Comparison of mechanical properties of natural silks and other synthetic fibers[a]. ([a] Data taken from refs. [3, 4]. [b] RH, relative humidity.)
1. Introduction
Silk fibers spun by several species of arthropods have existed naturally for hundreds of millions of years. The ecological functions of the silk fibers are closely related to their properties. For example, orb-weaving spiders produce a variety of different silks with diverse properties, each tailored to achieve a certain task (Figure 1) [1]. Most arthropod species produce silks used for building structures to capture prey and protect their offspring against environmental hazards [2]. The most investigated categories that have piqued the greatest amount of interest are spider silk and dragline silk in particular, produced by major ampullate glands and the cocoon silk of
In contrast petrochemical-based synthetic polymers commonly used today, such as polyethylene, which is formed by polymerization of ethylene at high temperature and pressure, or under the presence of some metal-based catalysis,
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7 | 0.6 | 18 | 70 |
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15 | 0.7 | 28 | 150 |
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10 | 1.1 | 27 | 180 |
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0.003 | 0.5 | 270 | 150 |
Wool (at 100% RH[b]) | 0.5 | 0.2 | 5 | 60 |
Elastin | 0.001 | 0.002 | 15 | 2 |
Nylon fiber | 5 | 0.95 | 18 | 80 |
Kevlar 49 fiber | 130 | 306 | 2.7 | 50 |
Carbon fiber | 300 | 4 | 1.3 | 25 |
High-tensile steel | 200 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 6 |
Artificial spinning is the most promising method of promoting the application of silk fibers, as it can output sufficient man-made fibers cost-effectively and with specific tailored properties. Remarkable efforts for silk fiber reproduction via reconstituted/recombinant silk fibroin are currently underway [9, 10]. Reconstituted silk protein is derived from
Thanks to recent developments in modern analytical techniques, significant progress has been made with respect to the structural characterization of silk. These techniques can provide molecular information about silk, including microscopic methods (atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), and scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM)) and synchrotron x-ray diffraction (wide-angle x-ray diffraction (WAXD) and small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) combined with synchrotron radiation). Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (SS-NMR) is a powerful technique because it allows for the study of molecular structure and dynamics of semi-crystalline and amorphous materials. Raman and FTIR spectroscopy can provide the dominant conformational contents of a fiber. Raman microspectroscopy can be used to determine quantitative parameters characterizing the molecular structure (orientation and conformation, amino acid composition) of micrometer-sized biological samples. In this chapter, we will provide an overview of the current understanding of the silk fibers’ structure taken advantage of these analytic methods, then describe in detail the structure-property relationships and the formation processes of silk fiber. Additionally, we will explore material morphologies and applications of these silk fibers.
2. The structure-property relationship of silk fibers
The structure-property relationship is one of the most intriguing ‘mysteries’ of silk fibers. Various studies have suggested that there is a strong connection between the structures of silk fibers and their physical (e. g., mechanical) properties. An understanding of the structure-property relationship requires background knowledge of local structure, including the component and composition of silk fiber, the conformation and orientation of constitutive units with respect to the fiber, and so on.
2.1. The structure and composition of B. mori and spider dragline silk fibers
In principle, the full range of properties of silk fibers can be calculated from their structural morphology and chemical composition. On the macroscopic level, the morphological structure of
Silk fibers are normally polyamino acid-based fibrous proteins. In contrast, the synthetic polymers, which are usually homopolymers or copolymers consisting of one or several simpler monomer, the biopolymers − silk fibers, the primary sequence and linkage between the monomers are arranged in a strictly controlled manner and are responsible for the formation of well-defined structure [13]. A range of microscopy methods, including SEM, TEM, and AFM, have been used to investigate the microstructure of silk fiber [14-19]. The results confirmed that silk fibers are composed of well-oriented bundles of nanofibrils. Generally, the coatings of silk fibers function as glue. The sericin coating, which occupies 25-30% of the weight of
As two major families of silk proteins, fibroin is the chief component of silkworm silk fiber, while spidroin (also named spider fibroin) is the analogue in spider silk fiber. The
2.2. Hierarchical structure of fibroin in B. mori and spider silk fibers
The primary sequence plays an important role in defining basic materials. Despite being quite different in their primary structure,
The primary structural motifs have a preferred secondary structure and give rise to structures higher up the hierarchy. NMR, circular dichroism (CD), IR and Raman spectroscopy were usually used to examine the chemical, conformational, and orientational information of secondary structures for silk proteins [41-51]. There are three major conformations of silk proteins: the random coil, the
The solid threads are characteristic of well-oriented
It is quite firmly believed that the (Ala)n domains in spider dragline silk fibers adopt a
It is expected that the mechanical properties of silk fibers will critically depend on the characters of
The non-crystalline regions are often described as amorphous, poorly orientated, or randomly coiled sections of the peptide. The structural organization in the amorphous phase is not well understood yet. The existence of
Recent computational approaches have been useful in modeling nanostructure of silk. Molecular modeling integrated the information known about the structures, and has been used to characterize the nanostructure of the silk. Based on a bottom-up molecular computational approach using replica exchange molecular dynamic, Keten
According to the prevalent characterizations mentioned above, silk fiber is considered a semicrystalline polymer with a hierarchical structure in which highly oriented
2.3. The physical (mechanical) properties of silk fibers
Spider silk and
The mechanical properties of silk fibers can be described by stress-strain curve profiles, which are generated by stretching the fibers at a specific strain rate. The stress is expressed as force per cross-sectional area and the strain is defined as a normalized extensibility. Typical stress-strain curves for
2.4. The structure-property relationship of silk fibers
Evidently, the attractive macroscopic mechanical properties of silk fiber can be ascribed to the structural effects. Most of the attention has focused on the nanometer scale: predominantly, primary and secondary structure, as well as organization and arrangement of protein molecules. In terms of primary structure of silk proteins, amino acid composition, sequential order and the number of the motifs in each module are important for the mechanical properties of the final fibers. For example, the primary structure of
The mechanical properties of silk fibers, also depend crucially on spinning conductions, such as humidity, temperature, and reeling speed, and so on [19, 104]. Variations in crystallinity and alignment can be found within the silk fiber due to variations in reeling speed of the collected sample. These variations have been mapped to mechanical properties by affecting the formation of the
Modern analytical technologies and tools have steadily contributed to the progress in experimental studies of the structure of silk fibers, as described above. However, it is still no consensus on the hierarchical structure of silk at the nanometer scale. Some models have been proposed to interpret the structure-property relationship of silk fibers. The first such model was Termonia’s early model [64]. The model hypothesized that silk is a hydrogen-bonded amorphous phase with embedded stiff crystal domains acting as multifunctional cross-links and creating a thin layer of high modulus in the amorphous regions. The stiff hydrogen bonds are first broken to give the fiber its high initial modulus. Meanwhile, it allows the dynamic rubber phase to redistribute the deformation field for prediction of the nonlinear large strain deformation. The simulated properties based on the theoretical model properly reproduce the combination of high initial modulus, strength and toughness of dragline silk fiber. However, in this model, a theoretical modulus of 160 GPa for rigid
Multi-scale experimental and simulation analyses are the key to improve our systematic understanding of how structure and properties are linked. The mechanical mechanism at the macroscopic scale, namely, the fibril, including morphology and its consequence for mechanical behavior and the mechanistic interplay with nanostructure of silk, has also been elucidated [115-117]. At the same time, many experiments have been employed to assess the effect of structural changes on the mechanical deformation of silk [118-121]. When mechanical load are applied to the fibers, conformation, reorientation, crystallite size, and some other structural characters are monitored to explain the structure-property relationships.
The experimental and computational investigations shown above have explored mechanical properties of
Furthermore, unlike
3. Silk protein assembly and silk fiber formation mechanism
The remarkable mechanical properties of silk fibers have spawned great interests in determination of their origin. Systematic studies of the natural spinning process of silk fibers have shown a highly sophisticated hierarchical process, allowing for the transformation of soluble silk protein into solid fibers with specific mechanical and functional properties. Although much is already known about the characteristics of the silk proteins and silk fibers themselves, the process for silk assembly and spinning into fibers is yet to be resolved. A detailed knowledge of silk fiber formation is critical for the biomimetic production of tough silk-like fibers.
3.1. Natural spinning process for B. mori silk and spider draglines
In nature, silk proteins are secreted and stored in the glands until they are processed into fibers. Morphological and histological studies demonstrate that the silk glands of
The major gland responsible for the dragline silk of
3.2. Silk protein assembly and silk fiber formation mechanism on a structural view
The formation of a solid fiber from soluble silk proteins is a remarkable process owing to complex biochemical and physical changes. For silk spinning, several assembly models, such as liquid spinning theory [136] and micelle theory [144] have been proposed for the fiber formation, whereas the details remain to be elucidated. In order to understand the mechanisms of silk proteins assembly and fiber formation, the structure of proteins stored in
It has reported that
Experiments made
Actually, the chemical and mechanical stimuli together are likely to influence the fold of nonrepetitive amino-terminal and carboxy-terminal and the hydrophilic spacers within the hydrophobic core domain [37, 135, 158, 164-166]. Due to the larger hydrophilic blocks at the chain ends of the protein molecules having charged groups, it is possible that they might play an important role in the molecular assembly and conformational transition at a specific pH through decreased electrostatic repulsion. A significant step towards understanding the effect of the terminal domains in assembly was the determination of atomistic structures of the nonrepetitive terminal regions of MaSp proteins. Kessler and Scheibel’s group reported the structure of carboxy-terminal domain of
4. Advanced applications of silk fibers
Traditionally, silk has been utilized in the construction of textiles. Current research in silk fibers involves their innovative trends and advanced applications. Basically, the rich proportion of essential amino acids in silk fibers indicates high nutritive value, meaning that silk fibroin can be used as a dietary additive [167-169]. Furthermore, the amino acids, glycine, alanine, serine and tyrosine are of vital for nourishing the skin. The crystalline structure of silk protein reflects UV radiation, acting as protective buffer between the skin and environment. The extracts of silk protein are used in soap making, personal care and cosmetic products. The silk protein is also applied to enhance glossy, brightness, and softness of products. In addition, the production of advanced man made super-fibers such as Kevlar involves petrochemical processing, which contributes to pollution. Interest in silk fibers is mainly due to the combination of the mechanical properties and eco friendly way in which they are made. Spider silk fibers have been envisioned to be applied in a variety of technical textiles, including parachute cords, protective clothing and composite materials in aircrafts, which demand high toughness in combination with sleaziness.
Silks are biocompatible, biodegradable and have implant ability, as well as morphologic flexibility. Silk fiber has been used as extremely thin suture for eye or nerve surgery for long history [170]. Nowadays, one attractive application of silk fibers is act as a source of novel biomaterials. Recent progress with processing of silk fibers into various material forms, usually via the formation of the fibroin/spidroin solution, including thread, hydrogels, tubes, sponges, microspheres, particles and films [9, 171], promotes the field of applications for silk fibers in general (Figure 8) [172]. Silk protein can be modified by chemical treatment or used in combination with other materials and the silk-based biomaterials have been transformed for high-technology uses, with promising futures in the fields of biomedicine and material engineering. Numerous studies have demonstrated that fibroin supports cell attachment and proliferation for a variety of cell types [173-178]. Studies have established a potential for silk-based biomaterials use as tissue engineering scaffolds, such as skeletal tissue like bone [179], ligaments [180], and cartilage [181, 182], as well as skin [183], blood vessels [184] and nerve [185]. Silks can be designed and offer another biomedical applications, such as delivery of small molecule drugs, proteins and genes [186]. Silk fibroin possesses remarkable optical properties, such as near-perfect transparency in a visible range. It has been identified as a suitable material for the development of biophotonic components [187-189] in biomedical device performing electronics or sensors [190-198]. Surely, these impressive biopolymers are extremely promising for their potential applications in material science and engineering.
5. Conclusions
Our review in current chapter concentrated on
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the financial support from the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant 51073113, 91027039 and the Natural Science Foundation of the Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China under Grant 10KJA540046. This work was also supported by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD). We also acknowledge support from the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD), Qing Lan Project for Excellent Scientific and Technological Innovation Team of Jiangsu Province (2012) and Project for Jiangsu Scientific and Technological Innovation Team (2013). The author, Xinfang Liu, especially thank the support of the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Jiangsu province (No. 1201030B).
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