Summary of some differences and similarities between
1. Introduction
The discovery and study of the budding yeast
At the beginning Metchnikov's theory that lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can prolong life was disputable and some researchers doubted it. For example, Cheplin and Rettger (1920)[1] demonstrated that Metchnikov's strain, today called
Irrespectively of the assumed probiotic definition
While commercial application of
The publication of two successive patents in 1986 “Method for preventing or treating pseudo-membranous colitis” [8] and in 1987 “Method for the treatment of amoebiasis” [9], was probably the turning point. Thus, while in 1987 there were only 7 publication in 2011 there were already 822.
Why has
2. Systematic classification
Table 1. summarizes some results of the investigation on differences and similarities between
Taxonomy attempts to achieve two aims: first the classification that reflects the evolution and phylogenetic relationships and second the development of procedures enabling identification of individual species. Thus, independently of discussion on the systematic classification, very important issue concerns identification of species which affect human health.
Higher optimal growth temperature (~37 °C) | Lower optimal growth temperature (~30 °C) |
Higher resistance to low pH [11] | Lower resistance to low pH [11] |
The karyotypes of | Typing RFLPs or PCR- (ex 5.8S rDNA) failed to distinguish |
Do not use galactose [13] | Use galactose |
Asporogenous in contrast to S. cerevisiae but may produce fertile hybrids with of | Sporogenous |
Lost all intact Ty1/2 elements [14]. | Contains several Ty1/2 elements |
Microsatellite typing shows genotypic differences [15] | |
Trisomic for chromosome IX | There are stable strains with various ploidy |
3. Medical applications of Sb
Several published medical studies have shown the efficacy and safety of
Prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea | 500-1000 | During antibiotics with additional 3 days to 2 weeks after | Nothing |
Prevention of Traveller’s diarrhea | 250-1000 | Duration of trip (3 weeks) | Nothing |
Enteral nutrition-related diarrhea | 2000 | 8-28 days | Nothing |
1000 | 2 weeks | Standard triple therapy | |
Treatment of infections | 1000 | 4 weeks | Vancomycin or metronidazole |
Acute adult diarrhea | 500 - 750 | 8-10 days | Nothing |
Inflammatory bowel disease | 750-1000 | 7 weeks to 6 months | Mesalamine |
Irritable bowel syndrome | 500 | 4 weeks | Nothing |
Giardiasis | 500 | 4 weeks | Metronidazole |
HIV-related diarrhea | 3000 | 7 days | Nothing |
While
antimicrobial effect,
nutritional effect,
inactivation of bacterial toxins,
quorum sensing,
trophic effects,
immuno-modulatory effects
anti-inflammatory effects,
cell restitution and maintenance of epithelial barrier integrity.
This enumeration is somehow artificial because one factor may play multiple roles and various processes may act synergistically.
Some of the released compounds are
The endoluminal secretion of various compounds by yeast
The secretion of polyamines triggering transduction trophic signals and resulting in enhanced synthesis of brush border membrane proteins (enzymes and carriers).
Clinical studies have shown that oral administration of
Another mechanism mutually related to inflammation and synergistically acting with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effect [55] is
Bacterial infections leading to inflammatory bowel diseases results in intestinal epithelial cell damage. Thus, remission of these diseases requires both the cessation of inflammation and the
4. Effect of Sb on the virulence factors of Candida albicans
While there is quickly increasing information on the influence of
Pathogenicity of
It has been shown that both live
It is clear that
5. Conclusions and future perspectives
A century after publication of the Metchnikov's theory there is no more doubt concerning potential positive influence of selected strains of living microorganisms in the ingested food on human health. Nevertheless, the discussion has been even more turbulent and the topic is “hot”, as seen from increasing number of scientific publications. In contrast to most of the registered drugs which are single, pure compounds,
References
- 1.
Cheplin HA, Rettger LF. Studies on the Transformation of the Intestinal Flora, with Special Reference to the Implantation of Bacillus Acidophilus II. Feeding Experiments on Man. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.1920 6 12 704 5 Epub 1920/12/01. - 2.
Nutrition and the tooth system; general review with special reference to vitamins]. Deutsche zahnarztliche Zeitschrift.Kollath W. [. 1953 Suppl7 16 Epub 1953/06/01. Ernahrung und Zahnsystem; Ubersichtsreferat mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Vitamine. - 3.
Lilly DM, Stillwell RH. Probiotics: Growth-Promoting Factors Produced by Microorganisms. Science.1965 147 3659 747 8 Epub 1965/02/12. - 4.
Parker RB. Probiotics, the other half of the antibiotic story. Animal Nutr Health.1974 29 4 8 - 5.
Fuller R. Probiotics in man and animals. 1989 66 5 365 78 Epub 1989/05/01. - 6.
Sanders ME. Probiotic cultures and human health. In: Germfree life and its ramifications Proceedings of the XIIth International Symposium on Gnotobiology Honolulu USA, June 24-28,1996 Eds: Hashimoto, K, Sakakibara, B, Tazume, S, and Shi-mizu, K) XIIth ISG Publishing Committee, Shiozawa.1996 91 5 - 7.
McFarland LV. Systematic review and meta-analysis of Saccharomyces boulardii in adult patients WJG.2010 16 18 2202 22 Epub 2010/05/12. - 8. Hublot B, Levy RH, inventors; Method for preventing or treating pseudo-membranous colitis patent 4595590. 1986.
- 9. Gayral PG, Hublot BM, inventors; Method for the treatment of amoebiasis patent 4643897. 1987.
- 10.
Guandalini S. Commentary on ‘Probiotics for treating acute infectious diarrhoea’ Evidence-Based Child Health: A Cochrane Review Journal.2011 6 6 2024 5 - 11.
Edwards-Ingram L. Gitsham P. Burton N. Warhurst G. Clarke I. Hoyle D. et al. Genotypic and physiological characterization of Saccharomyces boulardii, the probiotic strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Applied and Environmental Microbiology.2007 73 8 2458 67 - 12.
McCullough MJ, Clemons KV, McCusker JH, Stevens DA. Species identification and virulence attributes of Saccharomyces boulardii (nom. inval.) Journal of Clinical Microbiology.1998 36 9 2613 7 - 13.
McFarland LV. Saccharomyces boulardii is not Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1996 22 1 200 1 - 14.
Edwards-Ingram L. C. ME Gent Hoyle. D. C. Hayes A. Stateva L. I. Oliver S. G. Comparative genomic hybridization provides new insights into the molecular taxonomy of the Saccharomyces sensu stricto complex Genome Research.2004 14 6 1043 51 - 15.
Malgoire J. Y. Bertout S. Renaud F. Bastide J. M. Mallié M. Typing of Saccharomyces cerevisiae clinical strains by using microsatellite sequence polymorphism Journal of Clinical Microbiology.2005 43 3 1133 7 - 16.
Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of probiotic yeasts. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment.Rajkowska K. Kunicka-Styczyńska A. 2009 23 2 662 5 - 17. Heitman J. Saccharomyces cerevisiae: an emerging and model pathogenic fungus. : ASM Press; 2006.
- 18.
McCusker JH, Clemons KV, Stevens DA, Davis RW. Genetic characterization of pathogenic Saccharomyces cerevisiae isolates Genetics.1994 136 4 1261 9 - 19.
Skovgaard N. New trends in emerging pathogens 2007 120 3 217 24 - 20. Diezmann S, Dietrich FS. Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Population divergence and resistance to oxidative stress in clinical, domesticated and wild isolates. PloS one. 2009;4(4):e5317.
- 21.
Diezmann S. Dietrich F. S. Oxidative stress survival in a clinical Saccharomyces cerevisiae isolate is Influenced by a major quantitative trait nucleotide Genetics.2011 188 3 709 22 - 22.
de Llanos R. Hernández-Haro C. Barrio E. Querol A. Fernández-Espinar M. T. Molina M. Differences in activation of MAP kinases and variability in the polyglutamine tract of Slt2 in clinical and non-clinical isolates of Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2010 27 8 549 61 - 23.
Hennequin C. Thierry A. Richard G. F. Lecointre G. Nguyen H. V. Gaillardin C. et al. Microsatellite typing as a new tool for identification of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains Journal of Clinical Microbiology.2001 39 2 551 9 - 24.
Zerva L. Hollis R. J. MA Pfaller In vitro susceptibility testing and DNA typing of Saccharomyces cerevisiae clinical isolates. Journal of Clinical Microbiology.1996 34 12 3031 4 - 25.
Mitterdorfer G. Mayer H. K. Kneifel W. Viernstein H. Clustering of Saccharomyces boulardii strains within the species S. cerevisiae using molecular typing techniques 2002 93 4 521 30 - 26.
Büchl N. R. Hutzler M. Mietke-Hofmann H. Wenning M. Scherer S. Differentiation of probiotic and environmental Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains in animal feed. 2010 109 3 783 91 - 27.
Duarte F. L. Pais C. Spencer-Martins I. Leäo C. Distinctive electrophoretic isoenzyme profiles in Saccharomyces sensu stricto International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology.1999 49 4 1907 13 - 28.
Mac Kenzie. D. A. Defernez M. Dunn W. B. Brown M. Fuller L. J. de Herrera S. R. M. S. et al. Relatedness of medically important strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae as revealed by phylogenetics and metabolomics 2008 25 7 501 12 - 29.
Surawicz CM. The microbiota and infectious diarrhea] Gastroenterologie clinique et biologique.2010 Suppl 1:S29 36 Epub 2010/10/05. Le microbiote dans les diarrhees infectieuses. - 30. Czerucka D, Piche T, Rampal P. Review article: yeast as probiotics-- Saccharomyces boulardii. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2007;26(6):767-78. Epub 2007/09/05.
- 31.
Im E. Pothoulakis C. [. Recent advances in Saccharomyces boulardii research] Gastroenterologie clinique et biologique.2010 Suppl 1:S62 70 Epub 2010/10/05. Progres recents dans la recherche sur Saccharomyces boulardii. - 32. Szajewska H, Horvath A, Piwowarczyk A. Meta-analysis: the effects of Saccharomyces boulardii supplementation on Helicobacter pylori eradication rates and side effects during treatment. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2010;32(9):1069-79.
- 33.
Interaction of Saccharomyces boulardii with intestinal brush border membranes: key to probiotic effects? Journal of pediatric gastroenterology and nutrition.Buts J. P. De Keyser N. 2010 51 4 532 3 Epub 2010/08/14. - 34.
Gedek. Adherence of Escherichia coli serogroup 0 157 and the Salmonella Typhimurium mutant DT 104 to the surface of Saccharomyces boulardii 1999 42 4 261 4 - 35.
Tiago FC, Martins FS, Souza EL, Pimenta PF, Araujo HR, Castro IM, et al. Adhesion on yeast cell surface as a trapping mechanism of pathogenic bacteria by Saccharomyces probiotics. 2012 - 36.
Tasteyre A. Barc-C M. Karjalainen T. Bourlioux P. Collignon A. Inhibition of in vitro cell adherence of Clostridium difficile by Saccharomyces boulardii 2002 32 5 219 25 - 37.
Murzyn A. Krasowska A. Stefanowicz P. Dziadkowiec D. Lukaszewicz M. Capric acid secreted by S. boulardii inhibits C. albicans filamentous growth, adhesion and biofilm formation PloS one.2010 e12050. Epub 2010/08/14. - 38.
The antagonistic effect of Saccharomyces boulardii on Candida albicans filamentation, adhesion and biofilm formation. FEMS yeast research.Krasowska A. Murzyn A. Dyjankiewicz A. Lukaszewicz M. Dziadkowiec D. 2009 ;9 8 1312 21 . Epub 2009/09/08. - 39.
Pontier-Bres R. Prodon F. Munro P. Rampal P. Lemichez E. Peyron J. F. et al. Modification of Salmonella Typhimurium Motility by the Probiotic Yeast Strain Saccharomyces boulardii PloS one.2012 e33796. - 40.
Castagliuolo I. La Mont J. T. Nikulasson S. T. Pothoulakis C. Saccharomyces boulardii protease inhibits Clostridium difficile toxin A effects in the rat ileum. Infection and Immunity.1996 64 12 5225 32 - 41.
Brewer’s Saccharomyces yeast biomass: characteristics and potential applications.Ferreira I. M. P. L. V. O. Pinho O. Vieira E. Tavarela J. G. 2010 21 2 77 84 - 42.
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics.Schwarz K. Mertz W. Chromium I. I. I. the glucose. tolerance factor. 1959 85 1 292 5 - 43.
Buts J-P. Twenty-five y ears of research on Saccharomyces boulardii trophic effects: updates and perspectives. Digestive Diseases and Sciences.2009 54 1 15 8 - 44.
Buts-P J. De Keyser N. Effects of Saccharomyces boulardii on Intestinal Mucosa 2006 51 8 1485 92 - 45.
Buts J. P. De Keyser N. De Raedemaeker L. Saccharomyces boulardii enhances rat intestinal enzyme expression by endoluminal release of polyamines. 1994 36 4 522 7 - 46.
Jahn-U H. Ullrich R. Schneider T. Liehr-M R. Schieferdecker H. L. Holst H. et al. Immunological and trophical effects of Saccharomyces boulardii on the small Intestine in healthy human volunteers. 1996 57 2 95 104 - 47.
Buts-P J. Bernasconi P. Van Craynest-P M. Maldague P. De Meyer R. Response of human and rat small intestinal mucosa to oral administration of Saccharomyces boulardii. Pediatr Res.1986 20 2 192 6 - 48.
Buts-P J. Bernasconi P. Vaerman-P J. Dive C. Stimulation of secretory IgA and secretory component of immunoglobulins in small intestine of rats treated with Saccharomyces boulardii. 1990 35 2 251 6 - 49. Pothoulakis C. Review article: anti-inflammatory mechanisms of action of Saccharomyces boulardii. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2009;30(8):826-33.
- 50.
Vandenplas Y. Brunser O. Szajewska H. Saccharomyces boulardii in childhood 2009 168 3 253 65 - 51.
Probiotic yeasts microorganisms in sustainable agriculture and biotechnology. In: Satyanarayana T, Johri BN, Prakash A, editors.: Springer Netherlands;Vohra A. Satyanarayana T. 2012 411 433 - 52.
Sougioultzis S. Simeonidis S. Bhaskar K. R. Chen X. Anton P. M. Keates S. et al. Saccharomyces boulardii produces a soluble anti-inflammatory factor that inhibits NF-κB-mediated IL-8 gene expression. 2006 343 1 69 76 - 53.
Chen X. Kokkotou E. G. Mustafa N. Bhaskar K. R. Sougioultzis S. O’Brien M. et al. Saccharomyces boulardii inhibits ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation both in vitro and in vivo and protects against Clostridium difficile toxin A-induced enteritis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.2006 281 34 24449 54 - 54.
Zanello G. Berri M. Dupont J. Sizaret-Y P. D’Inca R. Salmon H. et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae modulates immune gene expressions and inhibits ETEC-mediated ERK1/2 and 38 signaling pathways in intestinal epithelial cells2011 e18573. - 55.
Thomas S. Metzke D. Schmitz J. Dörffel Y. Baumgart D. C. Anti-inflammatory effects of Saccharomyces boulardii mediated by myeloid dendritic cells from patients with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology.2011 G1083 G92. - 56.
Ng SC, Kamm MA, Stagg AJ, Knight SC. Intestinal dendritic cells: Their role in bacterial recognition, lymphocyte homing, and intestinal inflammation. 2010 16 10 1787 807 - 57.
The probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii inhibits DC-induced activation of naïve T-cells. Gastroenterology.Baumgart D. 2007 A-559 (sup 1). - 58.
Dalmasso G. Cottrez F. Imbert V. Lagadec P. Peyron-F J. Rampal P. et al. Saccharomyces boulardii inhibits inflammatory bowel disease by trapping T cells in mesenteric lymph nodes 2006 131 6 1812 25 - 59.
Saccharomyces boulardii Improves Intestinal Cell Restitution through Activation of the α2β1 Integrin Collagen Receptor. PloS one.Canonici A. Siret C. Pellegrino E. Pontier-Bres R. Pouyet L. Montero M. P. et al. 2011 e18427. - 60.
Whiteway M. Oberholzer U. Candida morphogenesis and host-pathogen interactions. 2004 7 4 350 7 - 61.
Calderone RA, Fonzi WA. Virulence factors of Candida albicans. 2001 9 7 327 35 - 62.
Shareck J. Belhumeur P. Modulation of Morphogenesis in Candida albicans by Various Small Molecules 2011 10 8 1004 12 - 63. Krasowska A, Łukaszewicz M, Bartosiewicz D, Sigler K. Cell ATP level of Saccharomyces cerevisiae sensitively responds to culture growth and drug-inflicted variations in membrane integrity and PDR pump activity. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2010;395(1):51-5.
- 64.
Krasowska A. Kubik A. Prescha A. Lukaszewicz M. Assimilation of omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids and removing of cholesterol from environment by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces boulardii strains 2007 S63 S4. - 65.
Murzyn A. Krasowska A. Augustyniak D. Majkowska-Skrobek G. Lukaszewicz M. Dziadkowiec D. The effect of Saccharomyces boulardii on Candida albicans-infected human intestinal cell lines Caco-2 and Intestin 407 2010 310 1 17 23 Epub 2010/07/16.