Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
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1. Introduction
All over the world the population is aging. Essentially every country in the world is faced with the expanding number and growing portion of its older inhabitants. Within the next 30 years, the number of persons aged 60 years or over is expected to more than double, reaching to more than 2 billion in 2050. Moreover, average life expectancy is consistently increasing, i.e., older population is itself aging—the share of people over 80 (the “oldest old”) within the older population was 14% in 2013 and is projected to reach 19% in 2050 [1]. This so-called graying of the population will most certainly be the number one trademark of the twenty-first century’s societal changes. Furthermore, due to the specificities of older population, worldwide aging will affect probably all sectors of society, from family structure to labor market, as well as goods and services needed. A growing field of gerontology has thus a main aim of providing societal decision-makers with advices on creating retirement and social security policies adequate for the growing size of aging population and on ensuring conditions, which support and promote successful aging, i.e., appropriate housing, family relations, and free time of the elderly. What we usually refer to as successful aging is the set of individual and societal conditions under which older people get a maximum of satisfaction and happiness, while the society maintains balance among satisfaction of all age and gender groups [2].
In psychology, life satisfaction and happiness are studied under the umbrella term of well-being [3]. Other componential constructs include optimal experience and functioning [4]. Although seemingly a complex construct, well-being has been repeatedly associated with a number of health, family, work, and economic benefits, for example, decreased risk of disease [5, 6], better immune functioning [7], better coping and speedier recovery [8], and increased longevity [9]. Well-being is also associated with more job-related success and higher incomes, and individuals with higher well-being are more likely to engage in community projects [10]. Globally speaking, countries with higher average well-being are wealthier and have better civil liberties, more equality, and more governmental stability and political engagement [11]. It is of no surprise that well-being of the population has become almost a societal imperative and public policy makers are getting more and more concerned with this topic. Economic reports show that traditional economic variables, such as gross domestic product, average income, or housing conditions, are becoming insufficient in indicating nation’s progress and that self-reported well-being is emerging as a variable that must be taken into account [12].
What certainly comes to mind when mentioning old population is the decline of their cognitive capabilities. Until recently, findings of cognitive decline have been relatively unified and disheartening. Beginning of the 1990s, efforts to improve cognitive functioning of healthy older adult have begun. Evidence is accumulating that cognitive training—a therapeutic intervention aimed at empowering cognition—might actually improve cognitive performance and slow down the inevitable cognitive decline. There are now quite robust findings of variability and trainability of aspects of cognition in the old age [13, 14]. Consequently, the topic of understanding and promoting successful cognitive aging is granted high scholarly and practical importance. Since older adults are usually faced with more spare time in the years following their retirement, an important direction in promoting overall well-being of elderly is to identify activities in which they might participate and that might improve their functional status and overall quality of life.
In sum, well-being of elderly is obviously becoming a major societal concern, and upsurge of interest in interventions and activities that could contribute to the life satisfaction and happiness of older people is of no surprise. In this chapter we will (1) give a theoretical overview of well-being research and recapitulate findings on the sociodemographic correlates of well-being, most specifically age; (2) offer accounts on “successful aging,” with a focus on cognitive aging; (3) present evidence linking cognition and well-being of elderly; (4) recapitulate benefits of cognitive training programs for elderly; and, finally, (5) advocate leisure activities as a widely available platform to train cognition.
2. Well-being in psychological research
National surveys measuring well-being are becoming increasingly popular and are being carried out worldwide [15, 16]. Measurement of well-being is a focus of debate itself, and the issue has raised considerable controversies. This controversy stems partly from how “optimal functioning” and “good life” are defined at the level of an individual and is exponentially gaining complexity as we go beyond individual level toward various, cultures, economies, and personalities. Since the 1960s, when the movement of human potentials has spread throughout the Western countries, in which psychological advancements of the time were mostly nested, research on well-being has generated two distinct philosophies, labeled hedonism and eudaimonism.
Hedonism mirrors the notion of well-being, which is built around subjectively pleasant and positive everyday experiences. Hedonic well-being is measured by self-reports in which respondents rate their experiences of positive and negative affect operationalized through adjectives, such as happy, sad, and worried. It is not reduced to physical pleasure and preferences, but it can also be achieved by realization of valued and imported personal goals and aspirations. Despite numerous ways by which this pleasure/pain continuum can be assessed, most research within the hedonic approach has used the construct subjective well-being (SWB). SWB deals with how and why people experience their lives positively. It includes affect (positive and negative) and cognitive judgments of life satisfaction, and it is considered a valuable indicator of optimal functioning [17, 18]. During the past two and a half decades, SWB has become a primary index of well-being and is often employed as a major outcome variable in public health studies and medical and epidemiological testing of diseases and risk factor prevention [4, 19].
Eudaimonism expresses the belief that well-being requires actualization of one’s potential. Being well is about fulfilling one’s true nature—daimon [20]—and it is distinct from mere happiness. From eudaimonic standpoint, happiness cannot be equaled with well-being because, although maybe pleasure producing, not all outcomes yield achievement of well-being [4]. Realization of eudemonic happiness, and/or well-being, happens when our values are intertwined with our activities and when one is living an authentic life. In operationalizing eudemonic well-being, researchers focus on judgments about meaning and purpose of one’s life, called psychological well-being (PWB), and view it as distinct from SWB. Since factors promoting SWB do not necessarily overlap with does yielding PWB, assessment of PWB is cognitively more engaging and demands considerable reflection about self-actualization, vitality, and mental health. PWB is a more diverse construct, and a multimodal approach to its measurement has been proposed. Ryff and Singer (2000), for example, specify six aspects of human actualization: autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life purpose, mastery, and positive relatedness. Also, they report evidence that eudemonic well-being might influence physiological systems and consequently promote immunological functioning and overall health [21].
Within these two approaches, a number of measurement instruments have been proposed and are widely used. Kobau et al. [19] conducted an extensive study to examine descriptive and psychometric properties of widely used scales and to examine the level of well-being in a representative sample of community-dwelling adults. The study covered (1) satisfaction with life [22]; (2) meaning in life [23]; (3) basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness [24]; (4) domain-specific life satisfaction [25]; and (5) select positive and negative affect items [26]. The scales demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties, and the results confirmed previous findings of preponderance of mildly positive level of SWB in adults [11, 27]. Except for the autonomy, competence, and relatedness scales, all other scales showed good variability and expected differences across sociodemographic subgroups.
2.1. Sociodemographic correlates of well-being
Sociodemographic picture of well-being, as seen through the lenses of psychological research, is more or less clear. In a stratified sample of almost 5500 respondents, Kobau et al. [19] tested for the well-being differences in gender, race/ethnicity, educational level, and household income. Men and women generally reported similar degree of SWB or PWB, i.e., exhibited similar levels of meaning in life, positive or negative affect, global happiness, autonomy, and competence. Women exhibit higher satisfaction with spiritual, religious, and philosophical beliefs, as well as with housing, family and social life, and their ability to help others. Men, however, reported of being more satisfied with their energy level than women did. Also, only slight differences in well-being domains were found across race/ethnicity. Higher educational level is found related to higher well-being across life domains. Respondents of low-level education experienced similar level of positive affect as those highly educated, yet they reported of experiencing significantly more negative affect and lower levels of happiness. In terms of household income, households with lower incomes are generally associated with lower levels of well-being. It seems that income provides clear advantages, with high-income respondents reporting more satisfaction with life, while lower-income respondents generally report lower levels of satisfaction across all life domains.
What does lifespan perspective say about well-being? The U-shaped association between age and well-being is usually taken as standard finding with the most salient finding being the so-called paradox of aging [4]. Not only does well-being not decline, but it usually increases, despite many challenges and losses experienced in the old age. Still, depending on the approach and instruments used, the findings from various studies reveal a relatively dynamic age-related trajectory of well-being. When a more descriptive approach to lifespan changes in well-being is taken, interesting theoretical and methodological issues arise. Namely, when a multidimensional way of measuring well-being is applied, studies show that age is related to (1) people’s conception of well-being and (2) content of life aspects contributing to well-being. Young adults draw their well-being from the perceived self-knowledge and competence and are more involved in gaining new experiences. Older adults draw their satisfaction from experiences of positive coping with change, as well as depth and concentration directed toward tasks at hand. Carstensen et al. [28] proposed a socio-emotional selectivity theory to explain these findings. They argue that age is associated with increasing motivation to extract emotional meaning from life and decreasing motivation to expand one’s horizons. As they age, people accumulate emotional wisdom, which leads them to select more emotionally gratifying events, relationship, and experiences. By limiting their set of social contacts and experiences, despite of deteriorating health, lowered income, and losses related to deaths and retirement, older people maintain and even increase their self-reported well-being.
3. Aging research: is age just a number?
When speaking of aging, we usually refer to the physiological and behavioral changes leading to senescence. Disciplines dealing with senescence, such as sociology, biology, and psychology, are not consistent in their definitions and criteria of old age, yet ages 60–65 are most often marked as the beginning of the old age. As the population is “graying,” suggested phases of aging are being more and more refined. The rule of thumb in categorization of age cohorts is three life stages: the young-old (approximately 65–74), the middle-old (ages 75–84), and the old-old (over age 85). Yet criteria of old age are very broad and subjective—it can be the loss of reproductive ability, attainment of wisdom, or retirement. Although highly correlated with age, at an individual level, these indicators of old age may arrive at very different ages. Such a broad range of interindividual differences in older adults proves that chronological age is not a reliable guide in understanding the aging process.
Therefore, today age is held as one of many variables accounting for interindividual differences among elderly. As people move through the lifespan, adult development is less and less under control of physical ontogeny. In adulthood, the information of one’s age tells relatively little besides the fact that one has lived for a certain number of years. Knowing solely one’s age is informative neither of one’s health condition, cognitive status, physiological state, socioeconomic status, nor their lifestyle. Other contributing variables include various physical factors, such as exercise or nutrition [29], psychological health (e.g., Ref. [30]), social factors [31], and various lifestyle factors [32].
Probably the best-documented changes related to aging come from physiology. Aging heart becomes more vulnerable to disease; vision and hearing undergo qualitative changes and so do the skeletal and endocrine systems. Advancements in medicine, throughout the last century, have cushioned much of age-related changes and bolstered longevity. Psychological aspects of aging have not captured researchers’ attention until much later—beginnings of organized research in psychology of aging are set in the mid-1950s. Psychology defines aging as a “result of ecological relationships – a particular genetic background is expressed in particular social and physical environments and modified by the strategic capacities of the individual” [33, pg. 3]. In terms of psychological characteristics of aging, the most studied ones come from the domain of cognition.
3.1. Cognitive aging: cognition in older age
What is known about everyday cognitive abilities along adult lifespan? Over the last decades, the magnitude of cognition-related age differences reported in the literature has shrunk. This is likely due to a more systematic investigation of the influences of other concomitant variables that could account for a significant share of variance that was previously attributed to chronological age. Human mind, as suggested by lifespan psychology, is viewed as a complex system composed of many intellectual abilities that develop with different rates and trajectories, and lifespan changes in cognitive ability should be considered in a differential manner [34].
The most influential and certainly still the most resilient perspective on cognitive abilities in aging is Cattell-Horn’s legacy of fluid and crystallized intelligence [35, 36]. Fluid and crystallized intelligence represent a categorization of numerous discrete abilities into two different sets of abilities with different trajectories over the course of development—while crystallized abilities incrementally improve throughout life, fluid abilities peak at around 20 years of age and start declining after 40, with decline progressing after the age of 65. And indeed, some abilities, mostly those broadly termed fluid, decrease with age, such as processing speed [37], working memory capacity [38], associative memory [39], executive functioning [40, 41], fluid intelligence, and reasoning (e.g., Ref. [42]). On the other hand, abilities associated with experience, cultural and social processes, and measures of crystallized intelligence, for example, vocabulary, remain preserved even in very old age [43].
However, if a more differential approach is taken and age differences in various tasks are decomposed depending on the contribution of content, strategy use, or other more reality-related criteria to the efficacy of executing the task, findings show a slightly different perspective. For example, problem solving is often found to show marked age differences with young excelling the old. Yet when problems are analyzed in terms of strategies used to solve them or social and emotional impact a solution of the problem, performance is stable throughout lifespan and sometimes even improved in late adulthood [44]. It seems that young adults excel older ones in problem solving only when tasks are based on fluency or involve single solution [45]. In other words, human development can be seen as a continuous and dynamic interplay of cognitive gains and losses. To underline this thesis, Baltes et al. [46] showed that older adults can profoundly profit from guided practice in tasks or when they are shown and taught strategies for problem solving. In a sample of healthy older adults, they found improvement in fluid ability of healthy older participants when tutor-guided training was provided. A rearview mirror view would probably reveal this study as the beginning of the end of Cattell-Horn’s era of innate abilities and the dawning of utility hypothesis of cognitive abilities which is slowly, but steadily, getting recognition under the auspices of use-it-or-lose-it hypothesis (e.g., Ref. [47]).
4. The relatedness of cognition and well-being: hot or not?
In recent years, a body of evidence suggesting that well-being might be a potential resource for healthier aging is growing. Older people with higher well-being are less likely to develop mobility problems or other activities of daily life [48]. High positive affect seems to lower the risk of frailty [49]. However, it is unclear whether positive well-being might act protectively with regard to cognitive aging, another important component of healthy and successful aging [50]. Some recent cross-sectional analyses of several older age cohorts have found small to moderate positive association between well-being and cognition [51, 52]. Studies have found links of stronger sense of perceived control, a component of eudaimonic well-being, with higher scores in memory performance [53, 54].
Enkvist et al. [55] tested six cognitive domains (executive function, processing speed, episodic memory, semantic memory, spatial ability, and working memory) in a sample of oldest old (aged 78–98), and after the adjustment conducted for potential confounding factors including depression, processing speed and spatial ability were positively associated with life satisfaction 3 years later. Somewhat stronger evidence that poorer fluid abilities might have a detrimental effect on well-being is found in the study investigating whether fluid cognitive ability predicts exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors [56]. Findings showed that higher levels of fluid ability were associated with smaller stressor-related increases in negative mood and smaller stressor-related decreases in positive mood, suggesting that cognitively better-off individuals may be more emotionally resilient in the face of daily stress. Allerhand et al. [42] used multilevel modeling to estimate association between cognitive function and positive well-being in four waves of data, collected on a sample of over 10,000 participants, aged 50–90. They found that, although most variation in cognitive function was explained by age and most variation in well-being was explained by depression, small but significant associations between cognition and well-being remained after variation in age and depression were controlled.
It remains unclear whether these significant cross-sectional associations reflect the effect of well-being on cognition or vice versa. It might also be plausible that the relationship between positive well-being and cognitive function is bidirectional. For example, cognitive success in younger age might lead to higher self-efficacy and feeling of mastery, which in turn leads to an increase in cognitive appraisal of satisfaction with life, i.e., increase in well-being. On the other hand, at older ages impaired cognition may constrain managing of daily activities and hence cause detrimental well-being. Studies suggest that cognitive decline leads to diminished well-being, more in terms of its eudaimonic than hedonic aspects [57]. A more rapid cognitive decline in a 5-year period preceding well-being assessment, as measured by Scales of Psychological Well-being [58], was associated with lower level of nearly all aspects of well-being. The extent of the association varied across well-being dimensions. Also, rate of decline of episodic memory, semantic memory, and perceptual speed was associated with rate of decline in purpose in life, and the association between rates of decline in working memory and purpose in life was of borderline significance. A prospective epidemiological study of community-dwelling elderly has also found that greater purpose in life is associated with a reduced risk of incident Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment [59].
People’s cognitive responses to various life events are also associated with different levels of well-being. Happier and more satisfied individuals are more characterized by optimistic strategies and biases when facing different outcomes. They tend to perceive life’s circumstances positively [60], expect favorable future [61], experience more internality in terms of control [62], and are confident about their strengths and skills [63]. Inverse relation to well-being is found in inclination to encode negative aspects of events and ruminate about one’s problems [64].
Further elaboration associating cognition and well-being comes from the research on self-efficacy. Significant associations between well-being and self-efficacy have been reported [62], and self-efficacy is referred to as a strong predictor of subjective well-being and a mediator of the relation between personality and SWB [65]. Twin and family studies have found that genetic factors may account for 30–40% of the variance in SWB, leaving a fair share of variance of SWB under environmental influences [66]. Environmental factors can obviously play an important role in individual differences in SWB. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that, partially at least, interventions aimed at various cognitive correlates of well-being could change the self-reported perception of well-being. In sum, an association between cognition and well-being is a sensible assumption, although it is still escaping firm explanations and mechanisms enabling it. In the following paragraphs, we will review types of cognitive interventions offered to elderly and then offer an account of arguments for leisure time activities as a form of cognitive training.
5. Cognitive training: how can cognition be trained?
Although nowadays research argues that age is one of many variables accounting for individual differences in cognition, it is still often taken as a cause of decline in cognitive abilities. Therefore, it is not surprising that practitioners and scholars are increasingly confronted with the question of what can be done to maintain cognitive abilities by postponing degenerative (yet normative) aging processes, thus improving the quality of life in elderly. Pushing the limits of what is currently known about sustaining cognitive functioning in the old age and about the ways of improving cognitive status of the elderly has become one of the most intriguing endeavors of psychologists, gerontologists, and cognitive scientists alike. Also, it is a pursuit which brings together not only scientists but also clinicians and entrepreneurs. In 2012, the brain-fitness market had total revenues of more than $1 billion, and forecasts for 2020 are settling around $6 billion [67]. The metaphors of the brain gym and workout for the mind have never been more appealing. Although cognitive training programs could be tailored to suit various age cohorts, aging baby boomers seem to be their number one consumers.
Similar to children, adults do not often function at the limits of their capacities; when placed in conditions that support and foster their higher-level functioning, resources are activated, but they are not spontaneously used [68]. In many areas of life, performance of older adults is below their actual competence level. This idea of an unused reserve, which is not activated because the situation is not requiring it, is partly described in the concept of cognitive reserve. Cognitive reserve refers to the brain’s capacity to cope actively with neuropathological damage through the implementation of cognitive processes [69]. It is the ability to adapt to neural damage by employing alternative cognitive processes and/or strategies in compensation. In essence cognitive training procedures are based on this idea that the brain, even in old age, can change for the better. Findings of brain’s plasticity [70], i.e., brain’s ability to change and keep its vitality, suggest that it resembles muscles. As physical training can improve physical abilities and overall physical fitness, cognitive training can improve trained activities and cognitive status. Such training can take many shapes. The use of instruction and guided practice on tasks related to specific cognitive abilities or cognitive appraisals of one’s own ability has proven to be a key to success of such programs intended for the elderly. In the consecutive order of their development, these types of training are listed: strategy training, multimodal training, cardiovascular exercise, and process training [71].
Strategy training involves training strategies instrumental in increasing performance on trained tasks. These strategies most often used mnemonics and reported memory improvements for different mnemonics taught, ranging from imagery (d = .14), and peg-word (d = .62), to method of loci (d = .80), and organization (d = .85) [72]. Strategy trainings are featured by large and lasting effects on the trained task but are scarce in transfer effects, i.e., acquired mnemonics has limited generalizability to untrained tasks. As a response to these limited transfer abilities of strategy training, multimodal trainings were developed. These more complex interventions include cognitive and social component and sometimes even lifestyle changes. Multimodal training, as the name suggests, includes multiple modes of meaningful and joyful activities, for example, learning new skills which is cognitively demanding (e.g., board and card games, Sudoku, quilting). This approach offers wider transfer to different cognitive and other psychological domains (e.g., Ref. [73]), yet from a methodological point of view, it is difficult to determine which mode, or activity, was crucial or most beneficial for the improvement. Cardiovascular training features improvement in cognitive function of elderly via designated aerobic exercise. Greatest benefits of cardiovascular training are witnessed in executive function (g = .68 for flanker task) and are moderate for performance in speeded tasks (g = .43 for spatial or g = .27 for reaction time tasks) [74]. These trainings can have large and widespread effects, but are not necessarily accessible to persons with physical disabilities. Finally, process training trains specific processes, such as working memory [75] by exposing the participants to a “cognitive drill” on tasks tapping specific process. These trainings are promising, in terms of transfer effects, yet require rigorous task analysis to determine exactly which process is being trained. In applied sense, process trainings are known to be tiring and, consequently, demotivating, which in turn can have adverse effects on adherence.
Cognitive interventions are best delivered in a group format, although individual sessions and even self-help trainings [76] have been successfully implemented. Similar to real-life experiences, adaptive tasks are instrumental for training success, i.e., tasks which grow more challenging as the performance is getting better [72]. There is evidence that even relatively simple cognitive exercises can help to improve aspects of cognition. For example, older people can benefit from cognitive interventions in forms of computerized board games of chance [76]. Authors argue that the reason for this improvement lies in the newly acquired skill (i.e., computer use) and draw attention to higher feelings of mastery and self-efficacy as a potential reason behind the improvement. Other computer-based procedures come to similar conclusions. Whitlock et al. [77] confirm enhancement of well-being and life satisfaction after a multimodal game-based intervention and, in line with other studies on cognitive exercise and well-being, suggest a link between gaming and better emotional functioning and higher well-being. In sum, programs for the elderly which are now needed are those targeting multiple cognitive and physical functions because age-related decline is experienced in both of these areas. This decline is often accompanied by emotional difficulties, which might affect cognition. Thus, interventions which incorporate multiple components, such as regular physical and cognitive activity and stimulation, and are depression protective, are needed—most likely in midlife and earlier—to maximize their potential of slowing down cognitive decline in later age. Finally, cognitive training procedures may have practical values and benefits even if they do not change the rate of cognitive decline, in terms of statistical significance. Even if the rate of decline returns to normal after temporary improvement in the level of function due to the intervention, it may delay the point at which an individual reaches sufficient degrees of impairment to impact daily life in terms of dependency, housing, or constant medical care [71].
6. Leisure time activities: engagement that counts
Two contrasting, although not mutually exclusive, views have been proposed to account for the contribution of activities in successful aging. According to the activity theory [78], maintenance of activities and attitudes of middle age as far and as long as possible, in terms of one’s age, is the key to successful aging. On the other hand, disengagement theory [79] suggests acceptance and willingness to disengage from active life as factors holding the key to aging successfully.
Ever since the 1960s, both of these theories have been a benchmark for testing various hypotheses explaining why some people age more adaptively, in terms of successfully standing up to the challenges which aging brings. They both hold an interdisciplinary approach on aging, taking into account not just medical/physiological data but also social, psychological, and interpersonal factors. Most importantly, they have both called scholars’ attention to the positive and healthy aspects of aging instead of the usual studies on frailty and decline in relation to age. Furthermore, both theories apply a developmental perspective to late adulthood, a standpoint in which aging involves a progression through consecutive stages rather than a decline from middle adulthood toward the end of one’s life [2]. Activity and disengagement theories have provided a fruitful theoretical platform for the study of aging and have extensively advanced our knowledge and appreciation of aging.
Studies identify three categories of leisure time activity as valuable constituents of “successful aging”—social engagement, physical exercise, and mental stimulation [50]. Many recent studies have found that social network size (number of people we see or meet in certain periods) is inversely related to the risk of cognitive decrement [80, 81]. Large social networks provide cognitive and physical engagement, which mediates cognitive decline, while preserved cognitive abilities are mostly a condition sine qua non for lasting social network. As for the physical component of leisure time activities, studies show that long-standing aerobic fitness leads to positive cognitive outcomes, even in old age, and cardiovascular trainings can improve cognitive performance in otherwise mostly sedentary older adults (e.g., Refs. [13, 82]). Cognitively demanding leisure activities, such as reading books and high-level journals and visiting plays and exhibitions, intuitively perpetrate higher cognitive abilities [83]. However, there are methodological issues involved in this intuition—it might be that highly functioning individuals seek complex, more cognitively demanding, leisure activities.
Interestingly, there are three lifestyle factors important in slowing the rate of cognitive decline: social network, regular physical activity, and cognitive leisure activities [84]. The integration of these aspects into neurorehabilitative methods is strongly recommended [71]. Combined interventions are often designed to be enjoyable or socially meaningful for older adults, increasing the chances that they will maintain the activities and skills even after the formal training period has ended. Compared with just physical or cognitive training programs, combined trainings provide significantly greater benefits in various cognitive functions of older adults [85, 86]. Given the similarity of training components contributing to training success and lifestyle factors important in slowing the rate of cognitive decline, it is justified to ask whether leisure activities could serve as a form of cognitive training.
An important aspect to bear in mind, in the discussion of leisure time activities as a “substitute” for cognitive trainings, is their relation to well-being. Overall, training and cognitive aging studies, although not extensively, provide evidence of a positive association between cognitive status and well-being in the old age. Literature on leisure activities almost unambiguously demonstrates that leisure activities can improve well-being. Well-being is positively associated with frequency of participation in enjoyable activities (e.g., different hobbies, reading, socializing) [87, 88]. The level of participation of older adults (age 60+) in leisure activity was found to predict life satisfaction 7 years later. A similar longitudinal finding is the one of older adults (age 72+) who volunteered in community work and other helping behaviors and were found to have greater life satisfaction 3 years later [89], while more hours of volunteering resulted in even greater benefit in well-being in older (age 60+) adults [90]. Overall, both cross-sectional and longitudinal evidences speak in favor of leisure time activities in terms of well-being. Long-term participation in leisure activities is not just protective of cognition in old age but is also regarded as a factor contributing to its improvement.
It seems that leisure time activities have some striking similarities to cognitive training program. These similarities certainly lie in factors proven to slow down the rate of cognitive decline and components of frequent leisure time activities in which elderly are involved are striking, namely, social network, physical activity, and cognitively demanding tasks. Also, just as cognitive trainings provide users with the sense of mastery and self-efficacy, especially if new skills are required through the course of the training, so do leisure time activities. Based on their facial validity, i.e., instantly seen pleasurable purpose of these activities, development of mastery and self-efficacy in leisure time activities is probably even more pronounced. Furthermore, leisure activities circumvent crucial shortcoming of cognitive trainings—they are mostly free and available to almost everyone. Cognitive training procedures are usually not offered to older population on a larger scale. They are usually based in validity studies and are at disposition to volunteers in research institution—university centers, geriatric units, or aging institutes. Web-based programs are becoming an economically available alternative, yet they still require resources and, after all, a home computer with Internet access. Finally, traditional leisure time activities are perceived as much more enjoyable than strategy trainings and extensive practice tasks, and this enjoyment might ensure for higher motivation and adherence of older participants in pursing them.
7. Concluding remarks
A successful example in which an initially leisure time activity, volunteering, was tested as a cognitive protection intervention [91]. Older adults (ages 60–86) worked with elementary school students in supportive interactive roles for 15 hours weekly over the school year. Physical activity, strength, reported social support networks, and cognitive activity significantly increased for these elders. This study is an example of targeting social engagement interventions to enhance cognitive aging for older adults and a further support of the theory that active involvement with society and engagement in meaningful activity are critical to “successful aging.” More studies like this are needed to have a sound, psychometrically proven, argument of leisure activity being the No. 1 choice of cognitive training. However, such studies are usually not commercially or grant-wise interesting because the final products—a participation in activity—cannot be sold and there are no financial incentives; it is most often open to community dwellers in forms of various hobby centers, book clubs, or volunteering opportunities.
At the end, which is then the right way to healthy aging and cognitive vitality in the old age? Is it the activities, is it training programs either web-based or offered by research in others, or might it be both? Aging is a dynamic progress in which we win some and we lose some. Losses are mostly there by default; wins mostly require hard work. Studies on cognitive plasticity show that behavioral effects of experience are quite narrow and the effects of participation in activities show because engaged lifestyle pulls attentional resources to support abilities and maintain skills needed to pursue such lifestyle [92]. In other words, abilities are maintained through consistent use of exercising them. Exercise and engagement can be operationalized in various ways, but they usually involve challenging levels of activity situated in real-life contexts. So the question of activity or disengagement as a key to successful aging can best be rephrased by emphasizing choices we make about our activities and involvements in them. Such a claim is advanced in the Dumbledore hypothesis of cognitive aging—suggested by Elizabeth Stine-Morrow and inspired by the wise words of Dumbledore, a kind wizard in the Harry Potter saga—it is not our abilities that define us; it is our choices that show what we truly are [92]. What seems crucial for successful aging and higher well-being of elderly is to find the right balance between one’s ability, choice of activities, and the level of engagement in these activities. Choosing to engage in leisure activities and adjusting this engagement to own aging abilities, yet making it inspiring enough to provide a mastery experience, which would lead to higher self-efficacy, seem to be the path to maximize our own potentials and be well.
\n',keywords:"well-being, cognition, aging, leisure activity, cognitive training",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54659.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54659.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54659",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54659",totalDownloads:954,totalViews:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"February 16th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Economic reports show that traditional economic variables are becoming insufficient in indicating nation’s progress and that self-reported well-being is emerging as an important indicator of nation’s prosperity and quality of life of its inhabitants. Since average life expectancy is consistently increasing all over the world, practitioners and scholars are increasingly confronted with the question of what can be done to improve the well-being of growing elderly population. An often highlighted characteristic of older adults is cognitive decline, and interventions aimed at improving or maintaining cognitive abilities of elderly are being extensively designed. In this chapter we will review studies indicating a link between cognition and well-being in aging and advocate (long-term) involvement in leisure activities as a form of cognitive training. Apart from its availability to a much wider audience than those participating in cognitive interventions, a key argument in favor of leisure activities is its unambiguous positive association with well-being.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54659",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54659",book:{slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-life-medical-perspective"},signatures:"Andrea Vranic",authors:[{id:"197544",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Vranic",fullName:"Andrea Vranic",slug:"andrea-vranic",email:"avranic@ffzg.hr",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Well-being in psychological research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Sociodemographic correlates of well-being",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Aging research: is age just a number?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1. Cognitive aging: cognition in older age",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. The relatedness of cognition and well-being: hot or not?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Cognitive training: how can cognition be trained?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Leisure time activities: engagement that counts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"7. Concluding remarks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/ [Accessed: 2017-01-15]'},{id:"B2",body:'DeLiema, M, Bengston, VL. The history of disengagement, activity, and successful aging theories. In: Pachana NA, editor. Encyclopedia of Geropsychology. New York, NY: Springer; 2015.'},{id:"B3",body:'Diener E. Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin. 1984; 95:542-575. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542'},{id:"B4",body:'Ryan RM, Deci EL. 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Turkey",slug:"effect-of-phone-interviews-and-anger-management-training-provided-to-caregivers-of-the-patients-with",signatures:"Birgül Özkan, Selahattin Menteş and Gökmen Zarasız",authors:[{id:"189970",title:"Dr.",name:"Birgul",middleName:null,surname:"Ozkan",fullName:"Birgul Ozkan",slug:"birgul-ozkan"},{id:"203470",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokmen",middleName:null,surname:"Zararsız",fullName:"Gokmen Zararsız",slug:"gokmen-zararsiz"},{id:"212318",title:"Dr.",name:"Selahattin",middleName:null,surname:"Menteş",fullName:"Selahattin Menteş",slug:"selahattin-mentes"}]},{id:"58200",title:"Caregivers of Patients on Haemodialysis",slug:"caregivers-of-patients-on-haemodialysis",signatures:"Grapsa Eirini and Gerogianni Georgia",authors:[{id:"219588",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Eirini",middleName:null,surname:"Grapsa",fullName:"Eirini Grapsa",slug:"eirini-grapsa"},{id:"223289",title:"MSc.",name:"Georgia",middleName:null,surname:"Gerogianni",fullName:"Georgia 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Jonsson",slug:"annikki-jonsson"}]},{id:"55834",title:"Psychopathological Symptoms in Caregivers of Demented and Nondemented Patients",slug:"psychopathological-symptoms-in-caregivers-of-demented-and-nondemented-patients",signatures:"Fernando L. Vázquez, Patricia Otero, Vanessa Blanco, Lara López\nand Ángela Torres",authors:[{id:"90871",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez",fullName:"Fernando Vázquez",slug:"fernando-vazquez"},{id:"93961",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Angela Torres",slug:"angela-torres"},{id:"202009",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Otero",fullName:"Patricia Otero",slug:"patricia-otero"},{id:"202059",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Blanco",fullName:"Vanessa Blanco",slug:"vanessa-blanco"},{id:"202064",title:"MSc.",name:"Lara",middleName:null,surname:"López",fullName:"Lara López",slug:"lara-lopez"}]},{id:"58275",title:"Child Undernourishment and Development: The Influence of Caregiver Practices",slug:"child-undernourishment-and-development-the-influence-of-caregiver-practices",signatures:"Assol Cortés-Moreno",authors:[{id:"219758",title:"Dr.",name:"Assol",middleName:null,surname:"Cortés Moreno",fullName:"Assol Cortés Moreno",slug:"assol-cortes-moreno"}]},{id:"55216",title:"Caregiving and Experiences of Health, Illness and Coping in the Context of Paediatric and Adolescent HIV and Poverty",slug:"caregiving-and-experiences-of-health-illness-and-coping-in-the-context-of-paediatric-and-adolescent-",signatures:"Antonio G. Lentoor",authors:[{id:"202887",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"G.",surname:"Lentoor",fullName:"Antonio Lentoor",slug:"antonio-lentoor"}]},{id:"56402",title:"Improving Quality of Life: Home Care for Chronically Ill and Elderly People",slug:"improving-quality-of-life-home-care-for-chronically-ill-and-elderly-people",signatures:"Natalia López Celani, Sergio Ponce, Olga Lucía Quintero and\nFrancisco Vargas-Bonilla",authors:[{id:"164196",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"López",fullName:"Natalia López",slug:"natalia-lopez"},{id:"203016",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce",fullName:"Sergio Ponce",slug:"sergio-ponce"},{id:"203017",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Quintero",fullName:"Olga Lucia Quintero",slug:"olga-lucia-quintero"},{id:"210461",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-Bonilla",fullName:"Francisco Vargas-Bonilla",slug:"francisco-vargas-bonilla"}]},{id:"58764",title:"The Role of Educational Technology in Caregiving",slug:"the-role-of-educational-technology-in-caregiving",signatures:"Maria José Lumini, Fátima Araújo and Teresa Martins",authors:[{id:"219057",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Lumini",fullName:"Maria José Lumini",slug:"maria-jose-lumini"},{id:"219062",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Martins",fullName:"Teresa Martins",slug:"teresa-martins"},{id:"219065",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Fátima",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo",fullName:"Maria De Fátima Araújo",slug:"maria-de-fatima-araujo"}]},{id:"57882",title:"Using Information and Communication Technology in Home Care for the Elderly",slug:"using-information-and-communication-technology-in-home-care-for-the-elderly",signatures:"Boštjan Kerbler",authors:[{id:"218952",title:"Dr.",name:"Bostjan",middleName:null,surname:"Kerbler",fullName:"Bostjan Kerbler",slug:"bostjan-kerbler"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72839",title:"Overview of Existing and Future Advanced Satellite Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93227",slug:"overview-of-existing-and-future-advanced-satellite-systems",body:'\n
\n
1. Background and introduction
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Recently, the space industry has pointed out that in the past 5 years, the commercial market has been driving the advancement of satellite technology. Lockheed Martin is building commercial satellites (e.g., Hellas-sat series) with advanced on-board processing capabilities for the Saudi Arabian [1]. Hellas satellites probably will be the first commercial HTS with a very advanced digital processor on-board. The focus of this chapter will be on commercial satellite systems for communication applications, and a comparison study between commercial HTS and typical satellites systems conducted by Inmarsat will be provided [2].
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For communication applications, commercial satellite systems have been categorized as mobile satellite services (MSSs), fixed satellite services (FSSs), broadcast satellite services (BSSs), and high-throughput satellite (HTS) services. Depending on the services, satellite payload architecture will be designed to meet the specified requirements for that service. Basically, satellite payload architecture can be classified into four categories: (1) analog bent-pipe satellite (ABPS); (2) digital bent-pipe satellite (DBPS); (3) advanced digital bent-pipe satellite using digital channelizer and beamformer (AdDBPS-DCB); and (4) advanced regenerative on-board processing satellite (AR-OBPS). This chapter provides an overview of these payload architectures and presents two satellite system architectures using AdBPS-DCBS and AR-OBPS payloads for the fifth-generation cellular phone (5G) applications.
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The chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a comparison between commercial HTS and typical satellite systems; Section 3 discusses the typical satellite network topologies; Section 4 presents an overview of legacy ADPS transponder, existing DBPS transponder, AdBPS-DCBS transponder, and AR-OBPS satellite system; Section 5 discusses the use of AdBPS-DCBS transponder and AR-OBPS payloads for the fifth-generation cellular phone (5G) applications; and Section 6 concludes the chapter with a summary and brief discussion of way forward.
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\n
\n
2. Typical commercial satellites and HTS comparison
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Typical and regular commercial satellites are operating in C-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band with downlink frequencies approximately at 4, 12, and 40 GHz, respectively. For C-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band, the spectrum bandwidths available by geostationary orbital position are 500 MHz, 500 MHz, and 3.5 GHz, respectively. Typical antenna types for these regular commercial satellites are pointed antenna type with a single beam. Typical diameters for these pointed antennas are (a) greater than 1.8 m for C-band; (b) 0.9–1.2 m for Ku-band; and (c) 0.6–1.2 m for Ka-band satellite. Figure 1(a) illustrates a typical regular commercial satellite.
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Figure 1.
Typical commercial satellites and HTS configurations.
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Typical HTSs are usually also operating in Ku-band and Ka-band with the same downlink frequencies as the regular satellites except that they employ multiple pointed beam as oppose to a single-pointed beam. Figure 1(b) describes a multiple beam HTS system. The salient feature of multiple beams is the frequency reuse. The frequency reuse is defined as the number of times a satellite can reuse the same spectrum and frequencies. However, high frequency reuse factor can cause potential cochannel interference or an increase in carrier-to-interference power ratio (CIR or C/I). IMMARSAT has reported that a reuse factor of 5–30 is possible with multiple spot beams employed by commercial HTS. Depending on the number of beams implemented on-board of the satellite, the cost for HTS can be twice of the cost for a regular satellite. But, the cost per bit for HTS is much lower than the regular satellite. HTS is a preferred option for point-to-point services, for example, beyond line-of-sight (BLOS) cellular phone services. Table 1 provides a summary of the comparison of HTS and regular commercial satellites [2].
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\n\n
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Comparison factor
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Typical regular commercial satellite
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Typical high-throughput satellite (HTS)
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Remark
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\n\n\n
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Operational frequency band
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C-band, Ku-band, Ka-band
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Ku-band, Ka-band
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It should be noted that for data presented here, all satellites and supply are not equal; various technical, regulatory, and commercial parameters come into play when comparing the two-type satellites. Data collected from IMMARSAT. Source: see [2]
\n
\n
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Throughput capability (Gbps)
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~1–10
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~5–300+ (with frequency reuse in multiple spot beam)
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\n
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Typical cost including launch (USD)
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~200–300
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~300–500 (cost can be twice of regular satellite)
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\n
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Advantages
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Wide coverage; preferred solution for point-to-multipoint communication
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Higher bandwidth/lower cost per bit; preferred option for point-to-point services
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\n
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Disadvantages
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Limited supply available; lower spectrum efficiency for an equivalent frequency
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Higher upfront costs; difficult to find enough customers to fill each of the beams
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparison of typical commercial satellites and HTS.
This section describes the most commonly used satellite network topologies, namely “Star” satellite network (Section 3.1) and “Mesh” satellite network (Section 3.2).
\n
\n
3.1 Typical “star” satellite network
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A typical commercial satellite network topology consists of an uplink from a central anchor station (aka satellite Gateway or satellite Hub) to a satellite and a downlink from the satellite to users. Users can be mobile or fixed users. Mobile users can be located in an airplane, a boat, or a car. Fixed users can be located in a building or a cellular base station. The “star” satellite network is derived from a spoke-hub distribution paradigm in computer networks, where one central hub serves as a conduit to transmit messages among network users [3]. Thus, for star satellite networks, all communications will be passed through a satellite gateway. As shown in Figure 2, if Mobile User 1 wants to talk to Mobile User 2, Mobile User 1 needs to send its messages to the satellite gateway (yellow lines), and satellite gateway relays that messages to Mobile User 2 (red lines).
\n
Figure 2.
Typical “star” satellite network.
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\n
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3.2 Typical “mesh” satellite network
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The “mesh” satellite network topology is derived from a local network topology, where the network nodes are corrected to each other directly, dynamically, and nonhierarchically to as many other nodes as possible [4]. In this network topology, the network nodes can cooperate with one another to route data from one user to another user efficiently. Hence, for mesh satellite network, Mobile User 1 can talk to fixed user directly without going through the satellite gateway (solid lines), and Mobile User 2 can also talk to the fixed user directly (dash lines). Any one of the user within the network can send the messages to a terrestrial network through the red lines representing uplink and downlink between the satellite gateway and the satellite (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Typical “mesh” satellite network.
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Star satellite network topology does not require advanced satellite payload processing on-board and multiple beam, but mesh satellite network requires advanced on-board processing and multiple beam allowing one user to communicate to another user automatically and effectively. Section 4 discusses various satellite payload architectures used in regular satellite and HTS for star and mesh satellite network applications.
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4. Legacy, existing, and advanced satellite payload architectures
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This section presents an overview of legacy, existing, and advanced satellite payload architectures. Section 4.1 presents legacy ABPS payload architecture, Section 4.2 provides a description of a typical existing DBPS payload architecture, Section 4.3 discusses AdDBPS-DCB payload architecture, and Section 4.4 provides an overview of AR-OBPS payload architecture.
\n
\n
4.1 Legacy analog bent-pipe satellite (ABPS) payload architecture
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A typical legacy ABPS payload architecture is depicted in Figure 4, where the payload has multiple beam antennas (MBAs) using parabolic dishes. For this architecture, the RF signal is received at the satellite payload and amplifies by a low noise amplifier (LNA) for increased received signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR). The RF signal with increased SNR is downconverted (D/C) to an intermediate frequency (IF) and processed by an IF filter to clean up the signal from adjacent interference and out-of-band noise. The clean-up signal is then (a) routed to the proper downlink port by an IF analog switching circuit and upconverted (U/C) to RF, (b) combined by a multiplexer (MUX), and (c) amplified by a high-power amplifier (HPA) for downlink transmission.
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Figure 4.
Legacy ABPS payload architecture.
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As illustrated in Figure 5, there are two options for the D/C, namely Option 1 (see Figure 5(a)) is a double downconverter using two local oscilators (LOs) to downconvert RF signal to IF signal with stable and low phase noise, and Option 2 (see Figure 5(b)) is single downconverter using a LO downconverting RF signal directlty to an IF signal. Option 1 is being used in many legacy, existing, and advanced satellite payloads. Option 2 is mostly used in advanced satellite payloads.
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Figure 5.
Options for RF downconversion and associated LO’s phase noise.
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\nFigure 5(c) shows commercial-of-the-shelf (COTS) phase noise characteristics for typical LOs operating at X-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band. X-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band illustrated in this figure correspond to 7–11.2, 12–18, and 26.5–40 GHz, respectively. The main advantages of Option 2 using single downconversion are its low cost, small size, and low power consumption (also known as small SWAP-C). This option uses the smallest number of external components as compared to Option 1 using double downconversion, which is also known as super heterodyne receiver [5]. However, Option 2 suffers amplitude and phase imbalances caused by imperfect references associated with I-Q components, direct current (DC) signal due to self-mixing, and flicker noise.1 Option 1 does not suffer from these problems and offers excellent selectivity and sensitivity, that is, better rejection of adjacent interferences. Option 1’s disadvantages are the integration complexity and high SWAP-C.
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In satellite electronic communications, MUX is a multiplexer, which is a device that selects several (multiple) analog (or digital) input signals and outputs a single signal. Figure 6(a) describes a functional MUX (aka multiplexer) circuit. On the contrary, Figure 6(b) depicts a DEMUX (aka demultiplexer), which is an electronic device that sends a single input signal to multiple signal outputs.
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Figure 6.
Functional block diagrams of MUX and DEMUX.
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4.2 Existing digital bent-pipe satellite (DBPS) payload architecture
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\nFigure 7 presents an existing DBPS payload architecture using on-board digital channelizer. Similar to analog payload, there are two options for the RF-to-IF downconversion process. Double-downconversion process is typically used for digital bent-pipe payload architecture.
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Figure 7.
Existing DBPS payload architecture.
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\nFigure 8 depicts typical RF-to-IF (or baseband) downconversion and digitization and sampling processes for a commercial DBPS payload architecture. The RF-to-IF process shown in this figure uses Option 1, double downconversion, and the digitization and sampling process employing bandpass sampling with digital quadrature technology [6]. The RF bandwidth (BW) associated with the RF bandpass filter (BPF) is selected to match with an over channel bandwidth (e.g., a maximum of 500 MHz for Ku-band). The automated gain control (AGC) is designed to maintain a constant power over the specified channel bandwidth. There are several advantages associated with bandpass sampling with digital quadrature techniques, including (a) no phase and amplitude imbalances; (b) digital finite impulse response (FIR) filters are flexible and computational complexity with linear phase introducing a constant group delay; (c) only one A/D converter is required (less weight and power); and (d) when the sampling period is set at one-quarter of the carrier frequency, the reference in-phase and quadrature components reduce to an alternating sequence between I-channel and Q-channel [6].
\n
Figure 8.
Typical R/F downconversion and digitization processing approach.
\n
As shown in Figure 9, the key design issue associated with the digitization and sampling processing is the selection of required number of bits of the analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion to (1) achieve optimum loading factor (LF) and (2) minimize the quantization noise. The LF is defined as the root mean square (RMS) of the total input signal voltage-to-A/D converter saturation voltage ratio. The total input signal voltage includes desired signal voltage (S) plus noise voltage (N) plus interference voltage (I). Figure 10 illustrates an optimum LF as a function of number of bit of a typical A/D converter. As an example, for 4-bit, the optimum LF is about 0.4. In conjunction with LF, the number of bit should be selected to maximize the signal-to-quantization noise ratio (SQNR) using the following relationship:2\n
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Figure 9.
Existing digitization and sampling processing using bandpass sampling with digital quadrature technique.
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Figure 10.
Optimum LF as a function of number of bit of A/D converter.
As an example, when N = 4 bits, signal-to-quantization noise ratio is about 25.84 dB.
\n
The key feature of DBPS payloads is the flexibility of the digital channelizer. Current digital technologies allow for the implementation of robust and reconfigurable digital channelizer adapting to require the number of users and associated users’ data rates. A typical flexible digital channelizer using polyphase/discrete Fourier transform (DFT) technology is shown in Figure 11.
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Figure 11.
Typical digital channelizer using polyphase/DFT technology.
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As shown in Figure 11, the heart of a typical digital channelizer is a polyphase-filter network (or simply a polyphase network) and a DFT processor. A typical polyphase network with a DFT processor is described in Figure 12. The polyphase network consists of a set of NC digital filters with transfer function H0, H1..., HNc-1, which is obtained by shifting a basic low pass complex filter function along the frequency axis [7]. As an example, for a typical 500 MHz channel bandwidth, assuming for a typical user data rate of 4 MHz and a guardband of 1 MHz, digital channelizer, NC = 500/(4 + 1) = 100, that is, the number of filter is 100, and each has a total of 5 MHz bandwidth. A change in sampling frequency by a factor of NC can be introduced, thus allowing the circuit in different paths of the polyphase network to operate at lower frequency than the original sampling frequency. A practical implementation of a high-throughput low-latency polyphase channelizer can be found in [8, 9].
\n
Figure 12.
Typical Polyphase/DFT Technology.
\n
\nFigure 12 shows an example of five input signals, namely S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5, and the channelizer will select signal interest by filtering out the other signals. As an example, the signal line with the filter transfer function of H0 filters out S2, S3, S4, and S5 and sends S1 as an output signal.
\n
\n
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4.3 Advanced digital bent-pipe satellite using digital channelizer and beamformer (AdDBPS-DCB) payload architecture
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For a typical commercial HTS system architecture, it usually requires on-board multiple beam phase array (PA) antenna with associated adaptive digital beamformer network (DBF) for spot beamforming and frequency reusing of the spot beams when the beams are not located near each other. Figure 13 describes a typical AdDBPS-DCB payload architecture, where the digital channelizer is combined with a DBF to make a “digital channelizer and beamformer” (DCB) [10, 11, 12]. For this payload architecture, the key feature that differentiates this architecture with the ones discussed above is the combined digital channelizer using polyphase network/DFT processor and DBF (PolyN/DFT-DBF).
\n
Figure 13.
AdDBPS-DCB payload architecture.
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As pointed out in [10, 11, 12], DCB architecture shown in Figure 13 can be designed to (1) form individual beams for each active receive and transmit communication channels; (2) adaptively generate channel beam steering weights to dynamically vary the bandwidth, location, and shape of each beam based on traffic demands and the locations of other, potentially interfering beams avoiding adjacent channel interference; (3) use digital beamforming weight calibration to compensate for the temporal and thermal phase and amplitude response variations inherent in analog multibeam phased array antennas; and (4) adjust the gain of individual receive-and-transmit channel beams automatically to compensate for propagation path and analog payload response variations. In general, there are two possible DCB implementation approaches, namely DCB Approach 1 and DCB Approach 2 [13]. Figure 14 describes the DCB Approach 1 for processing the uplink signals, where the uplink signals are individually processed by the digital channelizer (i.e., PolyN/DFT processing) and DBF independently and separately. DCB Approach 1 requires a larger computational load because each DBF processes all the user link bandwidth (e.g., S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 in Figure 12) at all times to form multiple beams.
\n
Figure 14.
DCB Approach 1: PolyN/DFT and DBFN individual processing.
\n
DCB Approach 2 is shown in Figure 15, where DCB utilizes an unified processing approach with each DBF processes only the bandwidth corresponding to a beam (S1 in Figure 12) at normal times. During anomaly operation condition (e.g., natural disaster event), when the bandwidth has to be reassigned to specific areas, the arithmetic load on DBF can be reduced by implementing multiple DBFs, with each capable of processing a bandwidth narrower than that assigned to a beam (i.e., smaller channel unit). This approach enables a reduction in wasteful arithmetic resource usage on bandwidth.
\n
Figure 15.
DCB Approach 2: Unified and combined PolyN/DFT and DBFN individual processing.
\n
If one defines the number of multipliers, D implemented in each Tx/Rx DBF as C/fop, where C is the computational load of a DBF (multiplications/sec), and fop is the operation frequency of the multiplier. Let us compare D calculations between DCB Approach 1 and DCB Approach 2. Let us assume the following parameters: n is the number of array elements, m is the number of beams, an userlink processing bandwidth of 28 MHz, 5 frequency repetitions of the userlink, and an operating frequency of multiplier of 256 MHz. Using these values, D for the DBF/channelizer of the DCB Approach 1 configuration becomes [13]:
The latter calculation assumes an ideal case in which DBF network (DFBN) processing is performed on a channel-by-channel basis. The complexity of DCB Approach 2 configuration is 10 times less complex than DCB Approach 1.
\n
As pointed out in [12], the DBFN when coupled with a digital channelizer (aka DCB) offered more capabilities with many advantages. Nguyen et al. [14] developed a computer simulation model of a typical DBFN in MATLAB and presented simulation results for X, Ku, and Ka BFNs using 60-element, 104-element, and 149-element, respectively. Figure 16 is an extracted Ka-band BFN result showing the achievable antenna gain of 45.5 dB at 3-dB beamwidth of 0.9°. For practical applications, the DBFN will shape the beam size depending on the coverage area and desired number of beams. Nguyen et al. [14] pointed out that for 2.5° coverage area and the desired number of beams of 7, the minimum 3-dB beamwidth of 1.1° is required. Nguyen et al. [14] also pointed out that DCB can provide a significant increase in frequency reuse, where the frequency reuse is defined as the number of times a satellite can reuse the same spectrum and frequencies. High frequency reuse factor can cause potential cochannel interference (CCI) that results in a decrease in carrier-to-interference power ratio [aka (C/I) CCI]. As pointed out in [14], for dynamic allocation using real-time allocation of beams so that the coverage radius of a cell is equal to the satellite pointing error, assuming satellite pointing error of 0.02 degree pointing error, the (C/I)CCI is about 25 dB for frequency reuse factor 40 [14].
\n
Figure 16.
Antenna beamwidth and gain of a notional Ka-band DBFN with 12-bit quantization [14].
\nFigure 17 depicts a potential future AR-OBPS payload architecture [10]. The payload includes (1) a typically set of digitized analog multiple beam antenna (MBA) input signals, digitally frequency division demultiplex each input signal to produce single carrier per channel (SCPC) signal data and demodulate and decode individual traffic channels to recover the original information bits transmitted on the uplink; (2) a set of digitized analog multibeam phase array antenna (MB-PAa) input signals, digitally frequency division demultiplex each input signal to produce SCPC signal data and demodulate and decode individual traffic channels to recover the original information bits transmitted on the uplink; and (3) fast packet switches are typically employed at the AR-OBPS payload’s core to realize statistical multiplexing gains by efficiently packing and moving data through the switch and onto the downlink in bursty uplink transmission applications. Moreover, the digital bandwidth (in Hz) through the AR-OBPS switch is at least 25 times less3 than that supported by an equivalent (pre-demodulation) digital baseband switch at the center of a DC- or DCB-based system. AR-OBPS payload can also support digital beamforming, following the frequency division demultiplexing operation, if a phased array is employed in place of the analog MBA. On the secondary (output) side of the switch, each user’s binary information is channel encoded and modulated onto a carrier. The modulated carrier data thus produced are multiplexed, digital-to-analog converted, and passed through an analog reconstruction filter to generate output signals for the transmit portion of the communication payload. The channel codes and modulations employed on the uplink (input) communication channels clearly do not need to be the same as the channel codes and modulations used on the transmitted downlink channels. Hence, an AR-OBPS payload can serve as a “translator” facilitating single-hop communications between terminals employing different link protocols. However, if either the digital multichannel demultiplexer (DMCD), demodulator, decoder, or digital multichannel multiplexer (DMCM) encoder modulator, multiplexer (MCEM2) functions are implemented in ASICs to minimize size-weight-and-power (SWaP), then the AR-OBPS system becomes somewhat inflexible, unable to support either uplink or downlink terminals, respectively, using communication protocols differing from those for which the AR-OBPS was specifically designed. For this reason, AR-OBPS systems are typically employed in support of “private networks” in which the communication satellite service provider only accommodates terminals designed to work on the provider’s network. Iridium and Spaceway are two examples of commercial AR-OBPS-based communication satellite systems.
\n
Figure 17.
AR-OBPS payload architecture.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Satellite system architectures for 5G cellular phone applications
\n
Sections 5.1 and 5.2 present a notional satellite system architecture using AdBPS-DCBS satellite payload and AR-OBPS satellite system architecture for 5G cellular phone applications, respectively.
\n
\n
5.1 AdBPS-DCBS satellite system architecture for 5G applications
\n
AdBPS-DCBS satellite payload can be used to support 5G users. There are potentially two satellite system architecture options for using AdBPS-DCBS satellite payload to support 5G mobile user equipment (aka 5G-UE), namely AdBPS-DCBS Option 1 and AdBPS-DCBS Option 2. For AdBPS-DCBS Option 1, the AdBPS-DCBS satellite provides communication services directly to 5G-UEs. While in AdBPS-DCBS Option 2, the satellite provides services to 5G-UEs through the 5G relay nodes (RNs). Figure 18 illustrates the AdBPS-DCBS satellite system architecture for (a) AdBPS-DCBS Option 1 and (b) AdBPS-DCBS Option 2 [15].
\n
Figure 18.
AdDBPS-DCB satellite system architectures for supporting 5G users.
\n
\nFigure 18(a) shows that the AdBPS-DCBS satellite requires new radio (NR) interfaces between (1) AdBPS-DCBS satellite and terrestrial gateway (GW) and (2) AdBPS-DCBS satellite and 5G-UEs. In addition, it is also required a 5G narrow-band (gNB) processing station to process the 5G signals from the next generation core (NGC) network before passing the 5G data to public data network.
\n
\n
\n
5.2 AR-OBPS satellite system architecture for 5G applications
\n
Similar to AdBPS-DCBS satellite payload, AR-OBPS satellite payload can also be used to support 5G users. There are also two satellite system architecture options for using AR-OBPS payload to support 5G mobile user equipment, namely AR-OBPS Option 1 and AR-OBPS Option 2. For AR-OBPS Option 1, the AR-OBPS satellite provides communication services directly to 5G-UEs. For AR-OBPS Option 2, the satellite provides services to 5G-UEs through the 5G RNs. Figure 19 describes these two AR-OBPS architecture options, namely (a) for AR-OBPS Option 1 and (b) for AR-OBPS Option 2. For these two system architecture options, the gNB processing is now incorporated into the AR-OBPS satellite payload and no longer required for the ground system. The GW now can pass the 5G data directly to the NGC. The decoding-demodulation and encoding-modulation processing on-board of the satellite will be designed to align with the 5G waveform specifications, including 5G modulation and coding schemes.
\n
Figure 19.
AR-OBPS satellite system architectures for supporting 5G users.
\n
\nFigure 19(a) shows that the AR-OBPS satellite also requires NR interfaces between (1) AR-OBPS satellite and GW and (2) AR-OBPS satellite and 5G-UEs. Similar to AdBPS-DCBS satellite system architecture options, the NR interfaces between the AR-OBPS satellite and 5G-UEs are new. Since the gNB processing is now placed at AR-OBPS satellite payload, the NR interfaces between AR-OBPS satellite and 5G-UEs are not the same as the AdBPS-DCBS satellite and 5G-UEs. To show the differences between the two, Figures 19(a) and (b) use Sat-NG-C and Sat-NG-U to indicate the new radio interface between (1) terrestrial GW-NGC-and-AR-OBPS satellite and (2) AR-OBPS satellite-and-terrestrial GW-NGC, respectively.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
This chapter uses a top-down approach for providing an overview of legacy, existing, and future advanced satellite payload architectures for future wireless communication applications. The chapter focuses on the commercial satellite technologies based on the research results presented in [1, 2]. Section 2 provides the comparison results performed by Inmarsat describing the technical characteristics and associated advantages and disadvantages between commercial HTS and typical satellite systems currently available in commercial satellite market. In Section 3, two most commonly satellite network topologies used by existing commercial satellite networks are presented, and the concept of satellite uplink and downlink associated with star satellite network and mesh satellite network is discussed. The satellite network topologies presented lead to Section 4, where four satellite payload architectures are discussed. The legacy analog ABPS payload architecture is shown to be more appropriate for star satellite network than mesh network. Existing digital DBPS and AdDBPS-DCB payload architectures are designed for supporting mesh satellite network with large number of mobile users. Future advanced digital satellite payload architecture, namely AdDBPS-DCB, is also presented in this section. With decoding-demodulating and encoding-modulating processing on-board of the satellite, AR-OBPS allows for packet switching on-board and higher quality of service (QOS) than existing DBPS and AdDBPS-DCB at the expense of higher SWAP-Cost (SWAP-C). Section 4 of the chapter discusses the applications of AdBPS-DCBS and AR-OBPS payloads for supporting 5G users. Four satellite system architecture options are presented for supporting the future 5G users.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The preparation of this chapter was not funded by Gulfstream, and it was done by the author using his own time and resources; thus, it does not represent the Gulfstream’s view on the results presented in this chapter.
\n
Notes/Thanks/Other declarations
\n
The author wishes to thank his wife, Annie Luu-Nguyen, for her immense patience and support.
\n
\n',keywords:"high-throughput satellite, analog bent-pipe satellite, digital bent-pipe satellite, digital channelizer and beamformer, advanced regenerative on-board processing satellite, cellular phone",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72839.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72839.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72839",totalDownloads:86,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 7th 2019",dateReviewed:"June 19th 2020",datePrePublished:"July 17th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter presents an overview of legacy, existing, and future advanced satellite systems for future wireless communications. The overview uses top-down approach, starting with a comparison between a typical commercial regular satellite system and a high-throughput satellite (HTS) system, following by a discussion on commonly used satellite network topologies. A discussion on the design of satellite payload architectures supporting both typical regular satellite and HTS with associated network topologies will be presented. Four satellite payload architectures will be discussed, including legacy analog bent-pipe satellite (ABPS); existing digital bent-pipe satellite (DBPS) and advanced digital bent-pipe satellite using digital channelizer and beamformer (AdDBPS-DCB); and future advanced regenerative on-board processing satellite (AR-OBPS) payload architectures. Additionally, various satellite system architectures using AdBP-DCBS and AR-OBPS payloads for the fifth-generation (5G) cellular phone applications will also be presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72839",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72839",signatures:"John Nguyen",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tien Manh Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-nguyen",fullName:"Tien Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Background and introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Typical commercial satellites and HTS comparison",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Typical commercial satellite network topologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Typical “star” satellite network",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Typical “mesh” satellite network",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Legacy, existing, and advanced satellite payload architectures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Legacy analog bent-pipe satellite (ABPS) payload architecture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Existing digital bent-pipe satellite (DBPS) payload architecture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Advanced digital bent-pipe satellite using digital channelizer and beamformer (AdDBPS-DCB) payload architecture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Future advanced regenerative on-board processing satellite (AR-OBPS) payload architecture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Satellite system architectures for 5G cellular phone applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1 AdBPS-DCBS satellite system architecture for 5G applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2 AR-OBPS satellite system architecture for 5G applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Notes/Thanks/Other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nMagnuson S. Commercial space—Not military—Driving satellite innovation. National Defense Magazine. 2018. Available from: https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2018/4/17/commercial-space-not-military-driving-satellite-innovation\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nRevillon P. Fundamentals and Dynamics of the Satellite Communications Business. Presented at the Euroconsult for Inmarsat Capital Markets Day in 2016. Available from: www.euroconsult-ec.com\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nStar Network. Wikipedia. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_network\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nMesh Network. Wikipedia. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh_networking\n\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nSuperheterodyne Receiver. Wikipedia. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Superheterodyne_receiver\n\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSadr R, Shahshahani M. On Sampling Band-Pass Signals, TDA Progress Report 42-96. Pasadena, California: NASA-Jet Propulsion Laboratory; 1988\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nvan der Veldt K, van Nieuwpoort R, Varbanescu AL, Jesshope C. A polyphase filter for GPUs and multi-core processors. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on High-Performance Computing for Astronomy; Delft, Netherlands; 18 June, 2012. pp. 33-40\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nKim SC, Bhattacharyya SS. Implementation of a high-throughput low-latency polyphase channelizer on GPUs. In: EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing; 2014. Available from: http://asp.eurasipjournals.com/content/2014/1/141\n\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nEjima F, Akita M, Fujimura A. Digital Channelizer for High Throughput Satellite Communications, Technical Paper. Mitsubishi Electric Advance (Technical Journal published by Mitsubishi); 2014. pp. 7-10\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nButash TC, Marshall JR. Leveraging digital on-board processing to increase communications satellite flexibility and effective capacity. In: 28th AIAA ICSSC. AIAA 2010-8715; Anaheim, CA; 30 August–2 September 2010\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nSichi SF, Ziegler HE. Beamforming architectures for advanced MSS network deployment. In: 29th AIAA ICSSC; AIAA 2011-8021; Nara, Japan; 28 November–01 December, 2011\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nFreedman JB, Marshack DS, et al. Advantages and capabilities of a beamforming satellite with a space-based digital processor. In: 32nd AIAA International Communications Satellite Systems Conference (ICSSC); AIAA 2014-4321; San Diego, CA; 4-7 August 2014\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nKomiyama N, Miura A, Orikasa T, Fujino Y. Development of resource allocation re-construction technology (digital beam former and digital channelizer). Journal of the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology. 2015. pp. 151-163\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nNguyen TM, Guillen A, Matsunaga S. Practical achievable capacity for advanced SATCOM on-the-move. In: 2016 IEEE MILCOM Conference Proceedings; 2016\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nGuidotti A, Vanelli-Coralli A, Conti M, Andrenacci S, Chatzinotas S, Maturo N, et al. Architectures and key technical challenges for 5G systems incorporating satellites. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. 2019. pp. 2624-2639\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Flicker noise is a type of electronic noise with a 1/frequency power spectral density."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Quantization (signal processing). Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Assumes 1 bps/Hz modulation efficiency, 10 bit signal data quantization, and 2.5× practical Nyquist sampling rate."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"John Nguyen",address:"johndncva@gmail.com",affiliation:'
JohnDTN Consulting Services, Huntington Beach, California, USA
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