Substrates, enzymes, and products of the shikimate pathway.
\r\n\tPrevalence of reading disability among school-age children depends upon the criteria used for definition; however, the prevalence of written expression disorders in estimated to be between 5 and 12 percent, the prevalence of written expression disorders is estimated to be between 7 and 15 percent, while the prevalence of dyscalculia is estimated to be between 3 and 6 percent.
\r\n\r\n\tRisk factors for learning disorders are family history, socio-economic conditions, prematurity, presence of other developmental, mental and health conditions (e.g. behavioral disorders, autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders), prenatal exposition to neurotoxic agents, genetic disorders, particular medical conditions, history of traumatic brain injury or other neurological conditions.
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The secondary pathways are not necessary for the survival of individual cells but benefit the plant as a whole [1]. Another general characteristic of secondary metabolism is that found in a specific organism, or groups of organisms, and is an expression of the individuality of species [2]. The secondary metabolism provides chemical diversity to organic molecules with low molecular weight that are related by the respective pathways; such organic molecules are called secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites are often less than 1% of the total carbon in plant molecules [3]. These organic molecules isolated from terrestrial plants are the most studied, and their syntheses have an important role in the protection against pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation [3]. Secondary metabolism reflects plant environments more closely than primary metabolism [4]. There are three principal kinds of secondary metabolites biosynthesized by plants: phenolic compounds, terpenoids/isoprenoids, and alkaloids and glucosinolates (nitrogen- or sulfur-containing molecules, respectively) [5]. Phenolic compounds are biosynthesized by the shikimate pathway and are abundant in plants. The shikimate pathway, in plants, is localized in the chloroplast. These aromatic molecules have important roles, as pigments, antioxidants, signaling agents, electron transport, communication, the structural element lignan, and as a defense mechanism [6], Figure 1. The seven steps of the shikimate pathway and the metabolites for branch point are described in this chapter, as factors that induce the synthesis of phenolic compounds in plants. Some representative examples that show the effect of biotic and abiotic stress on the production of phenolic compounds in plants are discussed.
\nPhenolic compound biosynthesis promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, CO2, O3, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation).
The shikimate biosynthesis pathway provides precursors for aromatic molecules in bacteria, fungi, apicomplexan, and plants, but not in animals [2, 7]. Shikimic acid is named after the highly toxic Japanese
The shikimic and chorismic acids are the common precursors for the synthesis of L-Phe, L-Tyr, and L-Trp and diverse phenolic compounds.
The shikimate pathway consists of seven sequential enzymatic steps and begins with an aldol-type condensation of two phosphorylated active compounds, the phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP), from the glycolytic pathway, and the carbohydrate D-erythrose-4-phosphate, from the pentose phosphate cycle, to give 3-deoxy-D-
Shikimate pathway.
Reaction step | \nSubstrate | \nEnzyme/cofactor | \nProduct | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPhosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), erythrose-4-phosphate | \n3-Deoxy-D- | \n3-Deoxy-D- | \n
2 | \n3-Deoxy-D- | \n3-Dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4)/Co2+, NAD+ [15, 16] | \n3-Dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), Pi | \n
3 | \n3-Dehydroquinic acid (DHQ) | \n3-Dehydroquinate dehydratase (DHQ dehydratase EC 4.2.1.10) [15] | \n3-Dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), H2O | \n
4 | \n3-Dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), NADPH + H+ | \nShikimate dehydrogenase (SDH; EC 1.1.1.25) [18, 19, 20, 21] | \nShikimic acid, NADP+ | \n
5 | \nShikimic acid, ATP | \nShikimate kinase enzyme (SK; EC 2.7.1.71) | \nShikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P), ADP | \n
6 | \nShikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P), PEP | \n5- | \n5- | \n
7 | \n5- | \nChorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5)/FMNH2 [2, 19, 30, 31] | \nChorismic acid, Pi | \n
Substrates, enzymes, and products of the shikimate pathway.
Pi, phosphate; NAD+, oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADPH, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; FMNH2, reduced flavin mononucleotide.
The shikimate pathway has special characteristics that are present only in bacteria, fungi, and plants. The absence of the pathway in all other organisms provides the enzymes catalyzing these reactions with potentially useful targets for the development of antibacterial agents and herbicides. For example, 5-
In the second reaction step, DAHP loses phosphate (Pi); the enolic-type product is cyclized through a second aldol-type reaction to produce 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ). The 3-dehydroquinate synthase (DHQS) catalyzes this cyclization in the shikimate pathway. The DHQ dehydrates to produce 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) (3-dehydroquinate dehydratase); this compound has a conjugated double carbon-carbon, Figure 3. The protocatechuic and the gallic acids (C6-C1) are produced by branch-point reactions from DHS [2]. The fourth step in the pathway is a reduction reaction of DHS with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), Figure 3. The fifth section of the pathway is the activation of shikimic acid with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (shikimate kinase, SK) to make shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P). The sixth chemical reaction is the addition of PEP to S3P to generate 5-
PEP and glyphosate (powerful inhibitor of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, EPSPS).
The last reaction step of the shikimate pathway is the production of chorismic acid from catalytic action on the chorismate synthase (CS). This reaction is a 1,4-
The first reaction of the shikimate pathway is an aldol-type condensation of PEP and carbohydrate erythrose-4-P, to give 3-deoxy-D-
Stereochemistry of the condensation reaction of (
The second reaction of the shikimate pathway is an intramolecular aldol-type reaction cyclization, where the enol (C6-C7) of DAHP nucleophilically attacks the carbonyl group (C2), to produce a six-member cycle, the 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), Figures 3 and 6. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction, 3-dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4), is a carbon-oxygen lyase enzyme that requires Co2+ and bound oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) as cofactors [15, 16]. The Co2+ is essential for the catalytic activity of DHQS. Bender et al. [16] found that DHQS, from
Reaction mechanism of DAHP (hemiketal form) to 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ) by 3-dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4) [
The reduction reaction of DHQ leads to quinic acid at this branch point in the shikimate pathway. Quinic acid is a secondary metabolite that is free, forming esters or as part of alkaloids such as quinine. Quinic acid is found in high quantities in mature kiwi fruit (
The third and fourth reaction steps of the shikimate pathway are catalyzed by a bifunctional enzyme: 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DHQ dehydratase/SDH; EC 4.2.1.10/EC 1.1.1.25). The DHQ dehydratase enzyme is a hydro-lyase kind, and the SDH is an oxidoreductase enzyme. The DHQ dehydratase, in the third reaction step, converts DHQ into 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) by eliminating water, and this reaction is reversible, Figure 7. The DHS is converted to shikimic acid in the fourth reaction step, by the reduction of the carbonyl group at C-5 by the catalytic action of SDH with NADPH, Figure 3. The biosynthesis of DHS is a branch point to shikimic acid and to the catabolic quinate pathway. If the DHS dehydrates, it produces protocatechuic acid (C6-C1) or gallic acid, Figure 3. Gallic acid (C6-C1) is a hydroxybenzoic acid that is a component of tannins [2].
\nReaction mechanism to produce 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) by type I DHQ dehydratase enzyme [
Two structurally different kinds of 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase are known: type I (not heat-stable) and type II (heat-stable). Type I enzyme is present in bacteria and higher plants, and type II is found in fungi, which have both types of enzymes [18, 19]. The catalytic mechanism of the type I DHQ dehydratase has been detected by electrospray MS [20]. This catalytic mechanism involves the amino acid residue Lys-241 that forms a Schiff base with the substrate and product, Figure 7 [21]. The fourth step is the reduction of DHS with NADPH that enantioselectively reduces the carbonyl of the ketone group of DHS to produce shikimic acid (shikimate dehydrogenase, SDH), Figure 3.
\nSigh and Christendat [22] reported the crystal structure of DHQ dehydratase/SDH from the plant genus
The shikimate kinase enzyme (SK; EC 2.7.1.71) catalyzes the phosphorylation of the shikimic acid, the fifth chemical reaction of the shikimate pathway, and the products are shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P) and ADP, Figures 3 and 8. Shikimic acid is phosphorylated with ATP in the 5-hydroxyl group of shikimic acid. SK is an essential enzyme in several bacterial pathogens and is not present in the human cell; therefore the SK enzyme has been classified as a protein target for drug design, especially for chemotherapeutic development of antitubercular drugs [23, 24].
\nPhosphorylation of shikimic acid with ATP.
The 5-
Reaction mechanism of the condensation of S3P with PEP by EPSPS (EC 2.5.1.19) to form EPSP [
EPSPS is the most studied enzyme of the shikimate pathway because it plays a crucial role in the penultimate step. If this enzyme is inhibited, there is an accumulation of shikimic acid [26], and the synthesis of aromatic amino acid is disabled, leading to the death of the plant [27]. Therefore, EPSPS is used as a target for pesticides, like glyphosate, Figure 4, the active ingredient in the herbicides RoundUp™, Monsanto Chemical Co., and Touchdown™, Syngenta. Glyphosate (
The seventh and last reaction step of the shikimate pathway is the 1,4-
Reaction of mechanism to yield chorismic acid by chorismate synthase [
The expression of phenolic compounds is promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation). UV radiation is divided into UVC (≤280 nm), UVB (280–320 nm), and UVA (300–400 nm). UVA and UVB radiation are transmitted through the atmosphere; all UVC and some UVB radiation (highly energetic) are absorbed by the Earth’s ozone layer. This accumulation is explained by the increase in enzymatic activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and chalcone synthase enzymes, among others [12]. Studies have been done about the increase of phenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, in plants when they are exposed to UVB radiation [13]. Another study demonstrates that UVB exposure enhances anthocyanin biosynthesis in “Cripps pink” apples (
The increase in phenolic compounds in blueberry (
Chemical structure of chlorogenic (C6-C3) and ellagic (C6-C1) acids.
An interesting study was carried out in 2011 by Mody et al., where they studied the effect of the resistance response of apple tree seedlings (
Chemical structure of phlorizin (C6-C3).
Knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway of shikimic acid leads to understanding the reaction mechanisms of enzymes and thus discovering antimicrobials, pesticides, and antifungals. Studies with isotopic labeling of substrates, the use of X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectrometry (ES), biotechnology, as well as organic synthesis have contributed to explaining the shikimate pathway. Although the seven steps of the biosynthetic pathway are elucidated, these metabolites are the precursors of phenolic compounds, more complex molecules that are necessary for the adaptation of plants to the environment. So, the shikimate pathway is the basis for the subsequent biosynthesis of phenolic compounds. There is scientific interest in continuing to investigate the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds from several points of view: pharmaceuticals, agronomy, chemical and food industries, genetics, and health.
\nThe authors thank Carol Ann Hayenga for her English assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. The Technological University of the Mixteca provided support.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare and are responsible for the content and writing of the manuscript.
This chapter does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
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