1. Introduction
Metalloproteinases (MMPs) were first described by Gross more than fifty years ago. They are a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases. They comprise a group of 25 enzymes. MMPs were first described as proteases degrading extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins such as collagens, elastin, proteoglycans and laminins, hence they were named matrix metalloproteinases. MMPs were divided according to their substrate specificity into collagenases, gelatinases, stromolysins and matrilysins. This classification was later replaced by numbering the enzymes according to the chronology of their identification.
Four metalloproteinases (MMP-14, MMP-15, MMP-16 and MMP-24) have a transmembrane and cytosolic domains. They constitute a subgroup of membrane-type metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs). Recently an intracellular, nuclear localization and functions of metalloproteinases have been discovered [1-4].
2. Physiological role of metalloproteinases
MMP-1 (collagenase 1) hydrolyzes collagen types I, II, III, VII, VIII, X and XI, as well as gelatin, fibronectin, vitronectin, laminin, tenascin, aggrecan, links protein, myelin basic protein and versican. MMP-2 (gellatinase) degrades collagen types I, II, III, IV, V, VII, X and XI, gelatin, elastin, fibronectin, vitronectin, laminin, entactin, tenascin, SPARC and aggrecan, links protein, galectin-3, versican, decanin and myelin basic protein. One of the most important differences between these two metalloproteinases is the possibility of the hydrolysis of elastin and collagen type IV by MMP-2, but not by MMP-1. Researchers have also focused their interest on MMP-9 which can degrade collagen types IV, V, VII, X and XIV, fibronectin, laminin, nidogen, proteoglycan link protein and versican.
For a long time metalloproteinases have been viewed solely as enzymes of matrix proteins breakdown. Results of researches performed in recent years indicate that there is a group of non-matrix proteins which can be substrates for various MMPs. Metalloproteinases are involved in the activation of latent forms of effective proteins. For example, MMP-2, MMP-3 and MMP-9 can activate interleukin 1β (IL-1β). They can also act on active cytokines, IL-1β undergoes subsequent degradation catalyzed by MMP-3. Metalloproteinases can alter cell surface proteins such as receptors and act on microbial peptides.
Metalloproteinases are not indiscriminately released by cells. They are secreted to or anchored to cell membrane. MT-MMPs have a specific transmembrane domain placing them in a certain position. Other metalloproteinases can be bound by specific cell-MMP interactions. This phenomenon allows an exact localization of their proteolytic activity [1-3].
3. Activation of metalloproteinases
Metalloproteinases are encoded as inactive proenzymes, zymogens. They undergo proteolytic activation. This process can take place either intracellulary or extracellulary. One third of MMPs are activated by intracellular serine protease, furin. This process takes place in trans-Golgi network. A number of MMPs has a cleavage site for other metalloproteinases. MMP-3 activates proMMP-1 and pro-MMP-7. Some metalloproteinases have been described to be activated by kallikrein or plasmin.
Like some other proteases, activity of MMPs is controlled also by two other mechanisms, regulation of gene expression and specific inhibitors. MMP-2 is constitutively expressed and regulation of its activity occurs by either activation or inhibition. Expression of a number of metalloproteinases is up-regulated during various pathological conditions. Among them inflammation is the most studied setting. MMPs are inhibited by α-2 macroglobulin and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). There are four TIMPs. Their secretion is also regulated and represents another point in a network of control of the activity of metalloproteinases. TIMP-3 is primarily bond to ECM and allows a regulation of MMPs’ activity in the very site of their action. The network of the control of the activity of metalloproteinases is complex and very precise. Sometimes TIMP interacts with proMMP and inactivate other MMP, e.g. a complex of TIMP-1 and proMMP-9 inactivates MMP-3.
Protection from MMP degradation represents the next step in this sophisticated network of diverse interactions. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) bounds to MMP-9 protecting this metalloproteinase from its degradation [1-3].
4. Metalloproteinases in central nervous system
Metalloproteinases in central nervous system can be produced by cells constituting it, by cells of blood vessels’ wall or by blood cells. The production of MMPs in central nervous system under normal conditions is low, however it can be augmented in several neoplastic and non-neoplastic conditions. The expression of MMP-14 (MT1-MMP) in microglia is very low under physiological conditions. It can be increased in neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory pathologies, e.g. Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or even in a stroke. Astrocytes were reported to secrete MMP-2 and MMP-9 [5,6].
For a long time MMPs were thought to be enzymes acting exclusively in extracellular compartment. Studies carried in last few years have revealed nontraditional roles for MMPs in extracellular space as well as in the cytosol and nucleus. MMP-2 and MMP-9 which were largely studied in central nervous system have been shown to present an increased activity in cortex neuronal nuclei after focal cerebral ischemia. These two MMPs, MMP-2 and MMP-9, are also termed gelatinase A and gelatinase B. The increased gelanolytic activity in nucleus occurs to be linked with MMP-dependent cell death triggering neuroinflammatory reactions. MMP-13, named also collagenase-3, was found to be activated mostly in neurons and oligodendrocytes. Its function in cell nucleus may be linked to the apoptosis cascade following ischemic stimulus. MMPs localized in cell nucleus can have a different set of target proteins than MMPs acting in extracellular space. Poly-ADP-ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1) and X-ray cross-complementary factor-1 (XRCC-1) can be the substrates for MMP-dependent cleavage [4].
5. Metalloproteinases in brain tumors
Gliomas are the most common malignant tumors in the brain, and the overall prognosis for patients suffering from this neoplasm is poor. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive type of glioma. Molecular mechanisms of invasiveness of this neoplasm have been most widely studied. Many factors are involved in the migration and invasiveness of GBM. MMPs have gained a large interest of researchers. The role of MMPs is significant in the degradation of ECM, thereby facilitating tumor cell invasion into surrounding stroma. Neoplastic cell invades in three steps. The first one is the attachment of tumor cell to the basement membrane through binding of neoplastic cell receptors to the basement membrane receptors. The next one is the secretion of hydrolytic enzymes, MMPs, which locally degrade ECM by extracellular proteolysis. The third step comprises the movement of the tumor cell to the free space obtained by degradation of ECM. MMP-13 is involved in the initiation of progression of invasion due to its proteolytic activity. Expression of MMP-13 is higher in glioma than in the surrounding normal brain tissue. High expression of this MMP is more often detected in advanced grades of glioma. Some researchers suggest that MMP-13 can be used as a biomarker of GBM progression. A study of Hsieh
Other scientists have shown that GBM cells can present an increased expression of other metalloproteinases: MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-9 and MMP-14. Some researchers tried to reveal the molecular markers of invasiveness in gliomas. In the results of their studies various MMPs can be found. Bakalova
MT1-MMP (MMP-14) activates directly proMMP-2 and indirectly MMP-2 and MMP-9. Expression of MMP-14 was shown to correlate with invasiveness of glioma and to increase with glioma grade. MMP-14 expression was also shown to correlate with brain tumor progression. This metalloproteinase, MMP-14, has been proposed as a biomarker to determine the type and grade of specific tumor. MMP-14 has a very interesting set of digested proteins. Apart from ECM proteins it can hydrolyze the most potent central nervous myelin inhibitory proteins, including BN-220. MMP-14 can also digest some proteins having adhesion functions. MMP-14 can also be involved in some intracellular processes. It can be trafficked along the tubulin cytoskeleton and be involved in intracellular recycling pathway. MMP-14 expression abnormalities were linked to mitotic spindle aberrations and chromosome instability leading to malignant transformation of neoplastic cells. MMP-14 may also be involved in regulation of VEGF-A expression. VEGF-A induces angiogenesis and inhibits apoptosis. MMP-14 seems to promote malignant glioma transformation, invasion and metastasis through intracellular signaling pathways [14].
6. Metalloproteinases and intracellular signaling pathways
Increased expression of various MMPs observed in brain tumors is a result of multiple intracellular events which may be termed as dysregulated pathways. These intracellular molecular mechanisms leading to increased invasion of neoplasmatic cells have focused scientists’ interest. Understanding these complex mechanisms may be a key to design a molecular targeted therapy for patients with brain tumors. Signaling pathways leading to increased expression of MMPs are of special interest.
Tsai
MMP-2 has been discovered to posses intracellular activity and play some role in cell nucleus. A study by Kesanakurti
Understanding the molecular pathways enhancing aggressiveness of glioma cells may lead to introducing a complex therapy focused on several targets which may give a better effectiveness.
7. Metalloproteinases in other cells supporting tumor and metastasis development
In last few years scientists have paid more attention to interactions between glioma cells and microglia as well as on inreactions between metastatic cancer cells and astrocytes. Ellert-Miklaszewska
Brain metastasis is a defining component of tumor pathophysiology and underlying mechanisms urgently need deeper elucidation. The relationship between metastatic cells and astrocytes is crucial for tumor cell sustenance in brain. Some researchers postulate that tumor cell metastasis to the brain are influenced by astrocyte secretome and astrocytes play a direct role in tumor metastasis. Wang
8. Blocking MMPs expression and/or activity
Scientists have widely studied the possibilities of attenuating MMPs expression and activity in order to reduce the invasiveness of gliomas. They efforts have combined various directions.
Atorvastatin is a well known statin, an inhibitor of β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase. By inhibiting the key enzyme in a mevalonate synthesis pathway atorvastatin has pleiotropic effects. The main mode of action of this drug is the inhibition of
Yongjun and co-workers have observed that atorvastatin reduced pro-tumorigenic effects of microglia on glioma migration and invasion by reducing microglial expression of MT1-MMP (MMP-14). Mohebbi
Locatelli
Researchers are trying to investigate drugs aimed at inhibiting MT1-MMP (MMP-14). DX-2400, a fully human antibody was shown to reduce MMP-14 activity, retard tumor progression, metastasis, migration and invasion. Two natural isoflavonoid phytoestrogens, genistein and biochain A, were shown to reduce MMP-14 activity in a dose dependent manner in U87MG cell line. The green tea polyphenol, (Q)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg), has been found to inhibit MMP-14 mediated cell migration. This compound also disrupted proMMP-2 activation via downregulation of MMP-14 gene expression. Marimastat, an orally administered MMP inhibitor, was tested in two clinical trials in GBM patients after neurosurgery or irradiation. Marimastat alone did not improve survival, but in conjunction with cytotoxic chemotherapy gave promising results [27-30].
The next point of scientists interest are microRNAs (miRNAs). These small, non-coding RNA molecules containing 18-25 nucleotides in length can inhibit gene expression by binding to the 3’ untranslated region of their target genes and suppress translation. Several studies have shown that various miRNAs can inhibit expression of MMP-14, MMP-2 and inhibit tumor cell adhesion, migration, invasion and angiogenesis [31-35].
Lei
9. Conclusions
In last few years MMPs have been shown to exert new biochemical properties. Their extracellular mode of action as well as intracellular, intranuclear activities were shown to be involved in invasiveness of brain tumors, especially gliomas. Inhibiting their expression may be a new therapeutical approach. So far some drugs being MMPs inhibitors have some serious adverse effects. Inhibiting MMPs expression and activity seems to be rather a supplement to chemotherapy, radiotherapy or neurosurgical procedures than a new single method of treatment of brain tumors.
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