Abstract
The health-care system is a highly collaborative environment where health-care workers collaborate to care for patients. Health-care organizations (HCOs) design and develop various types of staffing plans to promote collaboration among health-care workers. The existing staffing plans describe the cooperation at a coarse-grained level, such as team scheduling. They seldom consider connections among health-care workers and investigate how health-care workers receive and disseminate information, which is essential evidence to inform actionable staffing interventions to improve care quality and patient safety. In this chapter, we introduce how to apply network analysis methods to electronic health record (EHR) utilization data to learn connections among health-care workers and build networks to describe teamwork in a fine-grained level. The chapter includes: (i) a brief description of the EHR utilization data, (ii) approaches to learn connections among health-care workers, (iii) building health-care worker networks, (iv) developing survey instruments to validate health-care worker networks, (v) introducing sociometric measurements to quantify network structures and positions of health-care workers in the networks, (vi) using statistical models to test associations between teamwork structures and patient outcomes, and (vii) listing examples to learn health-care worker networks in an HCO and a specific setting, including neonatal intensive care unit and trauma.
Keywords
- network analysis
- methodology
- collaboration
- care team
- patient outcome
- electronic health record
- data-driven
- data mining
- bottom-up
- health-care worker network
- health-care organization
- sociometric measurement
- audit logs
- statistical model
- survey instrument
- network structure
1. Introduction
The United States health-care system has been moving to patient-centered care by incorporating different levels of collaborations, including those occurring within a health-care organization (HCO) or between HCOs [1, 2]. A classic model [3] proposed to understand patient-centered care divides the health-care system into four nested levels: (1) the individual patient; (2) the care team made up of health-care workers (e.g., clinicians, pharmacists, social workers, and utilization managers) to care for patients; (3) the HCO (e.g., hospital, clinic, and nursing home) that supports the development and work of care teams by providing infrastructure and complementary resources; and (4) the political and economic environment (e.g., regulatory, financial, payment regimes, and markets) that support hospital collaborations with other HCOs and payers on population health management. To promote patient-centered care, HCOs create infrastructures and develop staffing strategies to encourage collaboration among health-care workers to care for patients [4, 5]. Collaboration among health-care workers can improve care quality (e.g., reducing readmission rates) [6], patient safety (e.g., preventing medical errors) [7], and patient outcome (shortening length of stay) [8, 9, 10].
Staffing plans describe collaboration at a macro-level. For instance, an intensive care unit (ICU) may use an intensivist-centered care team (closed model) or an ad hoc group consisting of nurses, nurse practitioners, and physicians (open model) to care for critically ill patients [11]. The macro-level staffing strategies seldom specify how health-care workers connect and how they receive and disseminate information to care for patients. Thus, it is difficult for HCOs to monitor those top-down staffing strategies implemented in clinical practice. Without the micro-level knowledge of teamwork (e.g., health-care worker connection), it is challenging for HCOs to assess their staffing strategies to identify inefficient and ineffective parts for further collaboration optimization.
Measuring connections among health-care workers is very challenging due to complex clinical workflows and dynamic structures of teamwork [12, 13]. That is also one of the reasons why HCOs do not specify connections among health-care workers in their staffing plans. Recent studies show connections among health-care workers can be learned from their activities in electronic health record (EHR) systems [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. EHR systems are a platform used by health-care workers to diagnose patients and exchange diagnostic results [20, 21]. In modern health-care environments, an increasing number of health-care workers utilize EHR systems as the primary tool to diagnose patients and exchange health information [22]. Therefore, the volume and scale of the EHR system utilization data have been increasing exponentially in recent years, which provide abundant resources for researchers to learn collaborations through the EHR system utilization [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
In this chapter, we provide a network analysis of the EHR system utilization data to learn teamwork structures and specify connections among health-care workers. We believe the chapter can provide researchers a new way to model teamwork/collaboration in health care. We anticipate the data, methods, and applications introduced in this chapter will be of interest to the teamwork in health-care readership, particularly those focused on network analysis, secondary data analysis, EHR utilization, and care teams.
2. EHR system utilization data
EHR systems provide a platform for care coordination across a diverse collection of health-care workers [22, 23, 24, 25]. Coordination activities occurring in EHR systems play an increasingly important role in the establishment of high-efficient health-care worker collaboration networks. Various studies, including our prior research, have leveraged health-care worker activities in EHR systems to infer patterns of collaboration [9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The proportion of care activities performed via EHR systems has steadily increased with the adoption of EHR through meaningful use of incentives [22, 26].
Health-care worker activities occurring in EHR systems have been documented in the form of audit logs. When a provider accesses or moves between modules in the EHR interface, such as moving from Progress Notes to Order Entry, a record of these activities are documented, including the time the event occurred, the health-care worker and patient IDs, and the computer location. Audit logs include all health-care worker interactions to EHRs of patients, which provides an opportunity to study connections among health-care workers. The continuous data collection of the EHR audit logs provides robust, readily available data. Since health-care worker activity is documented in the EHR in near real time, it is free from recall bias and variation introduced when health-care workers are retrospectively surveyed to describe their activities in EHRs.
The activities performed by health-care workers stem from six primary sources [10], including conditions (e.g., assigning a diagnosis), procedures (e.g., intubation), medications (e.g., prescription), notes (e.g., progress note writing), orders (e.g., laboratory test ordering), and measurements (e.g., measuring respiratory rate).
Figure 1 shows an example to illustrate health-care worker activities in EHR systems. Each event, such as
3. Transforming utilization data into matrices
Events document interactions of health-care workers to EHRs of patients, but they do not capture the direct connections among health-care workers. As shown in Figure 1, the four health-care workers performed events to EHRs of a patient, and they are not directly connected. We leverage events to measure the hidden connections among health-care workers. A hidden connection between two health-care workers is defined based on their interactions with the EHRs of patients. We call a hidden connection as an indirect relationship, because the two health-care workers do not communicate directly, but care for the same patients via performing actions to their EHRs. For instance, a physician ordered a lab test and sent the order to a laboratory test user. The physician and the lab user have a hidden relationship that is built upon the lab test order. Hidden relations are essential knowledge to characterize processes of health information sharing and dissemination among health-care workers in EHR systems, which can potentially impact teamwork, and the following care quality and patient safety.
We use a bipartite graph of EHR users (health-care workers) and EHRs of subjects (patients) to represent events a user performed to EHRs of a subject. Figure 2 shows an example of a bipartite graph, and a binary matrix to characterize interactions of six users to EHRs of seven subjects. In the example depicted in the figure, we use a binary matrix to represent if a health-care worker performed events to EHRs of a subject within a period (e.g., hour, day, week, or length of stay). Researchers can determine the period and whether using a binary value or the number of events to represent interactions of a health-care worker with EHRs of a patient according to their research purpose. To simplify our process, we use a binary matrix
Matrix
4. Building networks
4.1 Relationship measurement
There are two types of relationships: directed and undirected between health-care workers. Directed relation emphasizes on the ordered relations, for instance, the connections from health-care worker A to B, and B to A that are different. To learn directed connection from the utilization data, we use time stamps of events to describe the ordered relationships. As shown in Figure 1, lab test ordering occurred ahead of lab test results uploading. Thus, the relationship between the physician who ordered the lab test and the lab user who uploaded the test results is directed. Upon the directed relations, we can create direct networks. We will use an example to illustrate the creation of directed networks of health-care workers concerning the management of each patient. Examples of undirected networks are used to describe structures of collaborations among health-care workers within a unit or across a HCO.
4.2 Directed health-care worker networks
As mentioned above, we define actions performed by a health-care worker in EHR systems as events. Events affiliated with EHRs of a patient constitute a sequence of information flow. We provide a simple scenario to understand the series of information flow as follows.
In this example, the nurse practitioner and attending’s comprehension of the patient’s condition grew with each update to the EHR. Health-care workers depend on their colleagues to provide information for clinical updates as they are essential to health-care workers’ decision-making. As mentioned above, we call this virtual worker-worker interaction a hidden connection. A hidden connection does not mean a face-to-face interaction occurred, but rather, there existed the potential for the neighboring health-care workers to directly exchange information on the patient’s condition via the EHR and arrive at the same conclusion, which in this scenario was to prescribe medication for pulmonary edema. We build networks that represent the hidden connections facilitating the dispersion of patient-related information. We call them patient-level health-care worker networks because they are composed of all health-care workers that treated a common patient.
To start, we create a simplified sequence dataset by condensing consecutive events by the same health-care worker into a single event. In this scenario, we can filter the self-loop relationships of health-care workers. In a network or a graph, a self-loop relationship is an edge that connects a vertex/node to itself. For example, health-care worker W1 made three EHR events consecutively to EHRs of a patient, and we condensed them into one event; one could interpret the simplified sequence as a workflow in EHR. Based on the sequences, we identified relationships between health-care workers whenever their events occurred consecutively (health-care worker W2 used the patient’s EHR after health-care worker W1). We characterized each hidden connection with the frequency by which they occurred.
Figure 4 shows an example of how we build a health-care worker network from a patient’s sequence. As shown in Figure 4, the health-care worker W1 interacted with the EHR before health-care worker W2, so the arrowhead on the right points to health-care worker W2. The edge weight is the number of times the hidden interaction occurred. Note an edge exists if an interaction occurred at least once. While an observed interaction was not guaranteed to be an exchange of information, it did have the potential to be one.
4.3 Undirected health-care worker networks: care for a group of patients
The structure of teamwork learned from a single patient is hard to represent the pattern of collaboration concerning the management of a group of patients. In this section, we introduce the creation of undirected health-care workers for the management of a group of patients. We assume health-care workers participating in the care of the same patients (performed events to EHRs of the same patients) on the same day have a relationship. Based on such an assumption, we can create a binary matrix (as shown in Figure 3) to describe whether a health-care worker performed events to EHRs of a patient. The cell value 1 is for Yes, and 0 for No. Based on the binary matrix of health-care workers and EHRs of patients, we can use the matrix multiplication, as shown in Figure 3, to get the daily relationships between pairs of health-care workers. Each non-diagonal cell value shows the number of patients; any two health-care workers both performed events to their EHRs on the same day. Two factors determine the strength of the relationship between two health-care workers. The first is the number of patients the two workers performed events to their EHRs on the same day, and the second is the number of days when the two workers performed events to EHRs of the same patients. We build a health-care worker network for a group of patients by using the relationships which are cumulatively added based on the number of days and patients.
We use a simple scenario to explain health-care worker networks built upon a group of patients. Assuming a medical intensive care unit (MICU) adopted a new scheduling strategy in a pandemic (e.g., COVID-19), and the health-care organization plans to investigate the changes in the structure of collaboration among health-care workers before and after the adoption of the new scheduling strategy. In this scenario, we use 8 months (4 months before and after adopting the new scheduling strategy) of EHR utilization data to learn the changes. To implement the study, we create two groups: critically ill patients admitted to the MICU before and after the new scheduling strategy adopted. To ensure the studied two groups share similar confounding factors (e.g., demographics and health conditions), we can use propensity score matching to create them. We use events performed by health-care workers to EHRs of the two groups of patients to measure relationships between health-care workers before and after the adoption of the scheduling strategy, respectively. Based on the relationships, we can build two health-care worker networks: before and after the adoption of the new scheduling strategy. The differences in the structures of the two networks can be measured using sociometric measurements, which are introduced in the following sections.
4.4 Undirected health-care worker networks: care for patients within an HCO
When learning a collaboration network at the level of a health-care organization, the number of patients and health-care workers investigated will be much bigger, and the relationships between health-care workers will become more complex. If we have a large number of patients, then it may complicate the measuring of the relationships between health-care workers. For instance, if we investigate 10,000 health-care workers and 1,000,000 patients, then the size of the health-care worker-patient matrix is 10 K by 1 M. There is a necessity to reduce the dimensionalities of the matrix to ensure it is appropriate for the following approaches to measure relationships between health-care workers. As mentioned above, PCA can be applied to the matrix to reduce dimensionalities. After the dimensionality reduction, we can use similarity measurements (e.g., cosine similarity or KL divergence) to calculate the relationships between health-care workers, which are used to build networks of health-care workers. If PCA is unable to represent the variance of the data in the matrix, an alternative way is to transform the matrix of health-care workers and patients into a higher level. Instead of building networks of health-care workers, we can create networks of operational areas (e.g., medical intensive care unit, and burn center). Also, we can cluster patients into groups according to their phenotypes and transform the matrix of health-care workers by patients into operational areas by patient groups. Based on the new transformed matrix, we measure relationships between operational areas and build a collaboration network of operational areas.
Figure 5 shows an example to illustrate the process of transforming interactions between health-care workers and EHRs of patients into interactions of health-care workers to EHRs of groups of patients. Patient groups can be learned by conducting phenotyping algorithms on patient health conditions and demographics. For instance, a typical topic modeling algorithm – Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) can be used to learn topics to represent phenotypes of each patient. Based on the phenotypic topics, patients can be clustered into groups. As shown in Figure 5, the transformation from
Figure 6 shows an example to illustrate the process of transforming interactions between health-care workers and EHRs of patient groups into the interactions between operational areas and EHRs of patient groups, which are further leveraged to measure relationships between operational areas. The transformation from
5. Validating relationships among health-care workers learned from the EHR system utilization
Concerns over the trustworthiness of the results of automated learning methods are not limited to the health-care worker network learned in this chapter. Instead, this is a problem that manifests when any knowledge is learned from the secondary analysis of EHR data. Researchers always need to review the knowledge learned from the data for their plausibility. As we mentioned above, the relationships between health-care workers learned from the utilization data are indirect. In other words, they are not explicitly documented by health-care organizations. To use networks built upon such relationships to describe or interpret structures of collaborations among health-care workers, we need to validate the relationships.
To do so, we design and deploy an online survey to assess the plausibility of relationships among health-care workers. Figure 7 depicts an example of 626 relationships ranked on a log scale and the strength of the relationships. This is clearly more relationships than a human can evaluate without fatigue, and so we need to sample a small number of them for respondents to assess. For instance, we can randomly select 20 relationships: 10 of high, and 10 of low strength. A survey can be designed to evaluate a specific hypothesis of the form: hospital employees can correctly distinguish between relationships of high and low strengths.
A survey contains a series of questions. The hospital employees who respond to the survey are presented with questions of the form: “
A set of respondents will answer each question in the survey. We can conduct a pretest to obtain feedback from the experts to refine the surveys and estimate the required number of experts via a power analysis. REDCap, which is a secure web application for building and managing online surveys and databases [31], can be used to implement the online survey. Details of the plausibility validation of the relationships between health-care workers can be found in our previous works [30, 32]. If we can verify with statistical significance that the learned relationships are often in line with the expectations of hospital employees, then we can suggest that collaboration networks of health-care workers, as well as strategies built on such networks, may be reliable and scalable.
6. Sociometric measurements
Sociometric measurements include network- and node-level metrics. The network-level metrics such as size, graph density, reciprocity, triads, average path length, clustering, cohesion and density, core-periphery, centralization, diameter, and K-core are used to characterize the structure of a network; while the node-level metrics such as degree, closeness, betweenness, eigencentrality, and eccentricity are used to describe the characteristics of each node in the network. In this section, we explain those measurements in the health-care worker networks.
6.1 Network-level metrics
6.2 Health-care worker-level metrics
7. Statistical models to test hypotheses related to network structures
Most of the research studies in health care are hypothesis-driven. One of the goals of the network analysis in health care is to provide evidence on network structure to assist in the designing and development of teamwork-based hypotheses. Various hypotheses can be developed between sociometric measurements and clinical outcomes, including delayed ICU admission, ICU readmission, medication error, adverse event, length of hospital stay (LOS), mortality risk, and health-care cost.
7.1 Relationships of sociometric measurements with clinical outcomes
Structures of teamwork among health-care workers can be quantified by using both network- and node-level sociometric measurements. It has been recognized that structures of teamwork are associated with clinical outcomes. To inform actionable staffing interventions, we can develop hypotheses for each of the sociometric measurements and validate their relationships with clinical outcomes. For each inpatient stay (ranging from their admission to discharge), we can create a network to describe the structure of teamwork among health-care workers during the patient stay. Hypotheses can be designed based on the network. An example of the hypotheses can be: the clustering coefficient of a network is associated with LOS. Statistical models can be leveraged to test the hypotheses. The distributions of most network measurements are not Gaussian distributed, so we can use rank-based approaches to measure associations between the measurements and clinical outcomes. For instance, we can use the Spearman rank-order correlation to measure the association between the clustering coefficient and LOS. If we want to investigate multiple sociometric measurements or add confounding factors (patient demographics, the severity of sickness), we can use advanced statistical models, such as a proportional-odds (PO) logistic regression model.
The PO model can be thought of as a set of logistic regression models, where each model describes the log-odds of LOS (continuous variable) being higher than some threshold j (rather than lower than or equal to), and where j = 1, 2, …, J represents all possible thresholds by which LOS can be dichotomized, and J is equal to the number of unique outcome values minus one. The set of models is collapsed into a single model, via the proportional odds assumption that coefficients for predictor variables are the same across the threshold values. Even when this assumption is not met, a coefficient from the proportional odds model can be thought of as a weighted average of coefficients across all the threshold-specific logistic regression models.
Some outcomes, such as ICU readmission, delayed ICU admission, or mortality risk are categorical variables. In that case, we can use the Mann Whitney U test or analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test the differences in the sociometric measurements between networks. The hypotheses can also be developed between node-level measurements (e.g., betweenness, eigencentrality, and degree) and clinical outcomes. For instance, critically ill patients who were cared for by more high-betweenness nurses were significantly less likely to die in their ICU stays.
7.2 Changes in structures of health-care worker networks
Analyzing changes in the collaboration network structures and measuring relationships of the changes with outcomes are very important research questions in the teamwork in health care. When a health-care organization adopts a new staffing intervention (e.g., creating a new team scheduling), they will need to assess and monitor the changes in the behavior of collaboration among health-care workers before and after the interventions and how such changes impact clinical outcomes. Getting feedback from the adoption of a new staffing intervention can provide evidence to identify weak and ineffective parts to do further optimization. For instance, ICUs adopt staffing interventions in the COVID-19 pandemic, and the responses may change the structure of collaboration. We can use network analysis approaches to analyze the changes in the network structures from pre-COVID-19 to intra-COVID-19 and measure the relationships of such changes with clinical outcomes such as ICU readmission or delayed ICU admission. Examples of hypotheses can be: neonatology physicians have higher betweenness after the staffing intervention or the health-care worker network after the staffing intervention has a larger diameter (the difficulty of sharing patients increases). Since sociometric measurements are not Gaussian distributed in many situations, we can apply a Mann-Whitney U test to measure the significance of the difference.
8. Applications
We introduce three applications to show how we use network analysis to identify care teams in a health-care organization, measure associations between collaborations and length of stay in the trauma setting, and assess health-care worker networks for the management of surgical neonates, respectively.
8.1 Care team identification
We applied network analysis to the EHR utilization records of over 10,000 hospital employees and 17,000 inpatients at a large academic medical center during a 4-month window [19]. The study aimed to learn collaboration structure across the entire health-care system, and thus it built networks of departments (higher level) rather than the networks of health-care workers. Each node in the network is a department. LDA models were used to cluster patients into groups. As shown in Figures 5 and 6, matrix multiplications were conducted to transform the matrix of health-care workers and patients into the matrix of departments and patient groups. Connections among 317 departments were inferred from the department-patient group matrix. We identified 34 collaborative groups of departments [19]. Each of the groups is a subnetwork and could be considered as a care team across various types of departments. The results suggested that, although the over 17,000 patients exhibited over 1400 different types of phenotypes, the health-care workers treating them tended to work in only 34 collaborative groups. When the 34 groups were presented to health-care experts via online surveys, 27 (79.4%) of 34 were confirmed as administratively plausible. Of those, 26 teams depicted strong collaborations, with a clustering coefficient >0.5.
8.2 Length of stay and trauma team structures
We started the network analysis of trauma team structures by creating a matrix of ~5000 health-care workers and EHRs of ~5500 patients based on the EHR system utilization data [10]. The difference is we applied a spectral co-clustering methodology to the matrix to infer groups of patients and clusters of health-care workers simultaneously. By using the co-clustering algorithm, we created three trauma patient groups, each of which has a corresponding network of health-care workers. For each network of health-care workers, we calculated sociometric measurements to quantify their structures. Length of stay was used as the outcome. The association between a sociometric measurement (e.g., clustering coefficient) and length of stay was measured by using statistical models incorporating various confounding factors (e.g., demographics and admission dates). We found a remarkably clear distinction in LOS: those patients experiencing the largest quantity of collaborations between health-care workers had the shortest LOS, while those subject to fewer collaborations (i.e., supported by less well-integrated care teams), spent much longer in hospital, indicating greater financial cost as well, of course, as pain, distress, and inconvenience to the patient [10].
8.3 Length of stay and NICU team structures
We extracted EHR data of 15 NICU gastrostomy patients from the day prior to the patient’s surgery day until postoperative day 30. The study aims to validate the associations between health-care worker networks and post-surgical length of stay (PLOS) [36]. For each patient ICU stay, we built a directed network to show how information was received and disseminated among health-care workers in the NICU. For each patient’s stay, we created a simplified sequence dataset by ordering health-care worker actions based on their time stamps starting from the day prior to the patient’s surgery until postoperative day 30 or the patient’s discharge date. Based on the sequences, we identified connections between health-care workers whenever their actions occurred consecutively. We learned 15 patient-level health-care worker networks. We used the sociometric measurements, including in-degree, out-degree, and betweenness, to quantify the structures of each patient-level network.
We modeled patient PSLOS with each structure measurement controlling for patient age and weight using a proportional-odds logistic regression model. Study results show health-care workers, whose patients had lower PSLOS, tended to disperse patient-related information to more colleagues within their network than those, who treated higher PSLOS patients (P = 0.0294). Our results demonstrate in the NICU that improved dissemination of information may be linked to reduced PSLOS.
9. Conclusions
This chapter provides an introduction of a network analysis of secondary EHR system utilization data to learn health-care worker networks. We introduce five main components when applying network analysis to team structures and clinical outcomes: (i) matrix multiplication to build connection among health-care workers, (ii) survey instruments to validate the plausibility of the learned connections among health-care workers, (iii) sociometric measurements to characterize network structures, (iv) hypothesis development to connect network structures with clinical outcomes, and (v) statistical models to test the hypotheses. Finally, we use three examples to show the application of network analysis in health care. In short, EHR data provide an efficient, accessible, and resource-friendly way to study teamwork using network analysis tools.
Acknowledgments
The research studies introduced in this chapter were supported, in part, by the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health under Award Numbers K99LM011933, R00LM011933, and R01LM012854.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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