focuses on conducting primary research with representative users in order to understand their wants, needs and barriers to adoption, and using the resulting insights to ideate potential concepts that are then used to develop representations of the future solution through low-fidelity prototypes. These enable researchers to test and refine potential solutions before full development to make sure that they meet users’ needs and are likely to be adopted by broader audiences.
DT extends human-centricity beyond participation into a deeper level of innovating to meet latent human needs via ethnographic-based research. This extends the scope of innovation out, so that potential solutions emerge as insightful possibilities from the research activity itself rather than field work being used for validation. This ground-up approach increases the likelihood that solutions are grounded in human needs and in some cases meet latent needs that would otherwise be difficult to elicit let alone manifest through tangible product or service concepts.
Ethnography research methods are integral to this strand as is the work of Suchman [9]. She contends that activity is conditional on any given situation in which it takes place and that behaviour is therefore of an improvised rather than planned nature. Allied methods including ethnomethodology [10] have been developed which also lend themselves to understanding complex work situations such as air traffic control, where possibilities to innovate are highly constrained. A more pragmatic set of methods have integrated this approach under the banner.
Contextual Design [11] involves field research (usually in a workplace setting) but with less focus on the granularity of everyday life observed and with more a priori structuring of observational data through boundary type constructs such as personas and workflows that help innovators share knowledge and develop ideas around.
Cultural Probes [12] extends the approach and reduces the role of the research to gather data on people’s non-instrumental latent needs. This is done by proxy so that participants produce their own representation and prototypes using a kit or materials including cards, diaries and throwaway cameras that are given to them.
In conclusion, the various approaches to behaviour-centred innovation use field work not only to generate insights but also locate innovation within existing human practice rather than as a separate activity done by others.
The Design Methods movement [13] is the earliest (and perhaps the most accessible) contributing tradition to DT. Predating the digital revolution of the new economy, the Design Methods movement focuses on defining easy to use, reusable tools and techniques for innovation that can be used by designers and non-designers alike. First among these is Synectics which predates ‘designerly’ cycles of convergent and divergent thinking and is a clear precursor of ideation.
The Design Methods approach is underpinned by two principles. Firstly, that design can be distilled down into discrete techniques that anyone can apply to a given problem or opportunity. Secondly, that solutions are rarely uniquely novel and rather are invariably composed of common components, an approach that draws on the work of Christopher Alexander.
DT’s closest equivalent to synectics is ideation. Ideation is usually done in groups, on the rationale that cohort size correlates with quantity and quality of outputs. Idea generation is also most commonly positioned as the replicating creative cognitive processes employed by designers and is usually conducted as a structured activity that optimises the fuzzy challenge of developing novel ideas. Ideation teams usually consist of between 5 to 10 participants and facilitation aims to foster a ‘designerly’ working environment where the focus is on uncritically, producing many ideas. Similar techniques are found in engineering (e.g. TRIZ) [14].
Popular idea generation techniques include vernacular examples such as ‘round robin’ and ‘crazy 8 s’ as well as more solidly research-based techniques that often draw on the work of Edward de Bono [15]. de Bono published a number of works that introduced foundational terms and techniques such as ‘lateral thinking’ through best-selling books, such as ‘Serious Creativity’ (ibid). The various techniques described in these publications, not only have a natural affinity with DT, but are arguably the tangible foundations of this way of problem solving outside of the design methods school.
A number of studies have explored idea generation methods within the tightly defined context of early concept development. Past research by the authors into the effectiveness of random input [16] suggest that this method generated more numerous and of higher quality ideas than a control group who did not apply the method to an ideation challenge. The study was undertaken with a group of male and female graduates (n = 30). All participants were given a brief relating to a challenge to produce ‘ideas to improve the workplace’. The study involved randomly assigning subjects into four groups. Each group consisted of three to four ideators, who had recently graduated and were under the age of thirty. The cohort was then assigned to either morning or afternoon sessions (giving eight groups in total – ABCD x 2) who were given ideation challenges under differing conditions.
Stress was also found to affect idea creation. Participants who were less physiologically stimulated produced less and poorer quality ideas than those who were moderately excited, although too much stress is known to negatively impact creativity. It maybe that some controlled physical and mental stimulation might enhance group creativity within a certain threshold. These findings helped inform the authors during the development of the Ideation Grids method described in the following section. These evolve traditional Synectic principles and idea development techniques into an easy to use, structured and optimised ideation tool.
Ideation Grids are a design thinking method that applies crowd-sourcing to develop ideas and is focused on pushing ideators past their first and likely least innovative idea, to generate a wide variety of novel solutions. These are elicited through short challenge rounds using predefined challenge cards as stimuli. Ideation grids are based on seven elements comprising:
Ideation topic – a succinct phrase that communicates the problem or opportunity for which ideas are sought.
Ideation session – a moderated, group workshop (physical or digital) where ideators’ generate solutions using ideation grids usually within a maximum duration of an hour.
Ideation grids – a paper or digital nine-square grid used to collect participant ideas during each challenge round.
Challenge round – an eight-minute moderated session where participants produce an idea each minute, this activity is usually repeated a number of types with different challenge cards.
Challenge cards – a short phrase that prompts participants to develop ideas for a specific challenge in each challenge round.
Ideators – workshop participants (n = <10) recruited to represent differing perspectives on an ideation topic.
Moderators – ideation grid facilitators (n = <3) who prepare, run and write up the outputs of a session.
The authors have successfully applied Ideation Grids to many situations and problems. Preparation for sessions typically includes logistical activities, such as identifying suitable participants and a conducive environment. This can be a physical space or a digital whiteboard. The ideal group size is between five to ten people and sessions should be a maximum of two hours and ideally under an hour. Running a sequence of shorter sessions is more effective than trying to fit many rounds into one long one. Giving participants time to reflect on an ideation challenge can garner more and better ideas. Breaks used judiciously, can improve quality and quantity of ideas.
Participant numbers can be increased, but the authors have found that larger cohorts need to be split into smaller groups comprising of a maximum of ten participants each with their own moderator. This can be achieved through breakout rooms if conducting this exercise remotely. Participants’ profiles are important considerations too. Generally, a good mix of levels (junior to senior), background, experiences and roles (e.g. customer service to sales) works better than homogeneous groups. Over-representation of a single level or grouping tends to skew the ideas that are generated toward the dominant group’s perspective. If the majority is also senior, then this has the negative affect of also inhibiting others who are junior or extroverted. In some cases, it is better to split groups by level, group or when the topic to ideate requires extreme focus than a broader set of viewpoints.
Planning then moves to identifying the right ideation topic and refining what often begins as an ambiguous (or overly specific) starting point. Ideally topics have been developed collaboratively and are also the product of some level of domain research. Ideal ideation topics are one sentence phrases that communicate the problem or opportunity to develop ideas around. Getting them right is an art. Too wordy or long and they can slow down creative thinking and lead to discussion. Too narrow or too ambiguous and they invite questions and clarification and the resulting outputs tend to lose relevance. It’s also good to have more than one topic, whether each one is a slight variation on a single theme that focuses attention on different aspects of a problem or opportunity or whether they direct thinking toward a particular type of solution. Having multiple topics ‘up your sleeve’ enables the moderator to quickly move forward if a topic stalls or is failing to inspire participants. Using the syntax ‘How might we…’ to preface pithy topic is also effective to spur creative thinking.
Having dealt with the logistics and identifying strong ideation challenges, focus shifts to the defining the right structure for the session and identifying a set of ideation challenge cards that are most relevant to the topic at hand (See below). Structure can be loose, especially if participants have been involved in sessions before. Generally, too much structure and timeboxing of individual activities reduces group output, similarly, too loose and the sessions can lack direction, often resulting in a dominant participant taking the lead and implicitly or explicitly taking over.
Nine square grids (either paper or digital) are printed out or originated digitally for each participant and for each round of challenges. Five participants and three rounds will need fifteen grids prepared, three sets of challenge cards for each participant and the agreed ideation topic.
The sessions themselves ideally start with a recap of any supporting insights and domain research. This is a good framing activity to get participants thinking about the topic. Sometimes, an icebreaker activity is also used at the start of the session. Then the ideation topic is presented to the group. It’s good to present this in quite a factual almost official manner without prompting clarifications and allowing for the silence that follows while people cogitate on the problem.
The first challenge round starts when each participant turns over (paper) or makes the text font visible (digital) to reveal the challenge. The moderator the asks the group to spend one-minute writing or sketching an idea in each square of the grid. Ideas can take any form, from an image that represents the concept, a short phrase on a sticky note or even a sketch or illustration. In all cases the ideas must be quickly identified and noted down, as to avoid overthinking the possible constraints of a given digital platform. Showing examples of good outputs in their rawest from is a good way to get participants in the right mindset where they are neither too precious about creating high-quality drawings, clever one-liners or overly long detailed, descriptions.
During the eight minutes that participants are producing ideas the moderator keeps time as well as keeping the group focused on the activity, sharing strong ideas with the group and generally keeping momentum. Sometimes, ideas are shared out among the group if time permits and, in some cases, voting can be done to quickly prioritise outputs. The process is then repeated until all the challenge cards have been used.
Challenge cards are pre-defined physical postcard sized boards or sticky notes (including digital variants) that are placed on the first square of the ideation grid. This is usually the top left square but position is not as important as ensuring participants understand the challenge. The cards instruct participants to ideate on the focus of the card. Running multiple rounds using different challenges produces large numbers of ideas and potential solutions that cover a broader range of options. Ideas from single rounds are often more obvious and are already known by participants. This can inhibit creative thinking as participants have invested in ideas before the session and are sometime reluctant to shift focus. Using the ‘What if..’ syntax to preface the challenge helps provide consistency and also helps spur thinking in the direction of the challenge.
Challenge cards help break the ‘primary generator’ effect [17] whereby participants lock onto one idea (usually the first one they think of) that blocks thinking of alternatives. Challenges also help to clear out the most obvious solutions from consideration, so that participants can shift focus to less obvious ones and novelty. As the challenges are predefined and used by all participants they also act as a leveller reducing scrutiny and encouraging people to produce many ideas rather than worrying if theirs are inferior to others. Predefined timeframes can also be used to catalyse thinking about a particular even horizon in the future and in some cases the past, to see if an existent idea could be reused. Other challenge strategies include laddering whereby each grid square is used to show incremental developments from each idea to another. This is effective in clearing out presumptions about what is possible and encourages more creativity. Similarly, linking uses the grid to show individual ideas developed by adding or removing elements from one to another. This is a very practical way of ideating on a practical situation where a problem or opportunity is deeply embedded in an organisation and its culture.
Starting by eliciting the most obvious ideas is a good opening framing activity and is also effective icebreaker. Asking for the most mundane, boring, unexciting ideas encourages participants to share ideas openly and usually garners some humour. It also level-sets what is acceptable as an idea and reduces judgement as everyone usually has an obvious idea they endorse but are usually reticent to share as it is so obvious. It also sets an implicit anchor point for subsequent stages. At a deeper level, top-of-mind ideas also offer valuable insights into participant’s understanding of the ideation topic and can be used through output analysis to map out the current situation and ‘as-is’ solutions as a starting point for more future oriented activities. Ideas are not just starting points for change but also embody a specific mindset and articulation of a problem or opportunity.
This challenge often produces the most potent ideas in ideation sessions. The randomly generated nature of the resulting concepts are almost always novel and are usually readily built upon by participants in the sessions, creating even more ideas [13]. The random nature of their genesis helps reduced ownership as they are attributed to the method rather than the individuals who identified them. This challenge applies classic analogous thinking and can be done in one or multiple stages depending on participants readiness. At the same time, participants can sometimes baulk at being asked to engage in what often seems as a rather odd diversion activity. Moderators often have to make a call on whether to stick to the method or, if the group is already catalysed to ideate, to go with the flow.
This challenge requires an additional step by the moderator. Firstly, before the session a number of random stimuli topics are identified that will be used to trigger analogous thinking. An arbitrary word, picture, or even sound is chosen as a catalyst to stimulate new and engender lateral ways of thinking about a problem or opportunity (e.g. how might we reduce packaging). The predefined stimuli, (e.g. Tiger), helps ideators’ anchor thinking outside conventional boundaries by forcing convergence on a single and unrelated topic. Participants write down characteristics pertaining to the stimulus (e.g. fierce, endangered, alert, fast etc.) in order to think divergently. Participants then apply these characteristics to the problem at hand. In this example, alert and fast characteristics could stimulate ideas around alerting consumers to the impact of packaging on wildlife or reduce the gap (fast) between food producers and consumers.
Having up to six random stimuli helps if one fails. Diversity is important too, a good set might comprise widely disparate topics such as, ant, airport, light, Curie, satellite and eagle, for example. An alternative way of introducing randomness is to pick subjects arbitrarily from a book and also using oblique strategies [18] for reframing.
Having harvested the most obvious ideas and applied lateral thinking through random input to elicit less obvious ones, it’s good to reign in thinking back to focus on the ideation topic with time as the variable. The time horizon can be very specific and focus on a particular date in the near or distant future or be more ambiguous. Too distant dates tend to elicit ideas you might find in science fiction that while entertaining tend to trivialise the activity and limits practical solution ideas. Similarly, too near timelines result in trivial outcomes often, Using multiple dates in rounds is affective too as does including a range. A very close by date that encourages quick fixes, a mid-point and near future is a good set to get ideas form. Lookback is a variation on this challenge based on Bill Buxton’s innovation model [19]. In this case ideas are based on reverse-engineering and looking for historical precedence to current or future problems or solutions that are the same or similar to the ideation topic.
This challenge usually produces the strongest and most viable ideas in session and ideally should be applied at the later stages of a session after the obvious and ‘blue-sky’ ideas have already been elicited. It involves participants creating eight alternative solutions to the same ideation topic, with a prompt along the lines of ‘now give us your best ideas’. Sessions can exploit the competitive potential of this method, by voting and awarding the best ideas (not participants themselves) including the most mundane, most lateral, quickest win and best overall solution. Dot voting is an effective way of doing this and also minimised group dynamics that might bias outcomes [20].
Ideation Grids embody a design tradition built on aligning innovation to human values. They are also an effect and practical tool to support any organisation wishing to harness the power of crowdsourcing ideas. While there is an art to maximising the method’s effectiveness through skills and expertise in identifying the right ideation topic, selecting participants, defining challenges, moderating and analysing outcomes, they are simple enough for anyone to get started with and leverage the power of creative collaboration to ideate. This method was developed for face-to-face ideation sessions where close interactions between participant are enriched through natural by non-verbal communication. However, we have applied this method successfully during the Covid-19 pandemic with remote participants connected through digital platforms. We found that group dynamic effects were reduced, and that the affordances of digital mediums improved group working; making documentation of outputs easier and enabling the possibility of leveraging globally diverse participants across multiple sessions a practical reality.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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