Comparison of the strain energy release rate
\r\n\t
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In 2015 he obtained an international patent for a prosthesis for inguinal hernioplasty and standardized a new surgical technique for the application of the aforementioned method. He has presented his works at around 200 national and international congresses.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"239365",title:"M.D.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Guttadauro",slug:"angelo-guttadauro",fullName:"Angelo Guttadauro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239365/images/system/239365.jpeg",biography:'Dr Angelo Guttadauro is a researcher at the University of Milan-Bicocca and first level manager at the U.O.C. of General Surgery at the Zucchi Clinical Institutes of Monza. He is the founder and head of the \\"Hernia Center\\" of Monza-Brianza. He has participated in research projects of the Ministry of University and Scientific and Technological Research. In 2015 he obtained an international patent for a prosthesis for inguinal hernioplasty and standardized a new surgical technique for the application of the aforementioned method. In 2017 he won the Innovation Grant award of the University of Milan-Bicocca. He is the author of 78 scientific publications, books and abstracts published in national and international journals and book chapters. 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A typical application is the stack of high-temperature superconductor coated tapes for power engineering [6]. However, the application of tape is limited for the reason that the superconductor is a brittle material, which cannot withstand large mechanical loadings [7, 8]. Meanwhile, the manufacturing process is complex for high-temperature superconductor. Thus, the cavity and microcracks are inevitable in superconductor [9, 10]. The electromagnetic body force induced by the interaction of electromagnetic field may result in the extension of crack in superconductor under high magnetic fields, which will finally give rise to the fracture of superconductor [11]. Cracking can reduce the critical current density of superconductor and mechanical stability [12]. Recently, significant efforts have been made to study the mechanical behavior of the superconductors with the development of critical current density.
\nSince the electromagnetic behavior in superconductor is complex, several different theoretical models were presented to describe the constitutive relation, such as Bean model, Kim model and E-J relation [13–15]. In recent years, the relationships between mechanical response and magnetic field have been concerned [16, 17]. The general procedure is that the current and magnetic field distributions are obtained based on the constitutive model. After deriving the electromagnetic body force, we will find the mechanical characteristics of superconductor. The superconductor will undergo mechanical deformation in magnetic field which is regarded as magnetostriction. The magnetostriction is dependent on the amplitude of magnetic field and critical state model [16, 17]. For the superconductors during the magnetization, the body force induced by the flux pinning evolves from initially compressive to tensile as the external field changes from increasing to decreasing. It was pointed out that the stress and strain induced by flux pinning show obvious irreversible behavior. In other words, the stresses are different for increasing field and decreasing field cases [18–20]. Moreover, two different cooling processes (zero field cooling and field cooling) are discussed. The quantitative analysis on the magneto-elastic problems in bulks and strips was made for different critical state models, such as the Bean model and Kim model [18–31]. For superconducting strip with transport current, the magnetostriction curve is not a closed loop [32]. The stress and magnetostriction in many complex structures also have attracted many attentions [33–37].
\nThe crack problem is another challenge for the superconductors because the electromagnetic body force and thermal stress are important driving forces for crack growth. During the cycles of the applied magnetic field, the tensile and compressive stress will be generated alternately and cracking of superconductor usually occurs as the field is decreased to zero [38]. This is because the crack is prone to advance under the tensile stress. The linear elastic fracture theory was widely used to investigate the fractures behaviors of the thin film and bulk superconductors [39–47]. The collinear cracks, transverse crack and crack-inclusion problems in superconductors were also studied recently [48–50]. Superconductors are usually metal composites which consist of several components. Then, the crack problems in inhomogeneous superconductors were studied extensively [51–57]. Recently, the dynamic fracture behaviors in superconductors were analyzed with the finite element method [58].
\nCompared to the bulk superconductor, coated conductors have better mechanical strength [59]. As is known to us, the coated conductor structure is made up of several layers deposited onto the substrate. In the coated conductor structure, the interface crack may be generated by lattice mismatch, thermal expansion and chemical reactions during the deposition progress of the coated structure [60]. The delamination of superconducting layer is easy to take place at the interface between dissimilar materials [61]. Unlike the internal or edge crack problems, the compressive stress can also lead to the propagation of interface crack [62]. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the fracture behavior of interface crack to predict the mechanical instability in the coated conductor structure.
\nThe fracture behavior of interface crack between superconducting film or tape and substrate was studied in magnetic field or with transport current [62–64]. However, there are few works on the crack problem in stack of conductors. In this paper, we consider the interface crack in the stack of high-temperature coated tapes. The effect of copper and substrate on the shielding current and magnetic field distributions in the superconducting layer is neglected. Based on the simplified geometrical and material assumptions, linear elastic equation is used. We carry out an in-depth investigation on the strain energy release rate for interface crack in different magnetic fields, crack lengths, substrate thicknesses with virtual crack closure technique (VCCT). The results may provide guidance for the design of stack of coated conductors.
\nThis paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we introduce VCCT to calculate the strain energy rate at the crack tip. Section 3 computes a bimaterial plate with a central interface crack to verify the accuracy of VCCT. In Section 4, we discuss the body force distribution in superconducting tape. In Section 5, the interface crack in stack of tapes is analyzed under perpendicular magnetic field. In Section 6, we draw a conclusion from the above work.
\nIn this section, we will first verify the accuracy of the numerical computation. Here, we only consider the linear elastic fracture behavior. For the interface crack problem, the stress intensity factor or strain energy release rate can be determined with the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT). VCCT is a well-established method for computing the crack problem [65], which was proposed by Rybicki and Kanninen for two-dimensional problems [66].
\nCalculating model of the strain energy release rate using VCCT.
Figure 1 shows the mesh model for computing the strain energy release rate with VCCT, where
where
In order to verify the simulation results, we study the fracture behavior for bimaterial plate with an interface crack, as shown in Figure 2. It is well known that for the interface crack, there is the coupling between the tensile fracture mode and shear fracture mode even for mode I loadings. In addition, the oscillation of stress singularity will occur at the crack tip [65]. In this model, the interface crack is located in the center of the bimaterial plate and a uniform tension load
A finite bimaterial plate with interface crack under a uniform tension.
We use finite element software Abaqus to solve the interface crack problem. A 4-node bilinear plane stress quad-dominated structured element is used and mesh width is given as Δ
where subscripts 1 and 2 represent the material 1 and material 2, respectively, and\n
in which
Table 1 shows the comparison of strain energy release rates for present work and the results given by others when
E1/E2 | \nYu | \nNagashima | \nMiyazaki | \nThis work | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n0.0361 | \n0.0361 | \n0.0362 | \n0.0358 | \n
2 | \n0.0531 | \n0.0529 | \n0.0231 | \n0.0526 | \n
3 | \n0.0688 | \n0.0685 | \n0.0690 | \n0.0683 | \n
4 | \n0.0841 | \n0.0835 | \n0.0843 | \n0.0834 | \n
10 | \n0.1725 | \n0.1699 | \n0.1727 | \n0.1711 | \n
100 | \n1.4652 | \n1.4264 | \n1.4642 | \n1.4529 | \n
Comparison of the strain energy release rate
Next, we turn our attention to the body force distributions in superconducting tape. Figure 3 shows the configuration of the stack of superconducting conductors. The conductors consist of three tapes and these tapes are separated by the insulation layers (green). Generally, the superconducting layer (black) is attached to the substrate in each tape. In addition, copper layer is deposited on the superconducting layer which can also transport current. The thicknesses of the insulation layer, copper layer, superconducting layer and substrate are
The configuration of the stack of superconducting conductors.
The distributions of shielding current are plotted in Figure 4. As the conductor is under magnetic field, the current will be induced to shield the external field. From Figure 4 (a), we can find that the tape is divided into two parts and the current direction is opposite in two parts for increasing field case. As the external field is decreased, the shielding current will redistribute. The conductor can be divided into four parts for decreasing field case. However, it is interesting to see that the direction of shielding current is antisymmetric.
\nThe current distribution in superconducting layer under magnetic field. (a) Increasing field case and (b) decreasing field case.
The distributions of body force along
Using the variational formulation derived by Prigozhin [75], the electromagnetic responses of superconducting layer are obtained in the external field. The body force
The distributions of body force along
The structure of the stack of high-temperature superconducting conductors in perpendicular magnetic field is shown in Figure 7. The lower insulation layer which is located at the bottom is fixed. That is to say that the displacements of
Although copper is an elasto-plastic material, we neglect the plastic deformation. Thus, the focus will be on the linear fracture mechanics problem. All constituent materials are isotropic, linearly elastic and homogeneous. The effects of copper and substrate on the distributions of magnetic field and current density in the superconductor layer can be ignored and the stack of superconducting conductors is placed in a magnetic field
Schematic drawing of the stacked conductors with an interface crack in the perpendicular magnetic field.
During the following simulations, the used parameters are given as follows. We assume that the current density
\n | Poisson’s ratio | \n|
---|---|---|
Copper | \n117×103 | \n0.35 | \n
YBCO | \n178×103 | \n0.3 | \n
Hastelloy | \n200×103 | \n0.3 | \n
Insulation | \n3.5×103 | \n0.3 | \n
Parameters of the materials of the coated tapes [74].
We consider the magnetization process in which the field is increased from zero to maximum and subsequently decreased to zero. As discussed earlier, the body force direction will change for increasing field and decreasing field. Since the total strain energy release rate for increasing field is larger, we mainly discuss the increasing field case. We can assume
The variation of strain energy release rates with magnetic field as the interface crack is in (a) top tape, (b) middle tape and (c) top tape. The strain energy release rates are compared in (d).
The strain energy release rates for the crack lengths of 50 μm and 100 μm during increasing magnetic field.
Next, we will calculate the strain energy release rates for the stacked conductors with the interface crack. Figure 8(a)–(c) shows the variation of strain energy release rate with the magnetic field, i.e., the field is increased from zero to maximum. The central interface crack is located at the bottom, middle or top tape. It can be found that all the strain energy release rates increase with the increasing field. Although the body force is compressive for increasing field case,
The strain energy release rates for the crack lengths of 50 μm and 100 μm during decreasing magnetic field.
The comparison of strain energy release rates for increasing field and decreasing field.
The change of strain energy release rate with the crack length and as the field is increased from zero to 0.5
The strain energy release rates with different thicknesses of substrate.
For the central interface crack problem, it can be expected that the strain energy release rate increases with the length of the crack for a fixed magnetic field, as shown in Figure 12. The effect of substrate thickness on the strain energy release rate during increasing field is presented in Figure 13. One can find that with the increase of substrate thickness from 20 μm to 50 μm, the strain energy release rate also rises. In addition, the increasing strain energy release rate is more obvious in high field. However, the difference is very small as the thickness of substrate is larger than 40 μm. Thus, it is reasonable to reduce the thickness of substrate to improve the mechanical stability of stacked conductors structure.
\nIn this paper, we considered the interface crack in the stack of high-temperature superconductor coated conductors with VCCT. A simple interfacial crack problem in bimaterial was calculated to verify the accuracy of numerical method. On the basis of the linear elastic fracture theory, the strain energy release rates for the stack of coated conductors with interface crack were presented for different magnetic fields, crack lengths, substrate thicknesses. The strain energy release rate increases monotonically with the increasing external field. However, the trend for decreasing field case is not monotonic. When the interface crack is located in the top tape, the strain energy release rate is the largest. In addition, the thickness of hastelloy substrate also has an effect on the strain energy release rate, and larger thickness leads to the higher energy release rate. When the thickness of the substrate is larger than 40μm, the effect of thickness becomes negligible. This study may provide a better understanding on the mechanical instability of the stack of coated conductor structure during the magnetization process.
\nWe acknowledge the support from the Innovative Research Group of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (11421062), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 11202087 and 11472120), the National Key Project of Magneto-Constrained Fusion Energy Development Program (No. 2013GB110002), the National Key Project of Scientific Instrument and Equipment Development (No. 11327802) and New Century Excellent Talents in University of Ministry of Education of China (NCET-13-0266).
\nAortic root dilation (AoD) is frequently an incidentally discovered, asymptomatic finding in that is seen on various imaging modalities [1]. The anatomy of the aortic root includes the annulus, sinuses of Valsalva, sinotubular junction and ascending aorta [1], with the size being a function of a patient’s biologic variables such as height, age, BSA, and gender [1, 2]. However, while natural variations in the size of the aortic root are well known, the identification of progression from normal to pathologic AoD is a key clinical diagnosis that carries significant cardiovascular risk including aortic dissection, rupture, valvular regurgitation and cardiac tamponade [1, 3, 4, 5]. The etiology of pathological AoD is varied, ranging from congenital, infectious, autoimmune, and idiopathic conditions; and influences the medical and surgical management [1, 5]. Due to the variety of clinical conditions that can result in AoD, and the risks associated with worsening AoD, a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of AoD, noninvasive imaging modalities and pharmacologic therapies is critical. The aim of this chapter is to review the most common conditions associated with AoD, appropriate imaging modalities, and treatment strategies to manage AoD.
\nMultiple etiologies of AoD exist such as Marfan syndrome, bicuspid aortic valve, Loeys-Dietz and Ehler-Danlos syndromes, idiopathic conditions, hypertension, infections, and inflammatory disorders. In this chapter, we will discuss the various etiologies categorized into two standardized groups—genetically-mediated and nongenetically mediated AoD.
\nGenetically-mediated aortic root dilation or enlargement is the leading cause of thoracic aortic aneurysms. Marfan syndrome (MFS), the prototype condition for AoD, and bicuspid aortic valve has led to a greater understanding of AoD pathophysiology, pharmacologic treatment, timing of surgical intervention and optimal surveillance strategies with noninvasive imaging [6].
\nMFS is one of the most common hereditary disorders of connective tissues and is characterized by manifestations in cardiovascular, skeletal, and ocular systems [7]. MFS is the most common genetic cause of thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAAs). Its inheritance is almost exclusively autosomal dominant and mostly involves a mutation of the fibrillin-1 (FBN1) gene encoding the connective tissue structural protein fibrillin-1 [8]. The widely accepted incidence of Marfan syndrome is ~1 in 5000 individuals [9].
\nAlthough the inheritance pattern is predominantly autosomal dominant, rare cases of autosomal recessive FBN1 gene mutations has been described [10]. While patients with Marfan phenotypes usually have an affected family member, 25% of the cases are sporadic due to
The diagnosis of Marfan syndrome is established by using a combination of clinical manifestations, family history, and the presence of FBN1 mutation. In order to facilitate accurate recognition of the syndrome and improve patient management and counseling, a set of defined clinical criteria, called the Ghent nosology was developed [16] and later revised [17] (Table 1). Apart from the genetic testing for FBN1 mutation, Ghent nosology uses a systemic score calculation using clinical manifestations of Marfan and an aortic root dilatation Z-score (see noninvasive imaging below).
\nPatients with family history of Marfan disease | \n
\n
| \n
\n
| \n
\n
| \n
Patients without family history of Marfan disease | \n
\n
| \n
\n
| \n
\n
| \n
\n
| \n
Revised Ghent nosology.
One of the major causes of mortality and clinical hallmark of Marfan syndrome is aortic root dilation and related complications such as dissection, rupture and/or aortic valvular regurgitation. Aortic root dilation is typically first identified on echocardiography in 60–80% of Marfan patients [18]. Therefore, surveillance echocardiography has been routinely used to serially monitor aortic dimensions. If the aortic root diameter is above 4.5 cm in adults, aortic dilation rates are above 0.5 cm/year, and/or significant aortic insufficiency is already present, more frequent monitoring is recommended [6] (see Diagnosis and Surveillance of Aortic Root Dilation below for more detailed guidelines).
\nBicuspid aortic valve is one of the most frequent congenital heart anomalies in adults, affecting 0.9–2% of the population [19]. Most cases of bicuspid aortic valve are familial and studies show that heritability of the disease is ~90% making it an autosomal dominant pattern with incomplete penetrance [20]. Bicuspid aortic valve can occur alone or with other congenital cardiovascular disorders such as coarctation of the aorta, supravalvular or subvalvular aortic stenosis, and ventricular septal defect [21].
\nThe diagnosis is often established by transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE), which has high sensitivity (~92%) and specificity (~96%) [22]. TTE is also useful for surveillance of potential complications of bicuspid aorta such as aortic stenosis, aortic dilation, aortic regurgitation, and infective endocarditis [23]. Given the risk of inheritance, first degree relatives are also recommended to be screened with TTE [21].
\nPrevalence of aortic dilation in patients with bicuspid aortic valve disease ranges from 20 to 84% depending on the criteria used in different studies [24]. The risk of aortic dilation increases with age and the risk of dissection increases as the aortic diameter increases [25, 26]. When the aortic root diameter is above 4.5 cm, there is a family history of aortic dissection, or aortic diameter change is rapid it is recommended to perform echocardiogram annually [21]. More frequent surveillance is recommended for patients with aortic root diameters approaching surgical thresholds (see Surgical Interventions section below).
\nLoeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) is a rare congenital syndrome characterized by hypertelorism (widely spaced eyes), a split uvula or cleft palate, tortuous arteries and aortic aneurysms. LDS shares many features with Marfan syndrome [14]. Most of the LDS cases are sporadic or show an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance [14].
\nThe incidence and prevalence of the disease is still not well established.
\nLoeys-Dietz syndrome was initially classified into two subtypes based on the severity of the cutaneous and craniofacial features but later was divided into six subtypes stratified by genotypes [27]. These subtypes are labeled 1–6 and associated with mutations in TGFBR1, TGFBR2, SMAD3, TGFB2, TGFB3, SMAD2, respectively [27]. Type 1 and type 2 are the most commonly seen subtypes with frequencies of 20 and 55% among all subtypes, respectively [28].
\nAortic root dilation is a hallmark feature of this disease entity and is frequently seen in patients (~80%) [29]. Another vascular manifestation is aneurysms throughout the arterial tree. This is a concerning clinical manifestations of the disease and can cause aggressive arteriopathy; therefore, early operative intervention at ascending aortic diameters of ≥42 mm is recommended [30].
\nEhlers-Danlos syndromes (EDS) are a heterogeneous and relatively rare group of connective tissue disorders characterized by skin hyperextensibility, joint hypermobility, and tissue fragility [31]. Ehler-Danlos syndrome can present with a variety of clinical manifestations and can be caused by different kinds of genetic mutations. Overall prevalence of EDS is ~1 in 5000 and EDS hypermobile (hEDS) is the most common type [31].
\nVascular complications can be seen with different types of EDS; however, it is most commonly seen in type IV (vascular or arterial ecchymotic type; vESD), characterized by an autosomal dominant mutation in COL3A1 (collagen, type III, α-1 gene) encoding type III procollagen [32]. Up to 80% with vESD patients suffer from vascular complications by the age 40 years [32]. Therefore EDS patients, especially vEDS, patients should be routinely evaluated for aortic root disease. These patients are recommended to undergo elective operation at smaller diameters (4.0–5.0 cm) to avoid acute dissection or rupture. Patients with a growth rate of more than 0.5 cm/year in an aorta that is <5.5 cm in diameter are recommended to be considered for operation [33].
\nAortic root dilation is an established phenomenon that has shown strong correlations to key pathobiological factors such as age, body surface area (BSA), height and gender. The correlation of aortic root size with age and BSA were initially described in the development of screening nomograms using M-mode echocardiograms [34]. Follow up studies with 2D echocardiography further validated these correlations, allowing for the development of nomograms for normal patient populations or adjusted for patients with underlying congenital disorders (i.e., Marfan syndrome) [2, 35]. These studies evaluating AoD by echocardiograms are further supported by reviews of autopsy data that show clear correlations to key pathobiological factors such as increased age and height with AoD [36].
\nDespite the validation of age as being correlated strongly with AoD, the mechanism of age on the development of AoD still remains an area of active research. One of the predominant hypotheses is based on the idea of cyclic stress, and how the aorta degrades through gradual mechanical decline of elastin proteins [37]. Elastic arteries, namely the aorta, are estimated to dilate by 10% with each beat [38]. It is hypothesized that the shear stress over a normal lifetime results in the degradation of elastic lamella, resulting in arterial dilation and stiffening [38]. This is corroborated by histologic data demonstrating damage to medial elastin of the proximal aorta [38]. Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that in the absence of risk factors such as hypertension or atherosclerosis, the aortic wall undergoes age-associated reprograming that is proinflammatory promotes progression of arterial disease [39]. Wang et al. demonstrated in pathologic samples of aortas that age correlated with increased smooth muscle cell invasion, and increased production of downstream angiotensin II mediators [39].
\nIn addition to age and BSA, gender is another key factor which can increase the risk and progression of AoD [40]. In the Framingham study of 1849 men and 2152 women, not currently diagnosed with cardiac disease or having a cardiac history, aortic root was 2.4 mm smaller in women than men with m-mode echocardiography [40]. A systematic review in 2014 of 10,741 patients with hypertension revealed men had a significantly higher incidence of AoD relative to women [41].
\nIn conclusion, a series of biological variables are correlated with AoD, and it is important to take these into account as they are potential confounders or contributors in the evaluation of patients with pathologic AoD. Even exercise capacity has been correlated with AoD, with a recent meta-analysis showing that athletes defined by participation in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) or international equivalent had an aortic root diameter that was larger than nonathletic controls [42], and a statistically significant increase by measurement of sinuses of Valsalva and aortic root annulus [42]. It is important to understand the significance of biological variables such as age, height, BSA, or gender to fully evaluate pathologic AoD without the influence of known confounders.
\nHypertension is a well-known risk factor for aortic dissection, and in some studies, it is estimated to factor into roughly half of the overall risk for aortic dissection [43]. A recent prospective cohort study of 30,447 patients, 86% of patients who developed aortic dissection had hypertension [4]. However the relationship between hypertension and AoD is not as clearly established. In a Framingham study of 3195 patients, there was no relationship between the development of AoD with hypertension [44]. A subsequent follow up study of Framingham participants evaluating aortic root diameter was positively correlated with mean arterial pressure, but negatively associated with pulse pressure, indicating that the mechanism behind AoD is more complicated [45]. Moreover, investigations have shown that in patients with other comorbidities for AoD, such as, Turner syndrome, hypertension is significantly associated with increased prevalence of AoD [45]. This has led to interesting insights into the cyclic stress hypothesis of the development of AoD [43]. If AoD develops due to chronic shear stress, then it would be expected that AoD is correlated with higher pulse pressure (PP), which would presumably lead to greater stress and aortic dilation [43]. However, studies have reported an inverse relationship between AoD and PP [43]. Additionally a systematic review in 2014 showed that in a population of 10,791 hypertensive patients, 9.1% had AoD with a significant gender skew toward men [41]. However there was no significant correlation of mean arterial pressure or pulse pressure values and AoD [41]. While hypertensive patients have a higher incidence of AoD, the mechanism remains to be further investigated. Moreover, these unclear correlations between MAP, PP, and AoD suggest that the aorta is not static, but a dynamic structure whose response to stress, such as hypertension, is still being elucidated [43].
\nSince the first mass production of penicillin in 1945, the modern era of antibiotics has resulted in a decrease in the prevalence of mycotic aneurysms due to bacterial infections in developed countries [46, 47]. However they can still be found in developing countries, and are rare but well described causes of mycotic aneurysms [46]. Most common pathogens include
\n
Tuberculosis is a relatively common infection especially in developing countries [53].
There have been case reports proposing an association between aortic aneurysms and HIV [50]. In a variety of these cases the causes are generally multifactorial, as the majority of cases have reported coinfections (Q fever and leishmaniasis) or comorbid autoimmune conditions (giant cell arteritis) [55, 56]. It is still an area of investigation as to whether there is a true association, and there is sparse data showing a relationship with AoD.
\nAnkylosing spondylitis, a seronegative spondyloarthropathy, is a chronic, progressive rheumatologic disorder, and was one of the first found to be associated with aortitis [50, 57]. The proposed mechanism of AoD in ankylosing spondylitis is fibrous growth development along the intima, which leads to subsequent weakening [57]. Prior TEE studies further evaluated the prevalence of AoD in ankylosing spondylitis, and 82% of patients with ankylosing spondylitis had aortic root abnormalities [58]. Specifically, 61% of patients had aortic root thickening and 25% of patients had AoD [58]. AoD in these populations is a relatively common phenomenon and is associated with significant cardiac morbidity [45, 57].
\nRelapsing polychondritis is another autoimmune disorder, which is a multisystem inflammatory disorder that primarily affects the cartilaginous structures of the body [59]. Cardiovascular involvement is common, estimated to be the second most frequent cause of death and can result in aneurysm development in 5% of cases of both thoracic and abdominal aorta [50, 59]. AoD has been known to occur, albeit rare, with cases of requiring surgical revision after the development of aortic regurgitation [60, 61].
\nTakayasu arteritis is a chronic granulomatous large vessel vasculitis, predominantly found in pediatric populations [50, 62]. A rare disorder, the pathogenesis is characterized by granulomatous panarteritis that can affect the entirety of the aorta and major branches, however predominantly affects the common carotid and subclavian artery [62]. While rare, there are reports of AoD from Takayasu arteritis resulting in aortic regurgitation [63, 64].
\nGiant cell arteritis is a large vessel vasculitis that is characterized by chronic granulomatous inflammation [50]. While commonly affecting carotid, temporal and vertebral arteries, it has been known to affect the ascending aorta, at times resulting in dissection or aortic valve insufficiency [50]. The development of AoD from GCA may be influenced by other comorbid conditions such as HIV; however, this association is currently only supported with case reports [55].
\nAdditionally left ventricular hypertrophy is reported to be positively correlated with AoD. Early retrospective reviews of echocardiographic studies have shown a positive relationship between LVH and AoD, and this has been further supported in subsequent systematic reviews [41, 65]. Patients with AoD with concomitant left ventricular hypertrophy are shown to have an increased risk of adjusted cardiovascular events [66]. However as with previous studies, the exact mechanism between LVH and AoD is still being determined.
\nAortic root dilation is typically a silent disease, with most cases being diagnosed incidentally on imaging. AoD can become symptomatic as the aneurysm enlarges. Aortic root aneurysms grow at an average of 1–4 mm/year [5], with a faster rate of growth noted in patients with bicuspid aortic valves, Marfan syndrome, ESRD, male gender, and smokers [5, 67]. When the aneurysm enlarges to the point of compressing surrounding structures the patient may begin to observe symptoms—the most common of which is chest pain, seen in up to 75% of patients [5, 68]. Other nonspecific symptoms can include back pain, abdominal pain and fatigue (though only present in 5% of patients).
\nAdditionally, patients may present with symptoms secondary to complications of a dilated aortic root such as aortic insufficiency and congestive heart failure. Thus, patients can develop dyspnea as the presenting symptom of aortic root dilation up to 40% of the time [68]. Other presenting symptoms may be related to the complications noted in Table 2 [69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74].
\nComplication of aortic root aneurysm | \nPresenting symptom | \n
---|---|
Aortic insufficiency, aortic regurgitation | \nDyspnea, diastolic murmur, congestive heart failure symptoms | \n
Aortic dissection | \nSharp chest pain, may radiate to the back | \n
Thromboembolism | \nSymptoms of stroke | \n
Compression of tracheal or bronchus | \nHemoptysis, cough, recurrent pneumonitis | \n
Compression of left recurrent laryngeal nerve | \nHoarseness | \n
Compression of superior vena cava | \nSigns of superior vena cava syndrome | \n
Compression of esophagus | \nDysphagia | \n
Complications and presenting symptoms of aortic root dilation.
Acute aortic emergencies that occur secondary to aortic root dilation include dissection, rupture, and aortic insufficiency. As the aortic root diameter increases, the risk for aortic dissection and rupture rises [75]. Aortic dissections are the most common acute aortic emergencies [76], and can be classified depending on the segment of the aorta affected: type A dissections involve the ascending aorta (seen in aortic root dilation), while type B dissections are those that occur distal to the left subclavian artery.
\nAortic dissection most commonly presents with acute onset chest pain that may radiate to the back. The character of the pain has traditionally been described as ripping or tearing in nature, however over half of patients may instead complain of sharp pain [77]. In addition, geriatric populations are less likely to have an acute onset of pain [78]. Physical exam findings that may be present include unequal blood pressures in the upper extremities, a new diastolic murmur indicative of acute aortic regurgitation, or muffled heart sounds secondary to tamponade (with proximal extension of the dissection). Imaging may be notable for widening of the mediastinum on CXR [77]. In order to aid in the diagnosis of a dissection, an aortic dissection detection risk score (ADD-RS) has been developed. The score is comprised of three categories: the presence of high risk conditions such as Marfan syndrome, the presence of typical symptoms (such as abrupt onset chest pain), and the presence of physical exam findings such as unequal blood pressure readings in the upper extremities. Each group is given a score of 1 if a feature is present, and the total score helps pave the next steps of workup—a score of 0 can be followed by diagnostic workup of other pathologies, while scores of 2–3 should be followed by expedited workup and immediate surgical consultation for possible aortic dissection [79].
\nAortic rupture is also an acute and life-threatening complication of aortic root dilation. It can present similarly to aortic dissection with regards to chest pain, however rupture can lead to severe and abrupt hypotension. Moreover, contingent with the site of rupture the patient may have symptoms such as hemoptysis [80] (if there is rupture into the lung), hematemesis [81] (if there is rupture into the esophagus), or cardiogenic shock [82] (if there is rupture into the pericardial cavity with resultant tamponade physiology).
\nAortic root dilation may also lead to aortic insufficiency. Roughly 30% of aortic insufficiency is now recognized as being caused by aortic root dilation, surpassing the incidence of any valvular cause [83]. The pathophysiology is related to stretching of the aortic valve annulus secondary to aortic root dilation, which results in incomplete closure of the aortic leaflets during diastole. Unfortunately, at the onset of aortic regurgitation, patients may be asymptomatic; therefore, congestive heart failure can develop when the regurgitant valve goes unnoticed.
\nWhile aortic root aneurysms are known to grow at an average of 1–4 mm/year [5], it is difficult to ascertain how fast an individual’s aortic root aneurysm will grow, therefore necessitating surveillance imaging. The frequency of surveillance imaging recommended is dependent on the etiology of the aortic root dilatation as well as its size, with genetically mediated aortic disease having a lower threshold for more frequent (biannual) imaging [84]. At the very least however patients are recommended to have annual imaging for aortic root dilation to closely monitor the aortic diameter. The impact that frequent imaging (CT, MR angiography or echocardiography) has on public health is likely significant, with cumulative costs. In addition, any patient with a bicuspid aortic valve should be screened for a thoracic aortic aneurysm, as well as screening all first-degree family members of a patient with genetic conditions such as Marfan syndrome [85].
\nThe aortic root is the most proximal segment of the aorta. It extends from the annulus of the aortic valve to the sinotubular junction (STJ). It is composed of the left, right, and non coronary sinuses of Valsalva. The diameter of the aorta decreases as it moves distally. The aortic root is assessed using multimodality imaging techniques. These include transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE), cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI), and cardiac computed tomography angiography (cCTA).
\nTTE is widely used for the detection and monitoring of aortic root pathology. Early studies established age- and sex-specific nomograms for aortic root measurements [86]. These studies used the motion mode (M-mode) of TTE, in which the amplitude of the ultrasound pulses amplitudes is converted to corresponding level on gray-scale imaging [86]. Using the M-mode, the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) has recommended using the leading-edge to leading-edge approach for measuring the aortic root [87]. Later studies used 2D TTE and obtained reference measurements of the aortic root. This is now preferred over M-mode images, which may be off-axis and are subject to aortic motion that may produce erroneous measurements.
\nOn echocardiogram, the aortic root diameter is typically measured in the parasternal long-axis view from the right coronary sinus to the opposite sinus of Valsalva. When unable to obtain the long axis view, the parasternal short axis view may provide more accurate measurements. However, universal landmarks to measure the root in this view have not been established. Some suggest measuring the diameter from the right coronary sinus to the opposite commissure. These measurements are typically performed at end diastole, as this represents the resting aortic diameter [88]. In adults, these measurements correlate with age and body size. In addition, the aorta is about 2 mm larger in men compared to women due to differences in body size [89]. Normal values stratified by body surface area and age have been published by the ASE [87].
\nImportantly, TTE is limited by its two-dimensional images and thus does not give a complete depiction of the aortic root. It is also limited by patient factors that limit the visualization windows and thus aortic root measurement. Since the aorta is not a straight tube, it can be imaged obliquely leading to over-estimation of its true diameter. Newer modalities, such cMRI and cCTA, can provide three-dimensional images.
\nDespite ECG-gated CT being the most accurate modality for evaluating the thoracic aorta, it is limited by the radiation and contrast exposure. This is particularly important in younger patients with connective tissue disorders that require serial follow up imaging. Cardiac MRI provides an alternative approach for imaging the thoracic aorta including the aortic root and is considered the preferred modality in select groups. It can be performed with ECG gating to provide motion-free evaluation of the aorta. In addition, young patients, in whom this is more commonly used, can hold their breath for longer periods, allowing acquisition of images with high spatial resolution.
\nCardiac MRI evaluation of the aorta does not require contrast use. MRI sequences used include balanced steady-state free precession (SSFP) sequences, fast imaging employing steady-state acquisition (FIESTA), true fast imaging with steady-state precession (FISP), and balanced fast-field echo (FFE) sequences. These sequences provide a high signal-to-noise ratio and adequate contrast between vessel wall and blood pool [90]. When used with ECG gating and contrast enhanced MRA, images tend to have less artifact, higher resolution, and overall short imaging time. Another approach is to use ECG gating 2D balanced SSFP sequence that is oriented perpendicular to the aortic root in two planes to assess the aortic valve and root throughout the cardiac cycle. In addition, prospective ECG gating and respiratory navigation with three-dimensional balanced SSFP sequences can provide 3D aortic imaging without contrast administration [91, 92].
\nIt is important to note that different methods of aortic measurement have been described and guidelines are less well defined. Aortic root measurements can be challenging given different approaches. Burman et al. found in the Framingham Heart Study that cusp-commissure dimensions better corresponded with reference echocardiographic aortic root measurements [89, 93]. This best correlated with study measurements after averaging the three end-diastolic cusp-commissure measurements [93]. In addition, there is a lack of consensus with regard to measurements used (inner lumen only versus lumen and wall) and whether measurements should be adjusted to body surface area, sex, and age.
\nAlthough TTE is widely used for the imaging and surveillance of aortic root, cardiac computed tomography angiography (cCTA) is currently the most commonly used technique for the study of the thoracic aorta. Main advantages of cCTA are fast scanning times, low artifact sensibility, and wide availability including emergency rooms operating 24 h [94].
\nThe new generation CT scanners acquire high-resolution 3D datasets of the thoracic aorta, showing sensitivities up to 100% and specificities of 98–99% [95]. ECG synchronization is vital for detailed assessment of the aortic root anatomy since it allows suppression of pulsation artifacts [96]. ECG gating also allows viewing images in a particular phase of the cardiac cycle. Unfortunately, the ECG-gated technique can increase the acquisition time and required breath-hold time. In order to minimize the increased acquisition times, employment of a 64 or wider ECG-gated row detector system is suggested [95, 97].
\nModern CT scanners can be used to employ several different cardiac synchronization methods such as prospective ECG triggering where images are only acquired during a specified portion of the cardiac cycle, starting at a predetermined delay from the R wave; retrospective ECG gating where the desired cardiac phase is selected retrospectively from the raw data [95, 97]. The details of each technique will not be discussed in this chapter; however, it is important to determine the advantages and disadvantages of different techniques. The main limitations of CT are related to the radiation exposure and the use of iodinated contrast media and different techniques come at a higher cost of each limitation.
\nFor the surveillance of aortic root, any technique can be used and be useful; therefore, the technique with the least amount of radiation exposure should be selected such as prospective sequential triggering without padding, retrospective gating with tube-current modulation optimized for diastolic-phase datasets only, or a prospectively triggered high-pitch helical acquisition [95, 97]. Retrospective ECG gating acquires redundant helical CT data which allows the reconstruction of images at different cardiac phases and providing detailed images which can be useful in complicated cases and pre-/post-operative imaging since pseudoaneurysm or small leaks which are some of the most common complications of aortic root surgery can only be detected during a specific phase of the cardiac cycle. Iodinated contrast-media is another risk related to CT imaging given the risk of contrast induced nephropathy and allergic reactions of various severity. Surveillance CT data for the dimensions of aortic root can be acquired without contrast injection; however, a complete endoluminal evaluation can only be achieved by the injection of contrast-medium [97].
\nIt is standard of care to monitor the size of aortic aneurysms that are below surgical threshold, <5.5 cm for nongenetic aneurysms and <5.0 cm for genetically-mediated aneurysms [98]. In general, physicians should be conscientious about patient cumulative radiation exposure as there is evidence that it can increase cancer incidence and cancer mortality [99]. One study estimated that ionizing radiation exposure results in 0.7% of total expected baseline cancer incidence and 1% of total cancer mortality. These rates increase with greater cumulative exposure [99]. Therefore, physicians should opt to perform serial CT imaging with longer intervals in the most appropriate patients. A study investigating patients with moderate-risk thoracic aortic aneurysms (defined as size <5.0 cm) showed that patients with aneurysms below 4.3 cm had overall lower risk of significant aneurysm growth or size reaching surgical threshold. Thus, the authors suggested that these subset of patients undergo surveillance CT scans less frequently.
\nManagement focuses on slowing the rate of growth and the complications of aortic root dilation. The line of management that is chosen for a patient depends on symptoms and size of the aneurysm. For patients who are asymptomatic and have root dilation <55 mm, medical management is advised. In patients with Marfan syndrome or a bicuspid aortic valve, the cut off of ≤50 mm is used for medical management [1, 100].
\nThe use of beta blockers has shown a survival benefit in patients with aortic root dilation secondary to Marfan syndrome [101]. While data on survival benefits for patients with bicuspid aortic valves is sparse, the common practice is to also prescribe beta blockers given that both conditions share a similar pathology and therefore both are likely to benefit from beta blockade. The mechanism by which beta blockers slow the progression of aortic root dilation is through their negative inotropic and chronotropic effects, reducing the peak left ventricular ejection rate and therefore decreasing shear stress and the rate of aortic dilation [102].
\nThe goal blood pressure for patients with thoracic aortic aneurysms is <130/80 mmHg. In patients who cannot tolerate beta blockers, calcium channel blockers (CCB) are an alternative group of medications available. While less studied as compared to beta blockers, CCB have also been found to reduce the rate of aortic root dilation [103]. Other agents that can be used for additional blood pressure control include ACE-inhibitors and ARBs.
\nIn order to reduce the risk for complications such as aortic dissection, patients should be counseled on smoking cessation, and cessation of drugs that increase aortic wall stress such as cocaine or other stimulants. In addition patients should have dyslipidemia well controlled, which can be achieved through the use of atorvastatin 40–80 mg daily in individuals with aortic root aneurysms [104, 105].
\nPatients should be counseled on avoiding high intensity and collision sports, such as boxing and cycling. Instead patients should take part in low dynamic sports, such as, golf [5, 106]. Pregnancy should be avoided in patients with Marfan syndrome with an aortic diameter >40 mm, if a patient does chose to become pregnant however there must be close follow up with surveillance imaging of the aortic diameter [5, 101].
\nEmergent surgical interventions are indicated for management of an aortic dissection or rupture, or a symptomatic aneurysm. In addition, surgical repair can be performed electively in high risk patients to prevent propagation of an aneurysm (Table 3). Indications for elective surgical intervention include the absolute size of the aneurysm—if the diameter is over 55 mm, or over 50 mm in patients with Marfan syndrome or bicuspid valves. Other indications for elective surgery include if the rate of growth of an aneurysm surpasses 10 mm/year, and if there is concurrent aortic insufficiency [1, 100]. In addition, patients who undergo aortic insufficiency repair who have concurrent aortic root dilation should be considered for aortic replacement at the time of their surgery—that is since 25% of patients with aortic root diameters >40 mm will eventually also require intervention for their aortic aneurysm [107].
\nEmergent surgical repair | \nElective surgical repair | \n
---|---|
\n
| \n\n
| \n
Indications for emergent and elective surgical repair of aortic root dilation.
As opposed to supravalvular aortic aneurysms, aortic root aneurysms involve the coronary ostia as well as the aortic valve, which have implications on the type of surgical procedure available for patients. There are two approaches for a surgical intervention: radical and conservative. In a radial surgical intervention the patient’s aortic valve and root are replaced (commonly referred to as the Bentall procedure), whereas in conservative interventions only the aortic root is replaced [108].
\nThe Bentall procedure involves replacing the aortic valve with a prosthetic valve, and thus has the caveat of requiring indefinite anticoagulation [5]. If patients have a high bleeding risk it may therefore be worthwhile investigating replacement of the aortic root while preserving the valve. In addition, it is important to note that a large number of patients with aortic root dilation are young (secondary to its association with Marfan syndrome), and therefore lifelong anticoagulation in cases such as these confers a cumulative bleeding risk. Preserving the aortic valve while surgically treating the aortic root dilatation is made possible by the development of two surgical procedures: the first is removing the aortic root while keeping the valve intact. The second method is through re-implantation of the aortic valve [5]. Both the Bentall procedure as well as aortic valve-preserving procedures have been shown to have comparable short and long-term outcomes with regards to the risk of death and valve associated complications. The main difference however is that patients undergoing valve sparing operations were significantly more likely to develop moderate to severe aortic regurgitation later [108].
\nIn patients with both severe aortic stenosis and ascending aortic aneurysm, undergoing surgical aortic valve replacement (sAVR) and concomitant surgical intervention for aortic aneurysms above 4.5 cm is recommended by the American College of Cardiology (ACC) foundation guidelines [84]. However, in high-risk surgical patients, undergoing a transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) has become an alternative approach that obviates the need for parallel surgical aortic aneurysm intervention. This raises the concern for the safety of TAVR catheter-based delivery system in patients with aortic aneurysms since intraoperative rupture or dissection risk potentially increases. However, a clinical study showed that TAVR does not increase intraoperative aortic dissection/rupture risk or mortality with a median follow-up of 14 months [109]. Therefore, there are no recommendations against performing TAVR in patients with ascending aortic aneurysms.
\nNone.
"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality. Throughout the world, we are seeing progress in attracting, retaining, and promoting women in STEMM. IntechOpen are certainly supporting this work globally by empowering all scientists and ensuring that women are encouraged and enabled to publish and take leading roles within the scientific community." Dr. Catrin Rutland, University of Nottingham, UK
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\n\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\n\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
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