Treatments actually used for the disposal of vinasse.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6112",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Segmentation and Pattern Recognition",title:"Vision Systems",subtitle:"Segmentation and Pattern Recognition",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Research in computer vision has exponentially increased in the last two decades due to the availability of cheap cameras and fast processors. This increase has also been accompanied by a blurring of the boundaries between the different applications of vision, making it truly interdisciplinary. In this book we have attempted to put together state-of-the-art research and developments in segmentation and pattern recognition.\r\nThe first nine chapters on segmentation deal with advanced algorithms and models, and various applications of segmentation in robot path planning, human face tracking, etc. The later chapters are devoted to pattern recognition and covers diverse topics ranging from biological image analysis, remote sensing, text recognition, advanced filter design for data analysis, etc.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-3-902613-05-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5810-3",doi:"10.5772/42",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"vision_systems_segmentation_and_pattern_recognition",numberOfPages:538,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"433450410454fb6e5502242df6edabf8",bookSignature:"Goro Obinata and Ashish Dutta",publishedDate:"June 1st 2007",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6112.jpg",numberOfDownloads:74701,numberOfWosCitations:78,numberOfCrossrefCitations:56,numberOfDimensionsCitations:124,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:258,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"131538",title:"Prof.",name:"Goro",middleName:null,surname:"Obinata",slug:"goro-obinata",fullName:"Goro Obinata",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131538/images/system/131538.jpg",biography:"He is a Professor for Robotic Science & Technology in Chubu University, Japan. 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The Covid-19 pandemic has demonstrated that many critical systems – from healthcare to just-in-time supply chains to societal lockdown compliance – are remarkably fragile. If we are to learn anything from the pandemic it is that our critical systems need to become a lot more resilient. The ability of complex critical systems to survive unpredicted stresses and perturbations is one thing, but when solutions are responsible for the wellbeing of potentially millions of people, what is really needed, and this book proposes, are systems that are antifragile. That is, the more they are stressed the stronger they become.
\r\n\r\n\tAntifragility is a property found in many natural systems, but almost never in today’s human-engineered systems. Achieving antifragility demands new and better ways of specifying, designing and operating the world’s critical systems. More specifically, it demands the management and resolution of three overarching contradictions:
\r\n\r\n\t1) The divergence between system complexity of operating environments and the design capability of those tasked with creating such systems
\r\n\t2) The divergence between the levels of reliability required (twelve-9’s are not uncommon requirements) and the ability to identify or test failure modes that are increasingly unknown and unknowable
\r\n\t3) The divergence between the vulnerability of critical systems and the amount of damage that an individual ‘bad actor’ is able to inflict.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe book examines pioneering work to address these challenges and to ensure the timely arrival of antifragile critical systems into a world that currently sees humanity at the edge of a precipice.
Agro-industrial residues provide an enormous potential to generate sustainable products and bioenergy. An integrated biorefinery is turning into a promising solution with multiple outputs (biofuels, bioactive biocompounds, and biomaterials). Most of the residues generated are intended for landfill or are disposed in an uncontrolled way, causing environmental damage and economic loss. For that reason, it is necessary to develop a sustainable management of them. An integral waste management is proposed in the concept of circular economy to exploit renewable resources. Circular economy is based on the concept of biorefinery and the approach to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste with the objective to recover materials derived from waste considering them as renewable resources [1].
\nA wide range of metabolites, materials, and energy can be obtained through the exploitation of agricultural residues. Being the commercial-scale technologies is the bottleneck to produce marketable bioproducts. In this review, we put aboard the multiple outputs that can have the agro-industrial residues from bioenergy until a wide array of metabolites can be extracted. In addition, we investigate the potential market for some products derived from residues, searching the revalorization of them.
\nNowadays, due to the increase in population, it is necessary to find a sustainable solution for the enhanced demand of energy in the world. The fossil fuels are limited and nonrenewable resources; the use of biomass for energy production seems to be a solution to provide energy and reduce the dioxide carbon emissions. The term biomass includes energy crops, residues, and other biological materials that can be used to produce renewable energy [2]. The first-generation biofuels are produced from agricultural crops such as corn, sugarcane, soybean oil, and sunflower [3]. However, there is a conflict due to these biomasses being used for food and generating the name “food versus fuel” [4]. Additionally, emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) are believed to be lesser for second-generation biofuels than the first-generation fuels [3]. For these reasons, agro-industrial residues have gained attention due to their disponibility, and they include residues from crop, food, and oil industries.
\nPellets are the most common solid biofuels used; they are cylindrical structures made by compression derived commonly from agricultural residues, forest products, and wood industries [5]. Pellets are used mainly for house heating and in industrial sector. Even though the agro-industrial residues have less energy content than fossil fuels, their use presents great advantages such as the reduction of logistic costs, easy storage, and provision of a great opportunity for the revalorization of these unused residues [5]. For the pellet elaboration, the biomass is treated to be compacted and densified; this includes the drying, and after, the biomass is milled to obtain particles with similar size [6]. Afterward, the material is pressed in a pelletizer and pellets are packaged and stored. Some common methods to improve energy density are torrefaction, steam explosion, hydrothermal carbonization, and biological treatment. In torrefaction, reactions of dehydration and decarboxylation occur lowering proportions in O/C and C/H and increasing heating value [7]. Steam explosion is a treatment with hot steam under pressure and followed by decompression which disintegrates the lignocellulosic structure [8]. Steam explosion treatment increased the heating value in pellets from a different biomass [9]. The international market of pellets derived from wood has been increased, the USA, Canada, and Russia being the largest exporters to Europe, which is the main consumer in the world [10]. Several applications and uses have the pellets from residential to large-scale power plants. The growing demand of sustainable and renewable fuels places the agro-industrial residue pellets with a great potential to supply renewable energy.
\nLiquid fuels as diesel and petrol are being replaced by liquid biofuels as biodiesel, bio-oil, bioethanol, and butanol. Biodiesel is obtained from feedstock oil as waste cooking and frying oil, animal fats, and fish and microalgae oil, leather, winery, and agro-industrial wastes, directly or indirectly. Oleaginous microorganisms are used in the indirect way for biodiesel production; lipids produced are extracted to be transformed to biofuel. For biodiesel production, three main steps are included: pretreatment, transesterification, and separation. Pretreatment allows agro-industrial residues to be assimilable for the microorganisms and is categorized into acidic, basic, thermal, enzymatic, or combination treatments [11]. Other important aspect to consider is that during pretreatments inhibitors for microbial growth as furfural, acetate, and others can be formed and are necessary to find tolerant strains or medium detoxification [12].
\nBio-oils are obtained from biomass through two main processes: pyrolysis and liquefaction [13]. Pyrolysis has taken more attention; fast pyrolysis of lignocellulose biomass for bio-oil production is low cost compared to liquefaction that produces low yield at high cost [14]. Due to their physicochemical characteristics, bio-oils cannot be used for fuel applications without previous treatment [13]. Treatments are based in partial or total elimination of oxygen, and two catalytic routes have been proposed: cracking and hydrotreating. Pyrolysis of agro-industrial residues has been reported for sesame, mustard,
Bioethanol is the most common biofuel, and their production involves steps as pretreatment, saccharification, fermentation, and distillation [16]. Pretreatment allows cellulose to unwind from hemicellulose and lignin to be more available for enzymatic hydrolysis, and commonly physical, chemical, and biological treatments are used to achieve this purpose [17]. The enzymatic hydrolysis allows converting cellulose to glucose or galactose monomers and presents a low toxicity as well as low utility cost and corrosion compared to chemical hydrolysis [18]. Biological treatment is an alternative to liberate cellulose with the use of microorganisms mainly as brown-rot, white-rot, or soft-rot fungi [19]. Once the saccharification is obtained, fermentation is carried on with microorganisms able to produce ethanol. For the microorganism selection, some parameters are necessary to have a broad-substrate utilization that is derived in a high ethanol yield and productivity, to be tolerant to high ethanol concentrations, temperature, and inhibitors presented in hydrolysate for which genetically modified or engineered microorganisms are a good option to achieve a complete utilization of sugars and better production [17]. The simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) and the separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) are the most common processes usually used to ethanol production [16]. SSF using olive pulp from oil extraction and the yeast
Due to its higher heat of combustion and less volatility and it being mixed with gasolines in higher percentage without any modifications in the car engines, butanol is considered a promising renewable biofuel [21]. Butanol is produced through anaerobic biological fermentation process using the
Biobutanol is a product from anaerobic biological process called ABE fermentation, which converts sugar by using genus
Biobutanol is a product from anaerobic biological process called ABE fermentation, which converts sugar by using genus
Lignocellulosic biomass is a potential source of glucose, xylose, mannose, and arabinose and other organic compounds that can be anaerobically degraded to produce biogas [25]. Biogas is produced through an anaerobic digestion with four steps identified as hydrolysis, acidification, and production of acetate and finally methane using a microorganism consortium [26]. The final product is a gas mixture composed mainly of methane and carbon dioxide and traces of hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide [27]. For the enhancement of biogas production, it is necessary to apply pretreatments, and the most commonly used are dilute acid hydrolysis, steam explosion, alkaline hydrolysis, and liquid hot water [28], while Song et al. tested nine pretreatments showing that H2O2 and Ca(OH)2 enhance methane yields [29].
\nPhenolic compounds are a group of chemical compounds that are widely distributed in nature, and their basic structure varies from a simple molecule to a complex skeleton and hydroxyl substituents. These compounds are being the most desirable phytochemicals due to their antioxidant activities that can be useful for the control of different human diseases or disorders [30]. Due to their reactivity, these compounds efficiently interact with important biomolecules such as DNA, lipids, proteins, and other cellular molecules to produce desired results, which then are used for designing natural therapeutic agents. Flavonoids, tannins, anthocyanins, and alkaloids are polyphenols with industrial significance and are present in fruits and plants. In addition, most of the phenolic complexes are found in barks, shells, husk, leaves, and roots [30]. Recently, agro-industrial wastes from fruits, vegetables, and crops have been subjected to different metabolite methods of extraction as a potential source of industrial bioactive compound production. For example, tomato processing industry approximately generates 8.5 million of tons of wastes globally [31], wastes such as seeds, pruning, and peels which contain a high concentration of bioactive phytochemicals. In that sense, peels and seeds of tomatoes are a richer source of bioactive compounds such as carotenes, terpenes, sterols, tocopherols, and polyphenols [32], which exhibited excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and high support of dietary fiber. Other important crop that generates a high amount of waste is the coffee production. Due to the heterogeneous nature of coffee waste, most of the authors are investigating its possible revalorization to determine the content of chemical compounds such as tannins and phenolic compounds. Exhausted and spent coffee ground wastes derived from industries, restaurants, and domestics are a valuable source of phenolic compounds. For example, in coffee waste derived from coffee industries, different ranges of concentrations of polyphenols and tannins around of 6 and 4%, respectively, were found [33].
Agro-industrial wastes can be used as a feedstock extraction and for different fermentation processes as a main source of microbial nutrients to produce biopigments useful in food and cosmetic industries. Chemically synthesized food colorants used as the additives in foods cause the risk of toxicity and hazardous effects to the consumers, than the natural pigments, that are quite safer, nontoxic, and nonhazardous for the environment [36]. The production of natural pigments can be derived from direct plant extraction (e.g., anthocyanins, chlorophylls, carotenoids, and melanin) or by fermentative production through the cultivation of bacteria, yeast, fungi, and algae (e.g., phycocyanins, xanthophylls, and melanin) [37]. Cyanobacteria and microalgae produce high amounts of beta-carotene and astaxanthin, which are used in the industries and have a great commercial value in pharmaceutical and food industries [38]. Different microorganisms such as
Bioactive peptides are encrypted within the protein sequences with different bioactivity functions and relevant in some important disorders in human health such as cancer, hypertension, antioxidant functions, diabetes mellitus, and other important diseases. These peptides may have different sizes, around 2–20 amino acid residues per molecule with molecular masses between 1 and 6 kDa and based on their physical properties and amino acid composition [47] which make them very attractive for different applications in pharmaceutical and food industries. Waste can contain many valuable substances, and through a suitable process or technology, this material can be converted into value-added products or raw materials that can be used in secondary processes. Residual wastes generated by agro-industries are a protein-rich source and have become an alternative for obtaining compounds with bioactivity, mainly from protein hydrolysates; their extraction processes do not involve negative environmental impacts [48]. The principal residual wastes generated by the agro-industrial activities are soybean meal, residues of oiled plants, and rapeseed meal [48]. Those peptides can generate in the market peptides and protein drugs more than $40 billion/year, with an accelerated pace in the drug market [48]. The press cake, after oil extraction from
Biocomposites are formed by a polymer matrix and natural fibers, which act as reinforcements. There are six types of natural fibers commonly used in biocomposite elaboration: grass and reed fibers (wheat, corn, and rice), core fibers (kenaf, jute, and hemp), bast fibers (jute, flax, hemp, ramie, kenaf, bamboo, and banana), seed fibers (coir, cotton and kapok), leaf fibers (abaca, sisal, and pineapple), and other types (wood and roots) [52].
\nThe composition of natural fibers consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose in plants is the main component that provides stability and strength to the cell walls, and this component directly influences the biocomposite production for a defined application, whether in the textile, automotive, and others. Lignin is a highly cross-linked structure, and the amount of this directly influences the structure, properties, morphology, hydrolysis rate, as well as the flexibility of the fibers. Besides, fibers with greater amount of lignin have less amount of cellulose, and this will also depend on the application of the fiber.
\nThe fibers can be used in both thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastic matrices include polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Thermosets include epoxy, polyester, and phenolic resins. In recent years, the number of studies focused on these materials has increased, because they are environmentally friendly and have low production costs, easy workability, good properties of lightness, mechanical strength, and thermal insulation [53]. However, due to the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers and hydrophobic nature of polymer matrix, there is no good interfacial interaction between the two materials, and therefore, the mechanical properties are deteriorated. Based on the above, chemical and physical treatments have been developed to modify the surface of natural fibers and promote interfacial adhesion with the polymer matrix [54].
\nAmong the chemical treatments stands out alkali, benzoylation, cyclohexane, silicon, peroxide, acetylation, sulfuric acid, stearic acid treatment, and the modification with maleic anhydride. The chemical modification provides more dimensional stability and reduces water absorption capacity [55]. Alkaline treatment is the most used and consists in eliminating the lignin, wax, and oil of the fibers, since these components act as a barrier between the polymeric matrix and the fibers; and in turn, it is possible to increase the roughness in the surface of the fibers [56]. Another alternative to improve the compatibility between these materials is using compatibilizing agents, such as maleic anhydride grafted with polyolefins, either polypropylene or high-density polyethylene. The main factors that affect the processing and performance of biocomposites are the presence of moisture, type, shape (short or long), concentration, and orientation of the fibers. The processing method for obtaining biocomposites will depend on the type of fiber, for example: twin-screw extruder and hydraulic press, injection molding, melt mixing, and single-screw extruder for short-fiber-reinforced composites [57]. New technologies can improve the processing of these materials to make it easier.
\nThe main applications of the biocomposites are automotive parts, packaging, military industry, aerospace, medical articles, etc. The interest of the automotive sector in developing biocomposites lies mainly in reducing the consumption of fiber glass because it is more expensive than the natural one and, in turn, making the vehicles lighter, and it also contributes to the consumption of less combustible and to the fact of being eco-friendly. In recent years, Toyota, Mercedes-Benz, Ford, Mitsubishi, and Daimler Chrysler AG have incorporated biodegradable materials in the exterior parts of some of their vehicles [58]. Pracella et al. [58] studied the functionalization, compatibilization, and properties of polypropylene (PP) composites with hemp fibers. The fibers were functionalized with glycidyl methacrylate (GMA). PP/hemp composites at various compositions were prepared in a Brabender internal mixer. All modified composites showed improved fiber dispersion in the polyolefin matrix and higher interfacial adhesion with respect to the unmodified PP/hemp. Composites showed an increase in Young modulus as compared to PP due to the addition of PP-g-GMA. Vilaseca et al. [59] studied the effect of alkali treatment on interfacial bonding in abaca fibers. They used an epoxy resin, and the results showed that alkali treatments modify the structure and chemical composition of abaca fibers. Abaca fibers treated in 5 wt. % NaOH showed excellent interfacial adhesion with epoxy resin. Bledzki et al. [60] carried out polypropylene-based biocomposites with different types of natural fibers (jute, kenaf, abaca, and softwood) to compare their performance under the same processing conditions, and they found that the properties of biocomposites depend on geometry of the fibers. Kenaf provides strength to biocomposites, abaca obtains the best results in impact resistance, jute fibers are the most stable thermally, and the wood microfibers have good resistant strength. Currently, several studies have been carried out with other types of fibers, in which we can mention agave, castor plant, and
The production of alcohol and alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and tequila generates two main residues in its process, one of them is the solid part called bagasse and a liquid part obtained from the distiller which is known as vinasse [64]. In Mexico, more than 70% of the establishments that produce vinasse come from the production of tequila and mezcal, 20% from beer, and the rest from the production of wines from grapes and other fruits. Due to the denomination of origin of tequila and mezcal, researchers consider as essential the study of the vinasse process, due to the high environmental and economic impacts in Mexico. In recent years, to decrease the high volume of residual vinasses, it has been decided to generate compost from bagasse and vinasse [65], which is given to farmers to use it in their crops; however, the production of compost uses less than 50% of the vinasses, and the rest is discarded without treatment. The tequila production generates high volumes of vinasses on a ratio of 10–12 L for each liter of tequila produced; they have a high organic content that causes damage to ecosystems by anoxia and acidification of water. Biodigestion systems have been developed for the removal of solids [66]. Nevertheless, the treatments are expensive and with a low efficiency, which has not been achieved an industrial implementation.
\nDue to the physicochemical characteristics of vinasses, these represent a high source of contamination that must be contained and treated to avoid serious damage to ecosystems [67]. Due to the current production volumes of tequila, it is reported that during 2017 more than 271 million liters were produced (https://www.crt.org.mx/) of which between 2710 and 3252 million liters of vinasse would be obtained [68]. For elaboration of the tequila, two main industrial processes are used to produce the fermentation juice. In the first one, the agave is cooked and squeezed to obtain the juice, and there is a subsequent fermentation process. The most recent and apparently energy efficient is to squeeze the raw agave heart by spraying it with a little hot water for this juice, to be used later in the fermentation process. Vinasse components have been compared between both processes showing significant changes where cooking processes present the highest contents of organic acids compared with spraying with steam [69].
\nWe carry out the characterization of the compounds present in the vinasse that leave the distillation process in order to identify the majority of compounds and to propose an adequate purification process that allows to preserve the properties, as well as to avoid their degradation. The components of the vinasse vary between the different fermentation processes, since they depend on the raw materials; the cooking time will give the characteristics of the juices or liqueurs, the fermentation process, and the variables of distillation, so it will be necessary to carry out a characterization study for the vinasse. Since the vinasse has been treated as a residue, no measures are taken to prevent its degradation or contamination. It is important to obtain reliable results, collect fresh vinasse and free of foreign contaminants, and keep it cool, clean, and not exposed light to prevent its degradation. Vinasse is a complex mixture in which organic compounds with very different chemical characteristics are found. In addition, oils and fats that are contained solubilize another group of compounds, making this mixture difficult to separate.
\nIt is required to carry out an integral development that allows the correct treatment of each component of the vinasse. Three general stages of separation are proposed using as model the composition of the vinasse previously characterized (Figure 1). The first stage is the separation of solids and liquids; the second a separation of water-soluble compounds such as alcohol traces and polar compounds of solids belonging to organic matter generated during fermentation and some other solids from the broth culture as carbohydrates, proteins, and mineral salts, among others; and finally the generation of value-added products, organic compounds, and solids of high organic matter content, which can easily be recycled in the form of fertilizer for industrial use.
\nGeneral process to recovery of compounds from vinasse obtained from distillation processes.
Each stage requires the implementation of independent processes, but they will guarantee the obtaining of water that is easy to use in compliance with current regulations. The feasibility of obtaining compounds of antioxidant capacity of commercial interest derived from vinasse represents an income that costs the entire process.
\nAs mentioned previously, currently in Mexico the treatment of vinasse has been limited mainly due to the fact that there is no solvency or economic technology that companies can implement. Different types of treatment are being used that depend mainly on the size of the company and the total volume of production; Table 1 summarizes the strategies used to treat vinasse.
\nClassification | \nTreatment | \nApplication | \nAdvantage | \n
---|---|---|---|
Pretreatment | \nTemperature low | \nPool circulation | \nEconomic and popular | \n
\n | pH neutralization | \nCa(OH)2 addition | \nEconomic and popular | \n
Primary treatment | \nSedimentation pools | \nStorage | \nEasy for industrial volumes | \n
\n | Air flash floating | \nPolymer addition | \nEasy for industrial volumes | \n
Physicochemical treatment | \nCoagulation | \nAl2(SO4)3 addition | \nGood remotion of solids | \n
\n | Flocculation | \nCationic polymer addition | \nGood remotion of solids | \n
Biological | \nAnaerobic fermentation | \nBiodigestion | \nMethane generation | \n
\n | Acidogenesis | \nBiodigestion | \nH2 and CO2 generation | \n
New treatments | \nOxidation | \nRedox reaction using ozone, H2O2, UV radiation, or Cl | \nRemotion of color, odor, and organic matter | \n
Treatments actually used for the disposal of vinasse.
Pretreatments and primary treatments are the most commonly used, as they are economical and simple to implement on any scale. Pretreatments are useful only for acidity reduction but do not eliminate organic load or color. Sedimentation ponds allow the removal of 80% of the sedimentable solids; however, it does not reduce the organic load or fats. The flotation strategy consists of applying air together with a polymer that allows accelerating the separation of soluble solids, and it is used as preparation for a biological process. The process is useful for the removal of solids, it is not efficient in the chemical demand of oxygen (CDO), and in addition, it is expensive in industrial scales. On the other hand, these strategies represent a focus of soil and subsoil contamination by filtration. The physicochemical treatments are mostly used on a pilot scale and generally used in two stages; in one, a coagulant is added to agglomerate soluble solids and then a flocculant for remotion. It is efficient in 20–30%, and its ability is being studied to remove the color; at the laboratory level, it has achieved a 70% reduction in color and 30% in CDO. Although there are already reports of a 100% removal efficiency using a cationic polymer [70], to date it has not been implemented on an industrial scale. It is estimated that the cost of these processes is 3.8 USD/Kg of vinasse, but the ecological impact of the emission of heavy metals and the reaction of chlorine salts with organic matter increases rather than decreases the level of toxicity. The main coagulants that are currently used in industries have metallic composition, and some environmentally friendly alternatives are being studied, including sugar polymers from some plant species, such as mesquite gum, shrimp chitosan, and some other vegetable gums [71]. Although removal percentages higher than metallic salts have been achieved by these alternatives, the process of obtaining is still expensive and uncommon.
\nIn the last year, exploitation of agricultural waste for development of new products with a commercial value has been investigated. New related sectors have appeared in the global scene with great growth opportunities in the global market. Therefore, the specialized search engine “Web of Science,” using the keyword “waste” in conjunction with the descriptive words of each item shows that the sectors with the greatest number of publications are “biocomposites and the peptides with antioxidant activity.” Even though at present research in these fields remains small, it has a great potential for growth in the global market (Figure 2).
\nEstimated market of new components obtained from waste (USD, billions) [
Globally, sectors related with products from agro-industrial residues are growing, and therefore, there is an increase in the publications showing the enormous potential to enter and take a position in the market. If we look at the size of the market for each compound, we can direct and plan new strategies aimed at the development of products toward the sectors with the highest economic growth and create the interest of companies looking for innovation in each of the product. The main growing market is in the phytochemicals with the extraction of carotenoids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, among others with potential use in the alimentary industry. Valorization of residues can be achieved such as in soybean residues from pressing oil extraction, which are rich in phytochemical compounds [72]. Thus, there is a growing interest in agro-industrial residues as source of high-benefit products potentially useful as valuable constituents, flavors, and antioxidant in food and cosmetics [73]. The market of phytochemicals is becoming more competitive with the entry of pharmaceutical companies as Cargill, Hormel, and Doehler groups, which ensures a growing market. To pharmaceutical industry, bioactive peptides are considered a growing market and represent a potential solution to more efficacious disease treatment. In addition, peptides promise to combine the lower production costs and high specificity. For 2025, the proposed market growth appears to be near to USD $48.04 billion (Figure 2). Current trends indicate that a bright future for bioactive peptides and position them as firm candidates to the growth and innovation in pharmaceutical industry with the participation at this moment of companies as Elly Lilly and Pfizer [74], while the biocomposites are being alternatives to conventional petroleum-derived material becoming increasingly utilized in a great variety of applications [75]. An increased research is reflected in the number of publications that indicates a strong trend for applications of eco-friendly materials. Kenaf fiber has been used to reinforce polyurethane composites improving the mechanical and thermal properties [76]. The global biocomposite market is estimated to grow at USD $46.30 billion for 2025. The trends indicate that the rising awareness among people by the replacement of plastics with biodegradable and environmentally favorable alternatives allows the market growth [77]. Automotive sector is a rising market; the search for new materials that increase the safety of passengers and reduce the vehicle weight spurs market demand [78]. Biomass pellets are an emerging market with a lot of potential. The European Union was the primary market responsible for the global production and consumption of pellets to residential and district heating East Asia being predicted to become the second largest consumer [6]. Generating an advantage to closing, the circle called “the field to the hand of consumption” creates new opportunities to transform the field of an agricultural activity to agro-industrial activity centered on a circular economy. Circular economy advises the reincorporation of residues into the economy; wastes become a transient phase in an ideally perpetual utilization cycle rather than environmentally sound disposal [1].
\nUtilization of agro-industrial residual wastes can help to reduce them and avoid the environmental contamination, health diseases by the overcrowding, ecological damage, and other pollution-associated problems. Nowadays, there is a growing interest by researchers and industrials by the different substances and properties that exhibit the different agro-industrial residues to obtain a value-added product. Residual wastes have an enormous potential to be revalorized producing solid, liquid, and gas energies, obtaining different bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, peptides, and melanin. In addition, fibers from residues can be used to elaborate biocomposite for automotive industries mainly. New methods are proposed to obtain a value-added product from vinasses in demand not only for the pharmaceutical industries. All of these compounds and mixtures are profitable for a commercial market that grows with a high potential and application for new sectors. In that sense, the future is here.
\nWe want thank Alejandro Carreon for kind suggestions in the early version of this manuscript.
\nThe authors indicate no potential conflicts of interest.
This research was supported by the project Bioturbosin Cluster (208090) of Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) and Secretaria de Energia (SENER) from Mexico.
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