Open access
1. Introduction
There is no subject that is more controversial in the area of male infertility than varicocele. Varicocele is the most common identifiable cause of male infertility. It can develop during puberty and thus affect the testicular growth and function. The incidence of varicocele in the adolescents is about 15 percent worldwide. Varicocele is associated with a time-dependent growth arrest in adolescents. There is a clear association between varicocele, infertility, and testicular growth arrest. It is also known that varicocelectomy can reverse growth arrest in adolescents. Considerable debate regarding the etiology and effects of adolescence varicoceles has appeared in the literature. This knowledge has raised the question of how best to manage adolescents with varicocele.
The chapter will discuss the following items:
The prevalence of adolescence varicocele.
Regional differences of adolescence varicocele.
Pathophysiology.
Anatomy.
The risk factors for the development of varicocele among boys.
Presentations.
The relations between the adolescent varicocele and puberty.
Evidence from controlled studies against varicocelectomy and the reports supporting varicocelectomy.
Bilaterality.
Whom we should repair.
Choice of repair.
2. The prevalence of adolescence varicocele
Varicocele means tortuosity and dilatation of the pampiniform plexus of veins inside the spermatic cord; it has been linked to infertility since 1955.
Varicocele is the most common identifiable cause of male infertility. It can develop during puberty and thus affect the testicular growth and function [1].
Varicocele affects 15-20% of adult men, 40% of adult men with primary infertility, 80% of men with secondary infertility, and 15 % of adolescents [2].
The incidence in older boys varies between 12.4% and 17.8% with an average of 14.2% [3].
This prevalence varies in different geographical areas.
In Balkan Peninsula, among Greece adolescents, the prevalence is only 3% among 3047 school boys. While the prevalence in Bulgarian boy’s reaches 7.9% for the age group 10 to 19 years. Higher prevalence was detected in Turkish population reaching 11.02% in the age group 11 to 19 years old. [4-6].
3. Regional differences of adolescence varicocele
Kumanov et al in a prospective study evaluated 6200 boys aged 0 to 19 years from 5 regions in Bulgaria for the presence of varicocele. The icidence in whole group was found to be 4.1%, this icidence increases to 7.9% for the age group above 10 years old. The prevalence of varicocele demonstrated clear regional differences, the incidence of the disease increased rapidly during mid puberty [7].
The prevalence of varicocele was highest in the areas of Sofia and Varna, which are the largest cities in Bulgaria and was lowest in Vratza and Blagoevgrad which are the smallest towns in Bulgaria. The authors attributed the differences to be multifactorial, including enviromental factors and life style factors (physical development, food intake) [7].
4. Pathophysiology
In WHO study in 1992, including 9083 patient at 34 centers in 24 countries, it was proved that varicocele is classically associated with infertility and impaired testicular function [8].
Varicocele disrupts the groth and function of the testis with ultimate effect on fertility, many theoris have been suggested but none of them proved to be the ideal theory [9].
Hypothesis concerning the harmful effect of varicocele include; increase in the scrotal/testicular temperature, elevation in the serum gonadotrophins level, increase in the venous pressure, accumulation of toxins, hypoxia and hormonal imbalance [10, 11].
5. Anatomy
Paduch and Skoog in 2001 suggested four theories to explain why the left sided varicocele is more predominat more than the right side. These theories include, nutcraker effect on left renal vein, increasing the blood supply to the testis at puberty exceeding the venous capacity, incomptent valves in the venous system, and high levels of nitric oxide in the pampiniform plexus of veins [3]. On the otherhand,Raman et al in 2005 suggested genetic susceptibility as a precipitating factor, considering that half of the first degree relatives and more than two third of the brothers of the patients with varicocele, also had clinical varicocele [4].
6. The risk factors for the development of varicocele among boys
It was found that the incidence of varicocele is related to some anthropometric and somatometric parameters [12-14]. Some studies discussed the protective role of higher BMI and/or weight on the development of varicocele [12-14]. Others discussed the negative influence of height [15, 16].
Obesity and high BMI may be correlated with increased adipose tissue in the spermatic cord which may lead to decrease in the detection of varicocele by examination [12-14].
In Kumanov et al study, the age of the boys, penile length, penile circumference, and height of the children, were positively related to the development of varicocele. The dark eye color also increased the risk for the anomaly. No relationship was found with hair color. In multivariate analysis, development of varicocele correlated negatively (predictive role) with the weight and BMI but correlated positively (protective role) with penile measurements (length, circumference) in addition to the height of the patients. The predictive role of the height was only evident in the first Tanner stages only with significant differences between the three stages seperately if compared with each others [7].
Tight clothing, constipation, wearing a truss, and presence of a tumor may be also a risk factor. Atheletes have high incidence of varicocele, spermatogenesis will be more affected in those sport-men with varicocele if the did vigorous physical activity [17, 18].
7. Presentations
Usually the presentation of varicocele in adolescents is asymptomatic, sometimes the patient presented by scrotal mass described as a bag of worms or testicular discomfort in the form of heaviness, dull aching pain on standing for long times. Not infrequently the presentation is small testicle if associated testicular hypotrophy occurred. Usually the diagnosis is made at routine hospital examination or as a prerequisite examination for employment or before engaging in a military service [19-23]..
8. The relations between the adolescent varicocele and puberty
With rapid linear growth spurt in adolescence at puberty, the nutcracker effect will become more evident with consequently increase in the hydrostatic pressure in the left testicular venous plexus [7, 10]. Moreover, the accelerated pubertal development with growth spurt and increased androgen secretion, in addition vasoactive compounds like inducible nitric oxide were suggested to play a role indevelopment of varicocele in the early stages of puberty. These vasoactive compounds were over expressed in the tesis and in the penile vaculature of patients with varicocele in the early stages of puberty [24].
Also, Sawczuk et al postulated that the increase in the arterial supply of the testis at puberty beyond the venous capacity may unmask an underlying hidden varicocele [25].
On the otherhand, Kumanov et al postulated that the rapid marked changes in the penile measurements and heights at puberty reflects endocrine and paracrine growth factors imbalance that act as a predisposing factor for the development of varicocele in genetically susceptible patients [7].
Testosterone is responsible for the adolescent secondary sexual characters (increase in the muscle mass, muscle tone, body hair, and level of sexual interest). Varicocele can damage the cells that make testosterone and lead to decrease over all testosterone level which may affect the adolescents in the mean time or in the future [26].
9. Evidence from controlled studies against varicocelectomy and the reports supporting varicocelectomy
In 1987, Kass and Belman found that 80% of boys with left varicocele with ipsilateral hypotrophy, exhibited catch up growth following varicocelectomy [27]..
10 years later, Sigman and Jarrow reported that a combination of varicocele and ipsilateral asymmetry was associated with higher incidence of abnormal semen parameters in a time dependent manner, this mean that varicocele is a progressive disease[28].
This opens the door for prophylactic varicocelectomy in adolescents in cases of ipsilateral asymmetry, hoping to prevent infertility when become older.
Okuyama et al reported on 24 boys who underwent varicocelectomy,67% of whom had initial left hypotrophy (group I) and 16 boys followed conservatively without surgery,50% of whom had initial left hypotrophy (group II). On follow up, 24% of group I have ipsilateral hypotrophy versus 75% in group II [29]..
When varicocele started early in adolescents, the damage to the germ cells as well as testicular atrophy will be greater [30-32]..
Repair of varicocele in adolescents reverse the testicular growth arrest and associated with catch up growth within one year of treatment, this mean that early detection and treatment of varicocele in adolescents is a preventive measure a against infertility [33].
The grade of varicocele has no relation to the testicular tissue damage, semen parameters preoperatively or improvement of the semen parameters postoperatively. Even sub clinical varicocele in adolescents may have significant effect on the testicular parenchyma and semen parameters [34-37].
The currently agreement indication for surgical repair of varicocele in adolescents include; testicular asymmetry more than 20% and persisted for more than one year, abnormal semen parameters if available, or scrotal pain [38].
On the other hand, others found physiological catch up growth at three years on follow up without surgery in boys with original asymmetry 15-20% [39-41].
Although some authors recommend early surgical intervention to preserve fertility, others recommend non operative management based on reported physiological testicular catch up growth during development.
10. Bilaterality
Palpable varicocele is believed to occur on the left side in about 90% of cases while palpable right varicocele is found in 10% of cases of bilateral varicocele [23].
The incidence of subclinical varicocele may be underestimated; the bilaterality of varicocele may be unrecognized if only clinical examination is the only way of diagnosis in the absence of other modalities like; contact thermography, color flow Doppler sonography, and percutaneous retrograde venography to detect subclinical unrecognized right varicocele which is impossible to palpate clinically in more than 90% of cases [42].
Chatel et al noted bilateral varicocele in 60% of 178 patients using thermography; Gonzales et al noted 61% bilateral varicocele using venography [43]. On the other hand, Gat et al using both modalities, noted bilateral varicocele in 85% of patients [44].
This may explain failure of successful unilateral left varicocelectomy alone to restore spermatogenesis in many patients compared to bilateral varicocelectomy as suggested by Scherr and Gold Stien [45].
11. Whom we should repair
It is to be noted that 80-85% of patients with varicocele do not present with infertility, also adolescents with varicocele present only with testicular hypotrophy but not infertility [46].
Varicocelectomy is associated with testicular catch up growth postoperatively but whether early varicocelectomy in boys has a positive effect on future fertility or not, still a matter of discussion [47].
At the same time, catch up growth has been reported in subset of patients with varicocele at three years follow up without surgery.
The indication of varicocelectomy included, asymmetry more than 20%, bad semen parameters if available, pain, and sometimes cosmoses. Till now, no clear guidelines to operate or not to operate on right subclinical varicocele when operating on left clinical varicocele [48].
12. Choice of repair
Management of varicocele includes two categories; percutaneous embolization and surgical treatment. Percutaneous embolization can be done via intravenous injection of occlusive material (sclerotherapy) through retrograde venography. Surgical treatment includes; open varicocelectomy (inguinal, sub inguinal, microscopic sub inguinal) or laparoscopic varicocelectomy. The advantages of embolization include; local anesthesia, low cost, early ambulation, and low complication rates [49].
The failure rate in Ivanissevich repair of adolescent varicocele approached 14-16%, while Kass and Marco reported no failure in 62% Palomo varicocelectomy. The same group reported 3.9% recurrence rate and 29% hydrocele formation incidence in another study included 233 patients [50-52].
Laparoscopic varicocelectomy, sub inguinal lymphatic sparing varicocelectomy were suggested to reduce the incidence of hydrocele [53].
Other group suggested the use of microscope during the Palomo repair to identify lymphatic while others suggested the use of isosulfan blue in this regard [54].
13. Conclusion
Adolescents with varicocele may present at different stages of physical and pubertal development.
There is a need for a guideline for the indications of surgical intervention, type of surgery used, and the ideal protocol for follow up.
References
- 1.
TuLLochus: variables in sub fertility; results and treatment, Br Med J1955, 2; 356-358. - 2.
Skoog SJ, Roberts KP, Goldstein M, et al. The adolescent varicocele: What’s new with an old problem in young patients? Pediatrics, 1997; 100:112-121. - 3.
Paduch D, Skoog S. Current management of adolescent’s varicocele. Rev Urol.2001; 3:120-133 - 4.
Raman J, Walmsley K, Goldstien M. Inheritance of varicocele. Adult Urol.2005; 65:1186-1189. - 5.
Stavropoulus NE, Mihailidis I, Hastazeris K, et al. Varicocele in school boys. Arch Androl. 2002; 48:187-192. - 6.
Akbay E,Cayan S,Doruk E,Duce M,Bozlu M. The prevalence of varicocele- related testicular atrophy in Turkish children and adolescents. BJU.2000; 86:490-493. - 7.
Kumanov P, Robeva RN, and Tomova A. Adolescent Varicocele: Who Is at Risk? Pediatrics 2008; 121(1):e35-e57. - 8.
World Health Organization: the influence of varicocele on the parameters of infertility in a large group of men presenting with infertility clinics. Fert. Sterl. 1992, 57:1289-1293. - 9.
Kass E. The management of the asymptomatic varicocele in adolescence. Probl Urol.1990; 4:690–704. - 10.
Cozzolino DJ, and Lipshultz LI: Varicocele as a progressive lesion: positive effect of varicocele repair. Hum Reprod Update 2001; 7: 55-58. - 11.
Pasqualotto FF, Lucon AM, de Goes PM, et al: Semen profile, Testicular volume and hormonal levels in infertile patients with Varicoceles compared with fertile men with and without varicoceles. Fertil Steril 2005; 83: 74-77. - 12.
Delaney D, Carr M, Kolon T, Snyder H, Zderik S. The physical characteristics of young males with varicocele. BJU.2004; 94:62– 64 - 13.
Nielsen ME, Zderic S, Freedland SJ, Jarow JP. Insight on pathogenesis of varicocele: relationship of varicocele and body mass index. Urology.2006; 68:392– 396 - 14.
Handel LN, Shetty R, Sigman M. The relationship between varicoceles and obesity. J Urol.2006; 176:2138– 2140. - 15.
Prabakaran S, Kumanov Ph, Tomova A, Hubaveshki S, Agarwal A. Adolescent varicocele: association with somatometric parameters. Urol Int.2006; 77:114– 117 - 16.
May M, Taymoorian K, Beutner S, et al. Body size and weight as predisposing factors in varicocele. Scand J Urol Nephrol.2006; 40:45– 48 - 17.
Di Luigi L, Gentile V, Pigozzi F, Parisi A, Gianetti D, Romanelli F. Physical activity as a possible aggravating factor for athletes with varicocele: impact on the semen profile. Hum Reprod.2001; 16:1180– 1184 - 18.
Di Luigi L, Romanelli F, Pigozzi F, et al. Role of sport medicine in andrological prevention. Med Sport.1994; 47:665– 670. - 19.
Paduch D, and Niedzielski J: Repair versus observation in adolescent varicocele: a prospective study. J Urol 158:1128–1132, 1997. - 20.
Hamm B, Fobbe F, Sorensen R, et al: Varicoceles: combined sonography and thermography in diagnosis and post therapeutic evaluation. Radiology 160: 419–424, 1986. - 21.
Chiou KR, Anderson JC, Wobig RK, et al: Color Doppler ultrasound criteria to diagnose varicoceles: correlation of a new scoring system with physical examination. Urology 50:953–956, 1997. - 22.
Morag B, Rubinstein ZJ, Madgar I, et al: The role of spermatic venography after surgical high ligation of the left spermatic veins: diagnosis and percutaneous occlusion. Urol Radiol 7: 32–34, 1985. - 23.
Skoog SJ, Roberts KP, Goldstein M, et al: The adolescent varicocele: what’s new with an old problem in young patients? Pediatrics 100: 112–122, 1997. - 24.
Santoro G, Romeo C, Impellizzeri P, et al. Nitric oxide synthase patterns in normal and varicocele testis in adolescent age. Br Urol Int.2001; 88:967– 973. - 25.
Sawczuk I, Hensle T, Burbige K, Nagler H. Varicoceles: effect on testicular volume in prepubertal and pubertal males. Urology.1993; 41:466– 468. - 26.
Pastuszak AW, Kumar V, Shah A, and Roth D R. Diagnostic and Management Approaches to Pediatric and Adolescent Varicocele: A Survey of Pediatric Urologists; Urology, Articles in press. - 27.
Kass EJ, Belman AB: Reversal of testicular growth failure by Varicocele ligation. J Urol 1987, 137:475-6. - 28.
Sigman M, Jarow JP: Ipsilateral testicular hypotrophy is associated with decreased sperm counts in infertile men with varicoceles. J Urol 1997, 158:605-7. - 29.
Okuyama A, Nakamura M, Namiki M, Takeyama M, Utsunomiya M, Fujioka H, Itatani H, Matsuda M, Matsumoto K, Sonoda T: Surgical repair of varicocele at puberty: preventive treatment for fertility improvement. J Urol 1988, 139:562-4. - 30.
Hamm B, Fobbe F, Sorensen R, et al: Varicoceles: combined Sonography and thermography in diagnosis and post therapeutic evaluation. Radiology 160: 419–424, 1986. - 31.
Chiou KR, Anderson JC, Wobig RK, et al: Color Doppler ultrasound criteria to diagnose varicoceles: correlation of a new scoring system with physical examination. Urology 50: 953–956, 1997. - 32.
Morag B, Rubinstein ZJ, Madgar I, et al: The role of spermatic venography after surgical high ligation of the left spermatic veins: diagnosis and percutaneous occlusion. Urol Radiol 7: 32–34, 1985. - 33.
Paduch D, and Niedzielski J: Repair versus observation in adolescent varicocele: a prospective study. J Urol 158: 1128–1132, 1997. - 34.
Dubin L, and Amelar RD: Etiologic factors in 1294 consecutive cases of male infertility. Fertil Steril 22: 469–474, 1971. - 35.
Kursh ED: What is the incidence of varicocele in a fertile population? Fertil Steril 48: 510–511, 1987. - 36.
McClure RD, and Hricak H: Scrotal ultrasound of infertile man: detection of subclinical unilateral and bilateral varicoceles. J Urol 135: 711–715, 1986. - 37.
Gonzalez R, Reddy P, Kaye KW, et al: Comparison of Doppler examination and retrograde spermatic venography in the diagnosis of varicocele. Fertil Steril 40: 96–99, 1983. - 38.
Diamond DA, Zurakowski D, Atala A, et al. Is adolescent varicocele a progressive disease process? J Urol. 2004; 172:1746-1748. - 39.
Kolon TF, Clement MR, Cartwright L, et al. Transient asynchronous testicular growth in adolescent males with a varicocele. J Urol. 2008; 180:1111-1114. - 40.
Preston MA, Camat T, Flood T, et al. Conservative management of adolescent varicoceles: a retrospective review. Urology. 2008; 72: 77-80. - 41.
Poon SA, Gjertson CK, Mercado MA, et al. Testicular asymmetry and adolescent varicoceles managed expectantly. J Urol. 2010; 183: 731-734. - 42.
Gorelick JI, and Goldstein M: Loss of infertility in men with varicocele. Fertil Steril 59: 613–616, 1993. - 43.
Chatel A, Bigot JM, Helenon C, et al: Interet de la phlebographie Spermatique dans le diagnostic das sterilites d’origine circulatory comparison avec les donnes cliniques, thermographiques et anatomiques. Ann Radiol 1978; 21: 565–570. - 44.
Gat y, Zukerman z, bachar Gn, feldberg d, and gornish m. adolescent varicocele: is it a unilateral disease? urology2003; 62: 742–747 - 45.
Scherr D, and Goldstein M: Comparison of bilateral versus unilateral varicolectomy in men with palpable bilateral Varicoceles. J Urol 162: 85–88, 1999. - 46.
Pryor JL and Howards SS: Varicocele. Urol Clin North Am 14: 499-513, 1987. - 47.
Cozzolino DJ, and Lipshultz LI: Varicocele as a progressive lesion: Positive effect of varicocele repair. Hum Reprod Update 7: 55-58, 2001. - 48.
Gorelick JI, and Goldstein M: Loss of fertility in men with varicocele. Fertil Steril 59: 613-616, 1993. - 49.
Feber KM, Kass EJ: Varicocelectomy in adolescent boys: long-term experience with the Palomo procedure. J Urol 2008, 180:1657-9; discussion 1659-60 - 50.
Misseri R, Gershbein AB, Horowitz M, and Glassberg KI: The adolescent Varicocele. II: the incidence of hydrocele and delayed recurrent varicocele after varicocelectomy in a long-term follow-up. BJU Int 2001, 87:494-8. - 51.
Kass EJ, Marcol B: Results of varicocele surgery in adolescents: A comparison of techniques. J Urol 1992, 148:694-6. - 52.
Feber KM, Kass EJ: Varicocelectomy in adolescent boys: long-term experience with the Palomo procedure. J Urol 2008, 180:1657-9; discussion 1659-60 - 53.
Glassberg KI, Poon SA, Gjertson CK, DeCastro GJ, Misseri R: Laparoscopic- lymphatic sparing varicocelectomy in adolescents. J Urol 2008, 180:326-30; discussion 330-1 - 54.
Schwentner C, Oswald J, Lunacek A, Deibl M, Bartsch G, Radmayr C:Optimizing the outcome of microsurgical sub inguinal varicocelectomy using isosulfan blue: a prospective randomized trial. J Urol 2006, 175:1049-52.