Occurrence of twinning/ε-martensite formation as a function of chemical composition (mass-%).
\r\n\t
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Tiefenbacher",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",keywords:"Managing Urbanization, Managing Development, Managing Resource Use, Drought Management, Flood Management, Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Ecological Monitoring, Modeling Extreme Natural Events, Ecological Restoration, Restoring Environmental Flows, Environmental Management Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"21 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geospatial scholar working at the interface of natural and human systems, collaborating internationally on innovative studies about hazards and environmental challenges. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published more than 200 papers on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73876/images/system/73876.jfif",biography:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher (Ph.D., Rutgers, 1992) is a professor of Geography at Texas State University. His research has focused on various aspects of hazards and environmental management. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine. More recently his work pertains to spatial adaptation to climate change, spatial responses in wine growing regions to climate change, the geographies of viticulture and wine, artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict patterns of natural processes and hazards, historical ethnic enclaves in American cities and regions, and environmental adaptations of 19th century European immigrants to North America's landscapes.",institutionString:"Texas State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Texas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Due to their low YS/UTS ratios, austenitic steels may be used in applications where a high energy absorption capacity rather than a high resistance to yielding is required. In contrast to ferritic steels of which the strain-hardening behavior is not much influenced by varying temperature in the vicinity of room temperature and by the addition of common substitutional alloying elements such as Mn, Si, Ni, and Cr, the strain-hardening characteristics of austenitic steels are highly sensitive to temperature and chemical composition. Understanding the underlying mechanisms governing the work hardening of austenitic steels and the interrelationships among the material parameters is therefore essential to the effective design of economical austenitic steels. Tremendous austenitic stainless steel design activities at the TU Bergakademie Freiberg, especially in the framework of the Collaborative Research Center 799 (TRIP-matrix composites) running since 2008, have enabled to note the interrelationships summarized in the following sections.
Deformation-induced processes in austenitic steels are governed by the SFE. In high Mn austenitic steels, for instance, deformation processes have been proposed to change from the perfect dislocations glide at high SFEs to twinning and then martensite formation at progressively lower SFEs [1]. The SFE depends on the chemical composition and temperature. Numerous empirical relationships have been proposed to describe the influence of alloying elements in austenitic steels on the SFE [2–6]. Nevertheless, care must be taken when using such relationships because their applicability depends on the reliability of the SFE determination method. The inaccuracy of the existing relationships is reflected in the inconsistent coefficients proposed for alloying elements [2, 6]. Although SFE appears, based on the existing empirical relationships, to have a complex dependence on the chemical composition, it is unanimously known to increase at higher temperatures [7]. The associated changes in the glide mode have important consequences for the deformed microstructures obtained at different temperatures; the wide separation of a/6 <112> Shockley partial dislocations at low temperatures, where the SFE is low, promotes the planar glide of dislocations, for instance by restricting the cross-slip of screw dislocations. The abundance of stacking faults in the microstructure of an Fe-14Cr-5.5Mn-5.5Ni-0.37N (concentrations always in mass-%) austenitic stainless steel deformed at −40°C is demonstrated in Figure 1. The occurrence of planar glide features such as dislocation pile-ups, stacking faults, twins, and ε-martensite at deformation temperatures associated with low SFEs highlights the traces of {111}γ glide planes. In the example shown in Figure 2, the angular relationships among the traces of glide planes aid to determine the crystallographic orientation of austenite.
Stacking faults formed in an Fe-14Cr-5.5Mn-5.5Ni-0.37N steel after 64% tensile deformation at −40°C.
TEM micrographs and the corresponding selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern of an Al-alloyed Fe-17Cr-6Mn-9Ni-0.42C-4Al steel after the application of nearly 4% compressive strain at RT. The zone axis (Z.A.) of austenite cannot be determined from the recorded SAED pattern which only comprises two 002 diffraction spots. Instead, the angular relationships among the traces of {111}γ glide planes (superimposed solid lines), which may be identified by the glide plane features, allow to determine the zone axis (Z.A. // <047>γ).
As the deformation temperature increases, the reduced separation of partial dislocations and the possibility of constriction increase the three-dimensional mobility of dislocations and a gradual transition to the wavy glide mode follows [8]. Deformed microstructures under wavy glide conditions are characterized by dislocation cell structures with almost dislocation-free interiors surrounded by dislocation rotation boundaries [9, 10]. Dislocation cell formation in an Fe-18Cr-7Mn-9Ni-0.43C stainless steel deformed at 200°C is demonstrated in Figure 3. Further examples of austenitic stainless steel microstructures formed at various deformation temperatures may be found in [10–16].
Microstructure of an Fe-18Cr-7Mn-9Ni-0.43C steel after 45% tensile deformation at 200°C.
The schematic in Figure 4 summarizes the temperature dependence of deformation-induced microstructural changes in austenitic steels. The spectrum of processes shown in the schematic does not necessarily occur in all austenitic steels. Whether or not a given process is activated is decided by the alloy system. Highly stable austenitic steels may not exhibit the microstructural changes relying on very low SFEs. For example, the austenitic stainless steel Fe-18Cr-20Ni with a high stability does not experience deformation-induced α′-martensite formation even after the application of almost 100% tensile elongation at −196°C [14, 17]. Furthermore, the tendency of an austenitic steel to form ε-martensite or twinning depends on the alloy chemistry. In high Mn steels, for instance, alloying with Si increases the likelihood of ε-martensite formation at the expense of deformation twinning [18]. Table 1 summarizes the types of deformation-induced microstructural changes (twinning and ε-martensite) in modifications of FeCrMnNi-based austenitic stainless steels. Some of the alloys listed in Table 1 are twinning only or ε-martensite only systems. Nevertheless, a majority of austenitic stainless steels are capable of exhibiting both the preceding deformation processes as byproducts of planar glide, caused by the ready dissociation of Shockley partial dislocations [19, 20].
Schematic representation of the effects of SFE and temperature on the microstructural changes in austenitic steels.
Alloy | Twinning | ε-Martensite |
---|---|---|
Fe-16Cr-(6–7)Mn-(6–9)Ni [21, 22] | ✓ | ✓ |
Fe-(17–18)Cr-(6–7)Mn-9Ni-0.4C-(0 & 4)Al [15] | ✓ | — |
Fe-14Cr-5.5Mn-5.5Ni-0.37N [14] | — | ✓ |
Fe-15Cr-3Mn-3Ni-(0.05–0.25)C-(0.1–0.13)N [23, 24] | ✓ | ✓ |
Fe-19Cr-3Mn-4Ni-(0.05–0.25)C-(0.1–0.13)N [25–27] | ✓ | ✓ |
Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.3C-0.4N [28] | ✓ | — |
Occurrence of twinning/ε-martensite formation as a function of chemical composition (mass-%).
Deformation at temperatures lower than those associated with ε-martensite formation and twinning leads to the formation of α′-martensite. As mentioned earlier, this does not apply to highly stable austenitic steels in which the threshold SFEs for the α′-martensite formation may not be attained even at cryogenic temperatures [14]. The α′-martensite formation under extremely planar glide conditions commonly occurs at the intersections of planar glide features [29–31]. Examples of deformation-induced α′-martensite formation in conjunction with planar glide features are shown in Figure 5. Even in cases where it is difficult to identify intersection of planar glide features, such as the example of Figure 5d where the α′-martensite appears to have formed in association with deformation twins, the activation of at least one conjugate partial dislocation glide system is quite likely. After all, the most widely accepted models proposed for the α′-martensite formation rely on the occurrence of two shears in directions compatible with the glide direction of partial dislocations [32–35]. The magnitudes of the shears needed to cause the lattice change to bcc/bct are only fractions of the full twinning shear. Even the formation of spontaneous α′-martensite appears to be a consequence of stacking fault interactions. As the microstructure of the Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.3C-0.4N steel after partial transformation to athermal α′-martensite shows (Figure 6), a high density of stacking faults exists in the austenite, in particular in the immediate vicinity of the transformed regions. Therefore, further transformation of austenite most likely involves the spontaneous dissociation and interaction of the stacking faults. This suggests that the SFE must be extremely low at the α′-martensite start (Ms) temperature.
Examples of deformation-induced α′-martensite formation in high carbon (a), high nitrogen (b), and high carbon and nitrogen (d) austenitic stainless steels.
Microstructure of an Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.3C-0.4N steel after partial transformation to spontaneous (athermal) α′-martensite by thermal treatment.
An important consequence of decreasing the tensile temperature of austenitic stainless steels is the increase in the strain-hardening rate. This is demonstrated using the true stress-strain and strain-hardening curves for an Fe-18Cr-20Ni steel (Figure 7) [17]. The enhancement of strain-hardening rate and its extended near-linear hardening at low temperatures can be explained by the decrease in the SFE and the increased activity of stacking faults. At −196°C, the strain-hardening rate remains almost constant until fracture. Near-linear strain hardening during tensile deformation is the characteristic of many austenitic stainless steels at temperatures where SFE is sufficiently low to ensure a high glide planarity but not low enough to enable the formation of α′-martensite. Figure 8 shows the true strain-hardening curves for an Fe-16Cr-8Mn-7Ni-1Si steel deformed at various temperatures [36]. At temperatures below Mdγ → α′ temperature which is between 20 and 60°C, the increase in the work-hardening rate characteristic of deformation-induced α′-martensite formation can be readily identified [37]. The strain-hardening curves indicate that near-linear strain hardening in austenitic steels is achieved at temperatures near Mdγ → α′ temperature [15].
(a) Temperature dependence of true stress-strain curves for an Fe-18Cr-20Ni steel; (b) true strain-hardening curves corresponding to (a) (adapted from Ref. [17]).
Temperature dependence of true strain-hardening curves for an Fe-16Cr-8Mn-7Ni-1Si steel. The martensite fractions after tensile tests are also marked (adapted from Ref. [36]).
The schematic in Figure 9 generalizes the temperature dependence of tensile elongation in austenitic stainless steels [10, 15, 38–43]. The schematic elongation curve consists of three regions marked I–III. In region I, the elongation shows a weak temperature dependence which resembles that of materials with wavy glide, for example, ferritic steels. The region marked II is characterized by enhanced low-temperature ductility due to the enhanced glide planarity. The enhancement of ductility by lowering temperature in region II is usually attributed to deformation-induced microstructural changes such as ε-martensite transformation, the ε-TRIP effect [44], and deformation twinning, the TWIP effect [38]. The hcp stacking of close-packed planes in ε-martensite may be achieved by the glide of 1/6 <112> Shockley partials on every second {111} plane [45]. Deformation twins, on the other hand, can occur by the glide of 1/6 <112> Shockley partials on successive {111} planes [46, 47]. The region marked III in Figure 9 can appear at deformation temperatures below Mdγ → α′ temperature. The temperature-dependent true stress-strain curves in Figures 10 (a,b) and the associated α′-martensite fractions at the end of tensile tests [36] (Figure 10c) confirm the negative impact of deformation-induced α′-martensite formation on the tensile ductility. Accordingly, the region III of elongation curves is absent in highly stable austenitic steels which do not undergo deformation-induced α′-martensite formation (e.g., the Fe-18Cr-20Ni alloy in Figure 7). The loss of ductility in region III in spite of the enhanced glide planarity of austenite is due to the gradual replacement of austenite by the less ductile α′-martensite.
Generalized temperature dependence of tensile elongation in austenitic steels.
(a and b) Temperature dependence of true stress-strain curves for the marked steel compositions; (c) deformation-induced martensite fractions after tensile tests. The spontaneous martensite fractions are also given for alloy 1 (adapted from Ref. [36]).
Although the proximity of Mdγ → α′ temperature and the temperature associated with maximum tensile elongation has been documented in many researches involving tensile tests at various temperatures followed by the quantification of bulk α′-martensite fractions in the uniformly strained regions of tensile specimens [14, 17, 36–39], there also exist experimental results in support of the ductility-enhancing effect of α′-martensite formation [10, 14]. Figure 11 shows such an instance where the tensile elongation increases concurrently with the formation of α′ at temperatures below Mdγ → α′ temperature. This observation has been justified by the non-uniform distribution of alloying elements, originating from the solidification step [14]. During solidification, alloying elements tend to segregate from the dendrite cores into the surrounding liquid, namely interdendritic regions in the final microstructure [48] (Figure 12). The severity of segregation depends mainly on the cooling rate during solidification. Nevertheless, the solidification mode (austenitic/ferritic) should also be relevant to the extent of solidification segregation. The compositional difference between the dendritic and interdendritic regions could lead to the inhomogeneity of material parameters such as SFE and Mdγ → α′ temperature. Upon plastic deformation, the dendritic and interdendritic regions will exhibit deformation-induced processes commensurate with their SFE [49]. For instance, the dendritic regions with a leaner chemical composition and a lower SFE compared to the interdendritic regions will exhibit a higher glide planarity. In other words, as the deformation temperature decreases, the formation of stacking fault, twins/ε-martensite, and α′ is first triggered in the dendritic regions [14]. The presence of a gradient of chemical composition in the microstructure might be responsible for the reported plasticity-enhancing effect of α′-martensite formation, the so-called TRIP effect. To visualize how the inhomogeneity of chemical composition can mask the negative impact of deformation-induced α′-martensite formation on the tensile elongation, the temperature dependence of tensile elongation and deformation-induced α′-martensite fractions for two steels with slight differences in the chemical composition are summarized in Figure 13 [36]. The steels Fe-16Cr-7Mn-6Ni-1Si and Fe-16Cr-8Mn-7Ni-1Si can represent the chemical compositions of dendritic and interdendritic regions of segregated steel, respectively. The tensile elongation of a hypothetical alloy consisting of equal fractions of these two steels is estimated in Figure 13 by averaging (rule of mixtures). The rule of mixtures was also applied to determine the temperature dependence of deformation-induced α′-martensite fraction in the hypothetical alloy. As the dashed line in Figure 13 shows, the tensile elongation of the segregated hypothetical alloy is not much impaired by the formation of approximately 17 vol.% deformation-induced α′-martensite. In the presence of still larger gradients of chemical composition, the tensile ductility might even increase in spite of the formation of α′-martensite in the least stable regions of the microstructure. This can indeed take place if the negative impact of α′-martensite formation in the less stable regions of the microstructure is more than neutralized by the positive effect of planar glide enhancement in the more stable regions of the microstructure [14]. Based on the preceding discussion, the recognition of the α′-martensite formation as a plasticity-enhancing mechanism (α′-TRIP effect) in TRIP-assisted [50] and quenched and partitioned (Q&P) [51] steels containing small quantities of austenite is possibly due to local variations in the chemical composition of austenite.
Temperature dependence of uniform tensile elongation for an Fe-14Cr-5.5Mn-5.5Ni-0.37N steel and the associated deformation-induced martensite fractions (adapted from Ref. [14]).
Schematic representation of the segregation of alloying element during solidification. The solid (S) and liquid (L) regions will appear as dendritic and interdendritic regions with different SFE values in the final microstructure.
Temperature dependence of uniform tensile elongation for two steels with slightly different chemical compositions and the averaged values (adapted from Ref. [36]).
As shown in the schematic of Figure 9, highest tensile elongations for austenitic steels with a uniform distribution of alloying elements may be obtained over a narrow temperature range near Mdγ → α′ temperature. The objective of many austenitic steel developments is therefore to ensure that the deformation temperature or the service temperature, where a high formability or a high-energy absorption capacity is required, lies in the vicinity of the peak elongation temperature. It is because of formability considerations that the Mdγ → α′ temperature of commercial austenitic stainless steels is often in the vicinity of room temperature [52, 53]. Therefore, the Mdγ → α′ temperature may be used to predict the influence of alloying elements on the elongation curve. Tensile tests at various temperatures of austenitic stainless steels with varied amounts of Ni [39, 42], Mn [43], Al [15], Cr [23, 25, 27], C [23, 24], and N [25] have confirmed that they shift the peak elongation temperature to lower temperatures. All of the preceding alloying elements except Al are unanimously known to decrease both Mdγ → α′ and Ms temperatures [54, 55]. The formation of AlN and the associated reduction in the solute N content might be responsible for the reported increase in the Ms temperature upon the addition of only small quantities of Al. This effect is expected to disappear when Al is present in quantities much higher than the stoichiometric Al content needed for the full stabilization of solute N. For instance, the addition of 4.9 mass-%Al to a cast iron has decreased the Ms temperature [56].
Economical design of highly formable austenitic stainless steels, namely lean austenitic stainless steel compositions, should be based on the principle that all of the elements which decrease the Mdγ → α′ temperature, irrespective of their reported influence on the SFE, also decrease the peak elongation temperature. This is shown schematically in Figure 14. To secure a high formability at room temperature, the Mdγ → α′ temperature must be close to room temperature as is the case with commercial austenitic stainless steels such as the AISI 304-grade (Fe-18Cr-10Ni) stainless steel. The development of the AISI 200 series (FeCrNiMn) austenitic stainless steels in which Ni is partially replaced with Mn is also in accord with the preceding design principle [39].
Influence of alloying elements on the temperature dependence of tensile elongation.
Since C and N effectively decrease the Mdγ → α′ temperature, an economical design approach would be to partially replace the substitutional alloying elements Cr, Ni, and Mn with the interstitials C and N. The maximum level of N, which can be introduced into the molten steel, depends on both the chemistry and the N2 partial pressure applied during casting and melting [57]. Stainless steel compositions Fe-15Cr-3Mn-3Ni-0.1N−(0.05–0.25)C exemplify the efforts made to reduce the substitutionals content by the addition of both C and N [23, 24]. Nevertheless, even for the alloy containing the highest C content of 0.25 mass-%, the stability of austenite at room temperature was not sufficiently high to suppress the early deformation-induced occurrence of α′-martensite. As a result, the room temperature tensile elongation remained below 15%. At 200°C, where the deformation-induced α′-martensite formation was inhibited, the total elongation increased to about 65%. In comparison, the Fe-19Cr-4Ni-3Mn-0.15N−(0.05–0.25)C steels with higher Cr, Ni, and N contents exhibited tensile elongations up to 50% at room temperature [25].
As long as the full dissolution of carbides and nitrides is enabled, still higher quantities of interstitials may be added to stainless steels to reduce the required amounts of substitutional alloying elements. Interstitial alloying elements are also effective solid solution strengtheners of austenite. Fe-18Cr-10Mn-base steels alloyed with up to 0.69 mass-%N are examples of N-alloyed stainless steels free of Cr2N precipitates at the solution-annealing temperature [58, 59]. Alloying with higher amounts of N or very high levels of (C + N) will increase the solution-annealing temperature needed for the full dissolution of carbides and nitrides. On this basis, the complete dissolution of carbides and nitrides in the stainless steel Fe-19Cr-19Mn-0.49C-0.58N [60] appears improbable. In fact, the presence of Cr-rich carbides and nitrides is not desirable since Cr, C, and N will then not contribute to the stabilization of austenite. Furthermore, the corrosion resistance is impaired by the presence of Cr-rich precipitates. Assuming that all interstitials in an alloy such as the Fe-19Cr-19Mn-0.49C-0.58N steel are taken into solution by a high-temperature solution-annealing treatment, the Mdγ → α′ temperature and the peak elongation temperature will be far lower than room temperature.
An alternative approach to the design of lean-alloy austenitic stainless steels is to modify the chemical composition and/or the thermal processing of standard quenched and tempered martensitic stainless steels to make them fully austenitic at room temperature. The room temperature microstructure of an Fe-13.1Cr-0.47C steel after solution annealing at 1250°C consisted of 44 vol.% α′-martensite and 56 vol.% austenite. As shown in the dilatometry curves of Figure 15, the addition of 3.4 mass-%Mn to the alloy decreased the Ms temperature to around room temperature such that a fully austenitic microstructure was obtained. Mdγ → α′ temperature for the latter Mn-added steel is much higher than room temperature. Accordingly, significant enhancement of tensile ductility was observed at 200°C (Figure 16). A similar scenario arises in the case of steels containing both C and N, for instance the commercial Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.4N-0.3C steel which is conventionally used in the martensitic condition [28]. After solution annealing at 1250°C which resulted in a fully austenitic microstructure, tensile elongation at room temperature was less than 5%. Tensile elongation was increased to 80% at 230°C (Figure 16). Such lean austenitic stainless steel compositions may be used for warm-forming operations at temperatures around 200°C. In the case of both Fe-13Cr-3.4Mn-0.47C and Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.4N-0.3C stainless steels, decreasing the Mdγ → α′ temperature to room temperature by raising the substitutionals content would be a possible way to enhance the room temperature tensile ductility.
Relative length changes during cooling of Fe-13.1Cr-0.47C, Fe-13.0Cr-3.4Mn-0.47C, and Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.3C-0.4Nsteels from the indicated solution-annealing temperatures. As the solution-annealing temperature increases, the Ms temperature shifts to lower temperatures.
Engineering stress-strain curves for Fe-13Cr-3.4Mn-0.47C (dashed lines) and Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.4N-0.3C (solid lines) steels at the indicated temperatures (adapted from [28, 61]).
The micrographs in Figure 17 show that the complete dissolution of high levels of C and N such as those contained in the Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.4N-0.3C alloy requires the use of high solution-annealing temperatures. In the presence of precipitates, a higher amount of substitutional alloying elements will be required to ensure a sufficiently low Mdγ → α′ temperature. Furthermore, the presence of Cr-rich carbides, nitrides, and carbo-nitrides such as M23C6, M7C3, and M2N (M denotes mainly Cr and Fe) will deteriorate the corrosion resistance of stainless steels. The inevitable use of high solution-annealing temperatures increases the risk of decarburization, denitriding, and other surface problems such as uniform and intergranular types of oxidation. The loss of C and N near the surface will lead to a microstructure gradient from the surface toward inner regions. Commonly, a martensitic microstructure forms near the surface where the interstitials content is lowest [23, 28]. In cases where the ferrite potential of the alloy in the absence of interstitials is high, even delta ferrite might form near the surface (Figure 18). Surface-to-bulk micro hardness profile measurements can be used to determine the depth of decarburization/denitriding [23, 28].
Optical micrographs of Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.4N-0.3C steel after the indicated solution-annealing treatments. Oxalic acid was used as etchant.
Optical micrograph of a section near the exposed surface of a dilatometry specimen of Fe-15Cr-1Mo-0.4N-0.3Csteel after 13 heat treatment cycles at temperatures between 900 and 1180°C. V2A reagent was used as etchant.
The occurrence of various deformation-induced processes such as perfect dislocations glide, deformation twinning, and deformation-induced ε/α′-martensite formation mechanisms in austenitic steels is governed by the SFE. As long as the SFE is known, it should be possible to decide which deformation-induced mechanism is activated during deformation. The SFE determination by experimental diffraction-based techniques (including TEM) is a time-consuming task and requires careful specimen preparation. Therefore, it would be useful to correlate SFE with material parameters which can be determined more readily and are less sensitive to artifacts arising from the specimen preparation. One such material parameter is the Mdγ → α′ temperature which can be determined by tensile tests at various temperatures followed by the verification of α′-martensite formation for instance by magnetic measurements. The likelihood of a correlation between SFE and Mdγ → α′ temperature can be visualized by recalling that the formation of α′-martensite is only enabled if the SFE is sufficiently low to enable the deformation-induced reaction of partial dislocations on intersecting {111}γ planes which is a requirement for the fcc → bcc transformation. Therefore, the influence of alloying elements on the SFE of austenitic stainless steels can be deduced from their influence on the Mdγ → α′ temperature. In contrast to the coefficients of alloying elements in the empirical equations proposed for the SFE estimation which are subject to a large scatter, the coefficients of alloying elements in the empirical relationships for the estimation of Mdγ → α′ temperature are fairly consistent. Therefore, relationships giving the compositional dependence of Mdγ → α′ temperature can be used as guidelines for the economical design of austenitic stainless steels. Due to the high efficiency of C and N in increasing the stability of austenite, they can be used to obtain austenite with an appropriate stability. The high temperatures required for the dissolution of carbides, nitrides, and carbo-nitrides and the tendency of C and N to escape from free surfaces are some of the challenges associated with the processing of high-interstitial stainless steels compared to that of conventional stainless steels.
The financial support of the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) in the framework of the Collaborative Research Center 799 (CRC799) and the research grants MO 2580/1-1 and MO 2580/2-1 is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to the scientific and technical staff involved in the above projects.
The economic development of both developed and developing countries is now largely enhanced by entrepreneurship development. The term is often used as the synonym of job creation, and innovation that contributes to societal improvement. The established entrepreneurs are classified as Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). These MSMEs constitute more than 95% of the total establishment of an economy globally. The entrepreneurs are engaged in different industries of the global economy. The Halal industry, which represents the global Islamic economy, is one of the fastest-growing markets in the world. The key contributors to this global Halal industry are the Halal entrepreneurs (Halalpreneurs). Entrepreneurship has been defined by many scholars, researchers, industry players, and academicians globally. The definition has been acknowledged and adopted in more or less similar ways by most of the economies globally.
However, the concept of “entrepreneurship” in the Islamic economy is not exactly the same as the conventional economy. Although the nature of activities and literal definition is similar, the concept in Islam becomes different in some certain ways and is perceived as “Halalpreneurship.” The term has been used in the Halal industry implying to entrepreneurship by Global Islamic Economy (GIE) report-2018 by Thompson Reuters’ and Dinar Standard. However, the industry is lacking a proper definition of the term. Simultaneously, numerous scholars in the Islamic economy have introduced entrepreneurs in Islam in their studies. For example, the activities, responsibilities, and objectives of Muslim entrepreneurs in the Islamic economy have been discussed by Ramdani et al. in their study [1]. Alternatively, entrepreneurs in Islam have been termed as Islamic entrepreneurs negating the assumption that Islam is intrinsically anti-modernization and anti-development [2]. Similarly, the same term, Islamic entrepreneurship, was justified to explain entrepreneurship in Islam [3]. Moreover, entrepreneurs in the halal food industry have been investigated as halal food entrepreneurs [4]. Finally, the term Halalpreneurship has been used to define halal-minded entrepreneurship to realize the motivation of the small and medium entrepreneurs (SMEs) to become Halalpreneurs [5]. However, none of these studies have defined or clarified the term Halalpreneurs or Halalpreneurship. Moreover, it has been identified as one of the significant gaps that the halal industry is lacking a universally accepted definition and proper understanding of Halalpreneurship [5].
Research questions: The research questions addressed by the current chapter are: (1) What is the concept of Halalpreneurship? (2) What is the definition of Halalpreneurship? (3) Who are the Halalpreneurs? (4) How Halalpreneurs are different from entrepreneurs? and (5) what business opportunities are there in the global halal industry for Halalpreneurs?
Objectives: Entrepreneurs in the Halal industry must have a proper understanding of the concept from Maqasid-al-Sharia’h perspective which is needed to justify the term “Halalpreneurship” and to differentiate Halalpreneurs from entrepreneurs. In this regard, the main objective of this chapter is to define and provide a comprehensive understanding of Halalpreneurship from maqasid-al-shari’ah perspective. Additionally, the chapter attempts to realize the underlying business opportunities for Halalpreneurs in different segments of the halal industry.
Methodology: To achieve the objectives stated above, an extensive review of literature from previous researches has been carried out. Simultaneously, to justify the Islamic point of view, analogies and explanations of relevant hadith and Quranic verses were studied. Moreover, recent reports, news articles, and web articles on the halal industry and global Islamic economy were critically analyzed.
Organization of the chapter: This chapter starts with defining the concept of entrepreneurship and Halalpreneurship following an overview of Maqasid-al-Sharia’h to justify the definition of Halalpreneurs (Section 2). Then, the chapter explores different aspects of Halalpreneurs that differentiate them from entrepreneurs (Section 3). Finally, in Section 4, the chapter identifies potential opportunities for Halalpreneurs in different sectors of the halal industry.
The term entrepreneurship stems from the French word entreprendre that suggests “to accomplish something” or “to embrace”. It is an imaginative activity that relies upon the ability to make and set up something from about nothing. Kuratko explained business entrepreneurship as facing challenges, responding to circumstances, bearing vulnerability and creating a balance between demand and supply in the market [6]. At the same time, as per Peter Drucker, entrepreneurship is ascribed as an efficient headway, which grasps in the purposeful and arranged outlook for changes, and it is the coherent perception of the open opportunities where such changes add to financial and social advancement. A comparative definition was given by Shane and Venkataraman [7]. Rindova et al. have characterized entrepreneurship as the business foundations that are coordinated to accomplish a few objectives towards social, cultural, monetary, and institutional through the activities of an individual or a group of individuals [8]. Additionally, Lumpkin and Dess [9], Low and MacMillan [10] and Gartner [11] characterized entrepreneurship as the arrangement of new pursuits or associations. Entrepreneurship may likewise infer looking for advantages of chances by the creative use of assets in manners which make a significant impact on the market.
The word “Halal” is an Arabic or Quranic word related to the Islamic lifestyle where the literal meaning of the word is permissible or lawful. That means the implication of the term is applicable to every conduct of human life whether it is a social, personal, economic, cultural, or political matter. When it comes to an economic perspective, the term has been used to denote the Islamic economy as the Halal industry. The Malaysian Standard (MS) provides an elaborated definition with all the requirements to be adopted in the halal industry [12]. Additionally, the application of the concept of halal adopts the concept “Toyyib” as well [13]. This is because in several places of the Quran, human beings are instructed to consume what is halal and toyyib. The meaning of toyyib can be translated as good, quality, healthy, sustainable and others. Hence, the association of the toyyiban aspect broadens the meaning and implication of halal in the economy [14]. Therefore, when we say halal, it means what is permissible or lawful in Islam, at the same time what is good and sustainable.
The opposite of halal is haram which means prohibited. In the Quran, Allah (SWT) has also prescribed what is prohibited and what to avoid in consumption as well as human conduct of Muslims and whole ummah. For example, consuming alcohol and pork is prohibited in Islam. Simultaneously, gambling, pornography, riba (usury), hoarding goods, deceiving customers, etc. are also prohibited. The gist is, to define Halalpreneurship, one must consider all the three concepts, i.e. halal, toyyib, and haram.
Entrepreneurship is an important aspect of life which is also inseparable from Islam where it is perceived as Halalpreneurship. The scope of Halalpreneurship is within the Shari’ah (“Aqidah, Fiqh, Akhlaq”) which ensures that its activities do not deviate from the guidelines of Islam. In Islam, Halalpreneurship is perceived as the role of Khalifah (Caliph) on the earth. The mission of Khalifah is to worship Allah Subhanahu Wa Taala (SWT) and to develop and prosper the world. Such a role implies the actions of entrepreneurship contributing to the good and prosperity of society, the world and humanity.
The term Halalpreneurship is recently being used in the fields of the global Halal industry that connects halal advancement with business practices through halalpreneurial activities. This includes the capacity and capability, exercises, and activities seeking opportunities and developing business establishment. The procedure of creativity and innovation in Halalpreneurship is complex. However, this phenomenon is significantly important to be understood for halalpreneurial development.
The concept of Halalpreneurship is based on Maqasid-al-Shari’ah (objectives of Islamic law). Maqasid means objective and Shari’ah implies to Islamic law. The five objectives of Shari’ah (Figure 1) are derived from the necessities (dharuriyat) of humankind. This is the first level of need in the human need model of Shari’ah which was proposed by Hamid-Al-Ghazali (d. 1111). Although the concept of Maqasid and the human need model in Islam dates back to 1399 C.E., the pioneering, and systematic study of the higher objectives of Islamic law was developed and introduced through the work on Maqasid-al-sharia’h by Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur in 1946 [15]. Halalpreneurship management adopts the human need model (Figure 2) by Ghazali that implies the fundamental factors of motivation for Halalpreneurs.
Five objectives of Shari’ah. Source: Author’s generated.
Classification of human need in Shari’ah. Source: [15], Figure author’s generated.
In Halalpreneurship, it is the responsibility of Halalpreneurs to understand the product priorities of the consumers as illustrated in Figure 2. To address the objectives of Shari’ah, Halalpreneurs should prioritize the products and services that are in the category of necessity in their production. They should serve what the Muslim ummah and humanity need. They should not focus on luxury (Tahsiniyat) products or services when there is a need for basic goods and services in a society. Therefore, the first priority is to meet the demand for necessities and then luxury and embellishments.
The term was used by Professor Moha Asri Abdullah, International Institute for Halal Research and Training (INHART), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in a talk on “Halalpreneurs: Realities and Opportunities”. The institute has recently produced a book on this topic entitled “Halal Entrepreneurship”, funded by the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT), Malaysia. The book provides the concept and definition of Halalpreneurship. The term has also been used implying to entrepreneurship in the Halal industry by Global Islamic Economy (GIE) report-2018.
Any Muslim individual conducting entrepreneurial business in the global halal industry with the objective of producing only halal products and services and maintains his/her business conduct in a Shari’ah-compliant way is called an Halalpreneur [16]. However, according to Islamic scholars, non-Muslims can also be involved in the fields of the halal industry and become Halalpreneurs given the condition that they comply with Maqasid-al-Shari’ah. Non-Muslims are allowed to be Halalpreneurs based on the maslaha (public interest) for the benefit of ummah and mankind. It is to mention that, anyone who wants to conduct business providing halal products and services, must obtain a halal certificate for the particular product or service. Given that, to obtain a halal certificate he/she must comply to halal standard for respective products and services required by the authorizing bodies in respective countries. And, all the halal standards are developed complying with Maqasid-al-Shari’ah. Therefore, in this chapter, the term Halalpreneurship refers to Halal entrepreneurship i.e. entrepreneurship in the halal industry that complies with Maqasid-al-Shari’ah.
In conventional economy unlimited wants and limited resources create scarcity which gives rise to the fundamental questions that are, what to produce, for whom to produce, and how to produce [17]? However, Halalpreneurs believe that there are always enough resources. If there is any scarcity, it is due to a lack of skill and knowledge, and inefficient use and distribution of the resources. Hence, the answers to the fundamental questions in Halalpreneurship are different from entrepreneurship. Figure 3 shows the differences between Halalpreneurship and entrepreneurship regarding the fundamental questions of economics and some other salient points of Halalpreneurship.
Salient features: Halalpreneurship vs. entrepreneurship. Source: Author’s generated.
Additionally, Halalpreneurs exhibit some unique characteristics that distinguish them from conventional entrepreneurs. The characteristics enlisted below, are based on Maqasid-al-Shari’ah.
Takwa: It is the fear of Allah (SWT) that makes Halalpreneurs always conscious about all their deeds, whether it is bad or good, believing that they are being watched by Allah (SWT), the Al-Aleem (all-knowing), even if the deed is done by their heart or thoughts only. Such, attribute of Halalpreneurs never allows them to involve with any activity which is not permissible (Haram) in Islam. As Allah recommends consuming halal (Quran 5:88) as well as to earn from halal only (Quran 2:168).
Prioritizing Solat (prayer): Entrepreneurship is encouraged in Islam. The Prophet (PBUH) himself was a merchant and successful Halalpreneur. However, any worldly affairs including business conduct in Halalpreneurship come after solat (Al-Quran 62:10; 15:67). The obligatory prayers become first priority for Halalpreneurs [18].
Truthfulness: Halalpreneurs should be trustworthy regarding their social and business conduct. Truthful and trustworthy merchants are said to be with the Prophet (PBUH) together with the martyrs on the day of judgment (Al-Tirmidhi, Book 14: #1213).
Philanthropist: Islam permits us to make benefits by making business in society. Simultaneously, Halalpreneurs are recommended to give back to the same society they are being benefitted from. Giving charity in the form of Zakat is one of the five obligations for Muslims (Al-Quran 2:3,43,83,177; 7:156; 19:31; 19:55; 21:73; 22:35,41,78; 23:4; 27:3; 30:39; 31:4; 41:7 and more). Therefore, Halalpreneurs find themselves as philanthropists in their business venture and contribute to the uplifting of social well-being.
Shari’ah knowledge: Another important characteristic of Halalpreneurs is to have the basic knowledge and understanding of Maqasid-al-Shari’ah, the concept of halalan toyyiban, and Islamic guidelines. This knowledge is crucial for all as the non-Muslim can also become Halalpreneur. For example, the halal and toyyib concept is to be implemented in the procurement process, logistics, production, packaging, storage and others. Hence, any Halalpreneur should learn on the implementation of Shari’ah and halal standards in all the aspects of entrepreneurship under the condition of Maslaha (public interest).
Halalpreneurs is the source of creativity and innovation that postulates the Islamic economy in many ways. Unlike entrepreneurs, Halalpreneurs are driven towards Al-Falalh (success in this world and the world hereafter) with the motivation of pleasing Allah (SWT) and serving humanity. In this regard, Halalpreneurs thrive for business opportunities with knowledge and wisdom and having faith in Allah (SWT). Simultaneously, they tap the opportunities and conduct their business activities following the guidelines of the Quran, and the advice and practice of the Prophet (PBUH). Most importantly, they believe that opportunities are created by Allah (SWT). Such a conceptual model of Halalpreneurship was illustrated by Ramdani [19] as shown in Figure 4.
Model of Halalpreneurship. Source: [19].
The business opportunities for Halalpreneurs in the global halal industry can be realized by looking into the current market status of the different fields of the halal industry. Therefore, this section explores different components of the halal industry (Figure 5) where market opportunities can be tapped by Halalpreneurs.
Components of global halal industry. Source: [20].
The current market value of the global halal industry is estimated to be US$4.7 trillion in 2018 including Islamic finance. This value is projected to be US$6.9 trillion by 2024 with a CAGR growth of 6.2% [21]. Figure 6 exhibits the current market shares of different fields of the halal industry and their projection by 2024. It shows that after Islamic finance, the biggest sector of the halal industry is the halal food and beverage industry followed by modest fashion, media and recreation, Muslim friendly tourism, halal pharmaceuticals, and halal cosmetics.
Market size of the global halal industry in 2018 and 2024 (US$ billion). Source: [20].
The Global Islamic Economy (GIE) report 2019/2020 reveals that the Muslim spending for halal food and beverage (F&B) in 2018 was US$1.3 billion which has been projected to reach US$1.9 billion by 2024. The hot growth sectors of the F&B market are halal ingredients, and meat-based meals and snacks. The production of gelatine is 450,000 tons globally of which only 10 percent is halal. There is a gap in the supply of other ingredients as well. Halalpreneurs can tap the opportunities in these sectors by their innovative halal products and exploring the gap in demand and supply chain. The opportunity is further spread over halal organic and healthy foods, baby foods, emerging exporters, online restaurant booking, retail commerce, social media marketing, etc.
The Muslim millennials are the target consumer in this sector of the halal industry. The market of modest fashion was estimated to be US$283 billion in 2018 and projected to reach US$402 billion by 2024 (Figure 6). Innovative Halalpreneurs have the opportunity to offer products and services in this market in terms of modest luxury wears, modest sportswear, fashionwear for teens and tween, role modeling, blogging, etc.
“Follow This” is a web series by BuzzFeed which is one of the most popular websites for information on different topics like culture, religion, politics, technology, etc. This show has recently started streaming on Netflix from 2018 and covered an episode on modest fashion titles “Covered-up Culture.” The writer of the episode reveals how modest fashion has become a $billion worth market from a religious niche [22]. Modest fashion as a lifestyle is becoming the mainstream among the millennials. For example, the release of a modest clothing range by H&M in 2018, launching of “modest fashion edit” in 2019 by the collaboration of ASOS and Verona collection. More success stories that are making headlines globally include Vogue Arabia, Harper’s Bazaar Arabia, Harper’s Bazaar Singapore [23]. In India,
Halal media and recreation refer to content targeting or suitable for Muslims. According to the GIE report 2019/2020, total Muslim spending in his sector was US$283 billion and projected to reach $US402 billion in 2024. Strong performance has been identified by the member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in producing more Islamic themed content from the region. This sector of the halal industry targets the Muslim millennials, mainly. It has been forecasted that 54 percent of the Muslim population will be below 30 years old by 2030 (Thompson and Reuters, 2019). In Saudi Arabia, the ban on cinema has been lifted after 35 years in 2018. With the 2030-vision of achieving the goal of diversifying the Kingdom’s economy and output, more than 300 screens in multiple theaters are scheduled to be open by 2020 [25]. This will create thousands of opportunities for Halalpreneurs in different roles that include journalist, editor, photographer, designer, researcher or producer, technical staff, copyrighter, presenters, content writer, graphics designer, and many more roles. The opportunities can be tapped in other OIC member countries as well, as the industry is growing significantly.
Global Muslim spending on travel in 2018 was US$189 billion and projected to reach US$274 billion by 2024 (Figure 6). Simultaneously, global Muslim travelers are expected to grow 156 million in 2020 which was 121 million in 2017 [26]. Opportunities in this sector of the halal industry can be realized by realizing both the demand-supply side of the market. The demand for Muslim travelers comprises in terms of leisure, business, healthcare, and religious travel. On the other side, the supply side encompasses transport (bus, train, flights, etc.), accommodation (hotels, villas, resorts, apartments, homestays, etc.), F&B, travel agents, attractions and activities, Muslim friendly tour guides, and others related to travel and tourism. Such demand and supply are based on Muslim faith-based needs. Halalpreneurs have potential opportunities in the market of the travel industry to meet the faith-based needs that include halal food, prayer facilities, water usage friendly toilets, Ramadan services and facilities, halal spa, gender-segregated swimming pool and gymnasium, assurance of elimination of any non-halal activity, recreational activities with privacy, Muslim friendly tour guide, etc.
The industry of halal pharmaceuticals valued US$92 billion in 2018 and expected to grow US$134 billion by 2024, and the market expansion may even be greater as the target consumer is not limited to the Muslim population only. The demand for halal pharmaceuticals among Muslim consumers is increasing due to the Toyyiban concept that assures efficacy, quality, safety, halal, and hygiene factors. Additionally, it has gained acceptance among non-Muslim consumers as well because of the ethical aspect and the requirements to comply with the halal standard that include good manufacturing practices (GMP) as a prerequisite before meeting other requirements of halal certification. Such quality assurance sets a high benchmark in the market which enables “Halal” to become a recognized value in the pharmaceutical industry globally. A number of pharmaceutical companies in Malaysia are leading the industry, as Malaysia is the first country to come up with a strong and comprehensive halal standard for the pharmaceutical industry [27].
Halal cosmetics and personal care is another booming market in the global halal industry. As of 2018, the Muslim spending on halal cosmetics was US$64 billion which is expected to grow US$95 billion by 2024. The product base of this industry is expanded to personal care products, color cosmetics (face, eyes, lips, nails), and fragrance products. Additionally, these product lines are applied for hair care, face care, skincare, and beauty care. Halalpreneurs can feasibly tap the opportunities and generate revenues in this market. Some hot sectors of this industry for growth in 2020 are halal nail polish, lipstick, halal face cream, scents, and perfumes. The potential growth has been identified through e-commerce [21]. The cosmetics and personal care products are even demanded by men as they are conscious about their appearance as well. The halal certification, i.e. the halal logo gives a competitive advantage to the Halalpreneurs over competitors who do not have halal certification.
The GIE report (Figure 7) of 2019 shows the top 15 countries in the halal industry globally based on the global Islamic economy indicator (GIEI). Overall, Malaysia is leading the Islamic economy securing the number one position for Islamic finance and Muslim friendly travel. However, UAE is leading the other sectors of the halal industry securing the rank of number one. The figure also shows the top 10 potential markets in halal food, Muslim friendly tourism, modest fashion, media and recreation, and cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industry. Interestingly, some non-Muslim majority countries have also made their position in the list of top 10 GIE countries. Similarly, [28] categorized the global potential market by region which is, North America (U.S., Canada, Mexico), Europe (Germany, France, UK, Italy, Spain), Asia-Pacific (Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Rest of Asia Pacific), and Latin America, Middle East, Africa (LAMEA).
Top 15 markets of the global halal industry according to GIEI 2019/2020. Source: [21].
The chapter introduces and explains a new term, “Halalpreneurship,” similar to entrepreneurship. To understand and define Halalpreneurship, one must understand and consider what is halal, toyyib, and haram. Halalpreneurship refers to halal entrepreneurship which revolves around the Islamic economy and the individuals in Halalpreneurship are called Halalpreneurs, whereas entrepreneurship is a concept that is used in the conventional economy. Both Halalpreneurs and entrepreneurs imply business individuals who offer innovative products and services to the consumers, take risks, look for opportunities by the creative use of assets in manners that make a significant impact on the market. However, the concept of Halalpreneurship differs from entrepreneurship in certain aspects which comprise mainly the implication of ethical and religious (Islamic) values and guidelines in all kinds of activities in an economy that are related to entrepreneurship. The concept of Halalpreneurship is based on Maqasid-al-Shari’ah (five objectives of Islamic law). Any Muslim individual conducting entrepreneurial business in the global halal industry with the objective of producing only halal products and services and maintains his/her business conduct in a Shari’ah-compliant way is called a Halalpreneur. Non-Muslims are also allowed to be Halalpreneurs based on the maslaha (public interest) for the benefit of ummah and mankind.
A number of salient points differentiate Halalpreneurship from entrepreneurship. The points are concept, what to produce, how to produce, for whom to produce, the scope of knowledge, motivational factors, and stakeholders. Additionally, there are certain characteristics of Halalpreneurs that make them unique and differentiated from conventional entrepreneurs. Some of these characteristics include fear of Allah, the nature of prioritizing prayer, truthfulness, philanthropist, and knowledge of Islamic law.
Halalpreneurs is the source of creativity and innovation that postulates the Islamic economy in many ways. Halalpreneurs thrives for business opportunities with knowledge and wisdom and having faith in Allah (SWT). Simultaneously, they tap the opportunities and conduct their business activities following the guidelines of the Quran, and the advice and practice of the Prophet (PBUH). Business opportunities of Halalpreneurs are spread over the entire global halal industry that had a market value of US$4.7 trillion in 2018 including Islamic finance. The opportunities can be explored in different potential sectors of the halal industry that include Halal F&B, modest fashion industry, Halal media and recreation, Muslim friendly tourism, Halal pharmaceuticals, and Halal cosmetics. Furthermore, the emerging markets to explore opportunities are Halal logistic and supply chain, Halal technology, and Halal talent and skills (Human resources) development.
The potential markets for Halalpreneurs are the top 15 countries in the GIE where Malaysia is leading with maximum GIEI score followed by UAE in the second position. The other markets in the list include Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Oman, Jordan, Pakistan, Kuwait, Qatar, Brunei, Sudan, Turkey, Iran, and Bangladesh, respectively. Interestingly, Brazil has ranked the third position in the halal F&B industry. Additionally, some other non-Muslim countries have also made their positions in the top 10 list of the GIE report in 2018.
Limitations of the chapter: The general objective of this chapter was limited to elucidate and explain the concept of halal entrepreneurship, i.e. Halalpreneurship. As the concept is new, limited literature was available relevant to the topic specifically. Although, the chapter attempts to provide an overview of the underlying opportunities for Halalpreneurs in different fields of the halal industry, to carry out a research and field survey in every filed was beyond the scope of the current chapter.
Recommendations for future study: Future study should carry out an in-depth investigation of each field of the halal industry to explore the business opportunities of Halalpreneurs in detail. Simultaneously, the issues and challenges faced by the Halalpreneurs in the halal industry need to be identified and addressed. Additionally, the factors driving the growth of the halal industry need to be realized so that policymakers can emphasize those forces more to enhance the expansion of the halal industry globally.
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