IntechOpen

Home > Books > Desalination

Open access peer-reviewed chapter

Phase Equilibria and Phase Separation of the Aqueous Solution System Containing Lithium Ions

Written By

Long Li, Yafei Guo and Tianlong Deng

Submitted: 31 August 2016 Reviewed: 07 March 2017 Published: 30 August 2017

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.68363

Desalination IntechOpen
Desalination Edited by Taner Yonar

From the Edited Volume

Desalination

Edited by Taner Yonar

Book Details Order Print

Chapter metrics overview

1,585 Chapter Downloads

View Full Metrics
Advertisement

Abstract

Brines including seawater, concentrated seawater after desalinization, salt lake, oil/gas water, and well bitter are widely distributed around the world. In order to promote the comprehensive utilization and effective protection of the valuable chemical resources existing in brines such as freshwater, lithium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium salts, the systematic foundation and application foundation research including phase equilibria and thermodynamic properties for the salt‐water electrolyte solution are essential, especially for solid lithium salts and their aqueous solution systems.

Keywords

  • thermodynamics
  • phase equilibria
  • aqueous solution
  • lithium salts

1. Introduction

1.1. Lithium resources situation

Lithium is the lightest alkali metal, which plays a growing role in numerous processes such as rechargeable batteries, thermonuclear fusion, medical drugs, lubricant greases, ceramic, glasses, dyes, adhesives, and electrode welding [1–19]. Lithium is a critical energy material and a strategic resource for the twenty‐first century. Consequently, the market demands for lithium resources are increasing around the world [20, 21].

Lithium naturally occurs in compound forms because of its high reactivity. Economic concentrations of lithium are found in brines, minerals, and clays in various parts of the world. Brines and high‐grade lithium ores are the present sources for all commercial lithium production. The global lithium reserve is estimated at 14.0 megatons [22], which is 74.5 megatons of lithium carbonate equivalent. Lithium reserves are mainly distributed in South America, China, and Australia [23].

Generally, lithium is obtained from two major resources: the lithium mineral ores including spodumene and petalite ores and the containing‐lithium brine resources including seawater, underground water and salt lake brine [24–27]. Currently, the former is well exploited while the latter is being developed by industries with relatively low efficiency. Nonetheless, more than 60% of the total lithium amount exists in sea water and brines [24]. Therefore, a great potential exists for obtaining lithium from aqueous sources, if an efficient lithium recovery technology can be developed. Separation and extraction of lithium from either sea water or brine is carried out on a semi‐industrial scale and industrial scale in the USA from salt lakes [28], in Japan from thermal water [29, 30], in Israel from the Dead Sea [31], and in China from underground brines and salt lakes [22].

In addition, the most important physical and chemical processes occurring in brines are evaporation, concentration, crystallization, precipitation, dissolution, and phase transformation. It is obvious that phase equilibria and thermodynamics can explain above phenomenon and even guide those processes effectively. Therefore, it is particularly meaningful to engage the research on phase equilibria and thermodynamics properties of lithium‐containing aqueous solution systems for describing the geochemical evolution of containing lithium brines and exploiting valuable lithium resources.

Advertisement

2. Phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems

Brines, including seawater, concentrated seawater after desalinization, salt lake, oil/gas water, and well bitter are all complex multi‐component salt‐water systems, whose study and application is mainly in reference to the solubility of salts in the water and the solid‐liquid equilibrium rule. Hence, solid‐liquid phase equilibria form the basis for salt‐water systems, which in turn are used in the chemical industry for the separation of lithium [32].

2.1. Stable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems

Early in the 1960s, Soviet scholars had conducted research on stable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems [33–35]. The solubilities of the systems (Li+, Na+, Mg2+//Cl− – H2O), (Li+, Na+, Mg2+//SO42− – H2O), (Li+, Na+, K+//SO42‐ – H2O) in the temperature range from 288.15 to 373.15 K were determined. Three types of double salts containing lithium, 2Li2SO4·Na2SO4 ·K2SO4, Li2SO4·3Na2SO4·12H2O, and Li2SO4·K2SO4 were found for the first time and the physicochemical properties of these were measured. All these studies could provide the solubility data to extract lithium resources in sea water and other brines.

Researchers in China also studied stable phase equilibria of complex system (Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+//Cl−, CO32−, SO42−, borate–H2O) and its subsystems. Some research results are shown in Table 1. In addition, depending on the aquatic chemical types, the lithium‐containing salt‐water systems can be divided into lithium‐containing chloride system, sulfate system, carbonate system, and borate system.

CategoryLithium‐containing systemsTemperature (K)Reference
LiClH+, Li+, Mg2+//Cl−–H2O273.15[36]
Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+//Cl−–H2O298.15[37]
Li+, Mg2+//Cl−–H2O298.15[38]
Li+, NH4+//Cl−–H2O273.15,298.15, 323.15[39]
Li+, Rb+, Mg2+//Cl−–H2O323.15[40]
Li+, Na+, K+, Sr2+//Cl−–H2O298.15[41]
Li+, Mg2+//Cl−–H2O288.15[42]
Li2SO4Li+, K+//SO42−–H2O
Li+, Mg2+//SO42−–H2O		298.15[43]
Li+, K+, Mg2+//SO42−–H2O298.15[44]
Li+, K+, Mg2+//Cl−, SO42−–H2O298.15[45]
Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+//SO42−–H2O298.15[46]
Li+, K+//SO42−–H2O288.15[47]
Li+//Cl−, SO42−–H2O308.15[48]
Li+, Mg2+//SO42−–H2O288.15[42]
Li2CO3Li+, Na+, K+//CO32−–H2O298.15[49]
Li+, K+//Cl−, CO32−–H2O298.15[50]
Li+, Na+//Cl−, CO32−–H2O298.15[51]
Li+, K+//Cl−, CO32−–H2O298.15[52]
Li+, Na+, K+//CO32−–H2O288.15[53]
Li2B4O7Li+//Cl−, SO42−, B4O72−–H2O
Li+, Mg2+//SO42−, B4O72−–H2O
Li+//CO32−, B4O72−–H2O
Li+, K+//CO32−, B4O72−–H2O
Li+, Na+//CO32−, B4O72−–H2O
Li+, K+//CO32−, B4O72−–H2O
Li+, Na+, K+//Cl−, B4O72−–H2O		298.15[54]
298.15[55]
298.15[56]
298.15[57]
298.15[58]
288.15[59]
298.15[60]
Li+, Na+, K+//CO32−, B4O72−–H2O288.15[61]
LiBO2Li+//SO42−, BO2−–H2O288.15, 298.15[62]
Li+//Cl−, BO2−–H2O288.15, 298.15[63]
Li+//Cl−, BO2−–H2O308.15[64]
Li+//Cl−, SO42−, BO2−–H2O298.15[65]
Li+//SO42, CO32−, BO2−–H2O288.15, 298.15, 308.15[66]
Li+//Cl−, BO2−–H2O323.15[67]
Li+//SO42−, BO2−–H2O

Table 1.

Stable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems.

In order to apply the hydride salting‐out effect to the separation of lithium and magnesium, phase equilibria of the quaternary system H+, Li+, Mg2+//Cl− – H2O and its subsystems at 273.15, 293.15, and 313.15 K had been researched [36, 68]. Phase distribution of the quaternary system was confirmed and the salting‐out effect was investigated preliminarily, which provides the physical chemistry foundation for lithium‐preparation technique in brines.

Furthermore, the phase equilibria and phase diagram of various salt‐water systems containing lithium had been reported heavily. However, the experimental temperature was almost focused on 298.15 K. With the maturity of research techniques and the development of instruments, phase equilibria of multi‐component systems at multiple temperatures should be the research focus point in the future. It is worth mentioning that the structures of borate are complicated and have diversified aggregation forms because of the changes of pH, boron contents, types of coexisting ions, and the concentration conditions in the brines. Most studies on the borate‐type salt lake brine are mainly for lithium tetraborate. Our group has made excellent progress on phase equilibria of salt‐water system containing different species of lithium borates [62–67].

2.2. Metastable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems

In the process of seawater and salt lake brine evaporation, the metastable phenomenon is ubiquitous. Because of the conditions of temperature, wind speed, and humidity in the natural environment, brine systems are in a metastable state. Early in the eighteenth century, Van’t Hoff had already found that some phase regions disappeared and some enlarged in the stable phase diagram when the salt‐water system was in the process of simulating evaporation [32]. So it is useful for the metastable phase diagram to extract the products which cannot be obtained in the stable phase diagram [69].

Some of metastable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems are shown in Table 2. A lot of lithium‐containing systems of chloride, sulfate, carbonate, and borate were researched. The concentration of lithium salt becomes higher in the sulfate‐type salt lake brine in the final evaporation period. In our group, metastable phase equilibria of the lithium‐containing sulfate system (Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+//Cl−, SO42‐ – H2O) and its subsystems at different temperature were determined, which has great help for industrial production and the comprehensive utilization of lithium‐containing sulfate system salt lakes.

CategoryLithium‐containing systemsTemperature (K)Reference
LiClLi+,Na+,Mg2+//Cl−–H2O308.15[70]
Li+,Na+,Ca2+//Cl−–H2O288.15[71]
Li+,K+//Cl−–H2O298.15[72]
Li+,K+//Cl−–H2O323.15[73]
Li+,K+,Rb+//Cl−–H2O298.15[74]
Li+,K+,Rb+//Cl−–H2O323.15[75]
Li2SO4Li+,Mg2+//Cl−,SO42−–H2O298.15[76]
Li+,Na+//Cl−,SO42−–H2O273.15[77]
Li+,Na+,Mg2+//SO42−–H2O263.15[78]
Li+,Mg2+//SO42−–H2O323.15[79]
Li+,Mg2//Cl−,SO42−–H2O323.15[80]
Li+,Mg2//Cl−,SO42−–H2O308.15[81]
Li+,K+//Cl−,SO42−–H2O308.15[82]
Li+,Mg2//Cl−,SO42−–H2O273.15[83]
Li+,Na+//SO42−–H2O288.15, 308.15[84]
Li+,Na+//SO42−–H2O308.15, 348.15[85]
Li+,Na+,K+//Cl−,SO42−–H2O308.15[86]
Li+//Cl−,SO42−–H2O308.15[48]
Li+,K+//SO42−–H2O288.15, 323.15[87]
Li+,K+//SO42−–H2O308.15[88]
Li2CO3Li+,Na+//SO42−,CO32−–H2O288.15[89]
Li+,K+//Cl−,CO32−–H2O298.15[90]
Li2B4O7Li+,Na+,K+//Cl−,B4O72−–H2O298.15[60]
Li+,Na+//SO42−,B4O72−–H2O288.15[91]
Li+,Na+,K+//CO32−,B4O72−–H2O288.15[92]
Li+,K+//Cl−,SO42−,B4O72−–H2O288.15[93]
Li+,K+//SO42−,B4O72−–H2O288.15[94]
Li+//Cl−,CO32−,B4O72−–H2O298.15[95]
Li+,K+//CO32−,B4O72−–H2O273.15[96]
Li+,K+//CO32−,SO42−,B4O72−–H2O273.15[97]
Li+,K+//CO32−,B4O72−–H2O288.15[98]

Table 2.

Metastable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water systems.

Advertisement

3. Thermodynamics of lithium salts and their aqueous solution systems

In the long‐term production activities and scientific practice, it is troublesome for some production process of the new technology, new processes, or new product development, because there is no data and phase diagram of the relevant salt-water system. In addition, experimental determination on solubilities of multi‐component systems is a complex work and it is virtually impossible for researchers to investigate all the salt‐water systems. However, it is well‐known that phase diagram is a geometry description of phase relation in the system under the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium. In theory, the phase diagram should be able to be gained based on the principles of thermodynamics [99].

As to the classical electrolyte theory, Debye‐Hückel theory is only suitable for the dilution solution with a concentration below 0.1 m (molality) and it is unusable to solve the thermodynamic behaviors and to predictive the dissolution equilibria for the complex salt lake brine systems [100]. Pitzer theory [101], which was developed on the basis of Debye‐Hückel ion‐interaction theory, characterizing thermodynamics properties of electrolyte solution with brief and terse form is widely used either in geochemical behaviors of natural waters and mineral deposits or in the predictions of solubility of salt‐water systems. A series of calculated expressions for the activity coefficient and osmotic coefficient of any electrolytes in multi‐component systems were proposed by Pitzer [102]. After measuring the thermodynamic parameters, such as osmotic coefficient, activity coefficient, heat of dissolution, heat of dilution, heat of mixing, and specific heat, it is easy to calculate and fit the relative model‐parameter theoretically and solubility on the basis of Pitzer and its extended ion‐interaction model to promote the development of theory and practice, such as the new field of calculating phase diagram and its application [32].

At present, the domestic and foreign research methods of electrolyte solution of thermodynamic properties are mainly isopiestic method, electromotive force method, calorimetric method, conductivity method, hygrometry, density method, and so on. The isopiestic method and electromotive force method are the most common experimental method to be widely used in measuring the thermodynamic properties such as permeability and activity coefficient. They complement each other. The basic property of matter which is the change of energy can be measured directly by the calorimetric method. In recent years, the calorimetric method is widely implemented in the research of solution thermodynamic properties [103].

In 1992, Yao et al. [104] measured the osmotic and activity coefficients of aqueous mixtures of LiCl and MgCl2 in the range of low concentration to near crystallization limits by the isopiestic method. The Pitzer single‐salt parameters and the mixed parameters were calculated by the osmotic and activity coefficients, which were applicative for Pitzer’s equation. The predicted solubilities for the system studied using Pitzer’s approach were shown to be in reasonable agreement with experimental results from references. The osmotic coefficients of aqueous mixtures of Li2SO4 and MgSO4 had been reported from 1.4 to 13.5 mol·kg−1 at 298 K using the isopiestic method by Zhang et al [105]. In the ranges of 0.2–8.7 and 0.6–12.7 mol·kg−1 the osmotic coefficients of Li2SO4 and MgSO4 were also reported, respectively. The predicted solubilities for this system using Pitzer’s approach showed good agreement with experimental results. Yang et al. [106] measured isopiestic molalities and water activities for the Li2B4O7–LiCl–H2O system at 298.15 K using an improved isopiestic apparatus, and the two types of osmotic coefficients were calculated and compared. Pitzer’s primary model with minor modifications, in combination with the chemical equilibria, was used to represent the experimental data for the complex Li2B4O7–LiCl–H2O system.

Based on the principle of isopiestic method, the osmotic and activity coefficients can be obtained. However, it might be difficult to get these coefficients with the strict thermodynamics calculation in the mixed electrolyte solutions. The activity coefficients of KCl and LiCl in KCl–LiCl aqueous mixtures have been studied at 298.15 K in ionic strength range of 0.1–4.0 mol·kg−1 by Li et al. [107]. The data were fitted to Pitzer’s equation using the regression method, Pitzer parameters were obtained. The activity confidents of aqueous LiCl in the system LiCl–MgCl2–H2O were determined at 298.15 K in the total ionic strength range from 0.05 to 6.0 mol·kg−1 with the electromotive force method using a lithium‐selective electrode and Ag/AgCl electrode by Wang et al. [108]. The activity coefficients of the experiment were compared with which calculated by the Pitzer equation with the known parameters of experimental osmotic coefficients.

The process of chemical reaction, dissolution, dilution, and mixing are often accompanied with heat changes. Reaction heat data, such as dissolution heat, dilution heat, mixing heat, and special heat, were determined critically by the calorimetry technology, which can work out thermodynamic enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, and thermodynamic equilibrium constant. Hence, the calorimetric method became the research highlights to measure the thermodynamic properties (dissolution heat, dilution heat, mixing heat, and capacity heat).

There are some thermodynamic parameters measured by the calorimetric method. In 1965, Wu [109] and Wood [110] researched heats of mixing of a variety of aqueous containing lithium solutions of the same ionic strength at 298.15 K. Some of them were in the different concentration. The concentration dependence of the heats of mixing indicated that like‐charged ion pairs were important contributors to the heat of mixing. The enthalpies of dilution of lithium in the range 0.1–1.0 m had been measured at 303.15 K with a microcalorimeter by Leung et al. [111]. The relative apparent enthalpies of these solutions had been determined with the aid of an extended form of Debye‐Hückel limiting law. Enthalpies of solution of Li2SO4 and Li2SO4·H2O in water at 298.15 K were investigated [112]. The molar enthalpies of solution extrapolated to infinite dilution at 298.15 K were ΔsolHm∞ (Li2SO4) = −(30502 ± 170) J·mol−1 and ΔsolHm∞ (Li2SO4·H2O) = −(17899 ± 152) J·mol−1. The value for the monohydrate lithium sulfate had been calculated by assuming that the excess water in the sample was present as an aqueous saturated solution. There were presented preliminary specific heat capacities of lithium sulfate solution.

The standard molar enthalpy of the formation of some lithium borates were determined [113–116]. The results were ΔfHmθ (LiBO2·2H2O) = −(1627.46 ± 0.90) kJ·mol−1, ΔfHmθ(LiBO2·8H2O) = −(3397.00 ± 0.94) kJ·mol−1, ΔfHmθ(LiB5O8·5H2O) = −(5130.25 ± 4.05) kJ·mol−1, ΔfHmθ(Li2B4O7·3H2O) = −(4290.86 ± 3.31) kJ·mol−1, ΔfHmθ(Li3B5O8(OH)2 (I)) = −(4724.1 ± 4.2) kJ·mol−1, ΔfHmθ(Li3B5O8(OH)2 (II)) = −(4723.8 ± 4.2) kJ·mol−1, and ΔfHmθ(Li4[B5O13(OH)2]·3H2O) = − (7953.8 ± 6.6) kJ·mol−1.

Meanwhile, the thermodynamic properties in solution system contained lithium borates had been widely researched. Zhang et al. [117] determined the molar heat capacities of the aqueous Li2B4O7 solution at a concentration of 0.0187 mol·kg−1 in the temperature range from 80 to 355 K by a precision automated adiabatic calorimetry. The enthalpies of dilution for the aqueous Li2B4O7 solutions from 0.0212 to 2.1530 mol·kg−1 at 298.15 K have been measured [118]. The relative apparent molar enthalpies and relative partial molar enthalpies of the solvent and solute for the aqueous Li2B4O7 system were also calculated. The thermodynamic properties of the binary aqueous system Li2B4O7–H2O were represented with the extended Pitzer ion‐interaction model. And the enthalpies of dilution, ΔdilHm, have been also measured for the LiCl–Li2B4O7–H2O system at T = 298.15 K [119]. A suitable microcalorimetric method was used to obtain the better data of the enthalpies of dilution for the ternary system LiCl–Li2B4O7–H2O at a low concentration. The relative apparent molar enthalpies have been determined and the relationships between apparent molar enthalpies and ionic strength at different molar fractions of Li2B4O7 were obtained. Li [120] measured the heats of dilution and heat capacities of eutectic point solution system Li2B4O7–Li2SO4–LiCl–H2O and subsystems Li2B4O7–Li2SO4–H2O and Li2B4O7–LiCl–H2O to cover the ionic strength range from 19 to 0.1 at 298.15 K. The data of the heat of dilution were extrapolated to infinite dilution by use of the Debye‐Hückel limiting law to obtain relative apparent molar enthalpies.

In our group, the heat capacities of aqueous solution systems (Li2B4O7–H2O) m = 0.00415–0.4208 mol·kg−1·at T = 298.15, 308.15 and 323.15 K were determined experimentally using the Setaram BT 2.15 microcalorimeter [121]. On the basis of experimental data, the apparent molar heat capacities at different concentrations and temperatures were calculated, and the relationship equations between apparent molar heat capacity and solution concentration of lithium tetraborate at 298.15, 308.15 and 323.15 K were obtained. On the other hand, the Pitzer single salt parameters of lithium tetraborate at different temperatures were fitted on the basis of the Pitzer ion‐interaction theory of the electrolytes on the apparent molar heat capacity.

So far, the thermodynamic parameters of lithium salts are still scarce. The Pitzer single salt parameters and the mixing ion‐interaction parameters at different temperatures have not been established yet. So, more works on the thermodynamics parameters of lithium salts and their aqueous solution systems at multi‐temperatures are essential.

Advertisement

4. Conclusion

With the gradually increasing demands of lithium salt resources as the lithium energy battery, to exploit the lithium‐containing brine resources including seawater, concentrated seawater after desalinization, salted lake, oil/gas field water, and well bitter is essential. Therefore, studies on phase equilibria and phase separation of the lithium‐containing brine systems are significant to guide the comprehensive utilization of those lithium‐containing brine resources around the world. In this chapter, the following three main aspects were discussed: Firstly, the stable and metastable phase equilibria of lithium‐containing salt‐water multi‐systems including the different types of chloride, sulfate, carbonate, and borate brines at different temperatures were summarized. Secondly, a series of valuable thermodynamic properties of standard molar enthalpy of formation for solid lithium salts such as LiCl·H2O, Li2SO4·H2O, LiBO2·2H2O, LiBO2·8H2O, Li2B4O7·3H2O, Li3B5O8(OH)2, and Li4[B5O13(OH)2]·3H2O, and the thermodynamic properties (dissolution heat, dilution heat, mixing heat, and capacity heat) for their relatively aqueous solutions were obtained combined by the isothermal dissolution equilibrium method, isopiestic method, and adiabatic calorimetry, and so on. Thirdly, on the basis of classical Debye‐Hückel electrolyte theory, the extended modern electrolyte model, developed by Pitzer KS and his coworkers to express the activity coefficient and osmotic coefficient of any electrolytes in multi‐component lithium‐containing systems, was successfully used to obtain a series parameters such as the model parameter fitting, thermodynamic property calculation, and the solubility prediction.

Advertisement

Acknowledgments

Financial supports from the National Natural Science of China (21276194, 21306136, U1407113, U1607123), the Chinese Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016M592827), the Laboratory Foundation of Chinese Universities (SY2015018), and the Training Program of Yangtze Scholars and Innovative Research Team in Universities of China ([2013]373) are acknowledged.

References

  1. 1. Treptow RS. Lithium batteries: A practical application of chemical principles. Journal of Chemical Education. 2003;80:1015–1020. DOI: 10.1021/ed080p1015
  2. 2. Lu L, Han X, Li J, Hua J, Ouyang M. A review on the key issues for lithium‐ion battery management in electric vehicles. Journal of Power Sources. 2013;226:272–288. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060
  3. 3. Song JY, Wang YY, Wan CC. Review of gel‐type polymer electrolytes for lithium‐ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 1999;77:183–197. DOI: 10.1016/S0378‐7753(98)00193‐1
  4. 4. Delgado MA, Sánchez MC, Valencia C, Franco JM, Gallegos C. Relationship among microstructure, rheology and processing of a lithium lubricating grease. Chemical Engineering Research & Design. 2005;83:1085–1092. DOI: 10.1205/cherd.04311
  5. 5. Delgado MA, Valencia C, Sánchez MC, Franco JM, Gallegos C. Thermorheological behaviour of a lithium lubricating grease. Tribology Letters. 2006;23:47–54. DOI: 10.1007/s11249‐006‐9109‐5
  6. 6. Monmaturapoj N, Lawita P, Thepsuwan W. Characterisation and properties of lithium disilicate glass ceramics in the SiO2‐Li2O‐K2O‐Al2O3 system for dental applications. Advances in Materials Science & Engineering. 2013;2013:680–685. DOI: 10.1155/2013/763838
  7. 7. Huang S, Cao P, Wang C, Huang Z, Gao W. Fabrication of a high‐strength lithium disilicate glass‐ceramic in a complex glass system. Journal of Asian Ceramic Societies. 2013;1:46–52. DOI: 10.1016/j.jascer.2013.02.007
  8. 8. Palacios‐Bereche R, Gonzales R, Nebra SA. Exergy calculation of lithium bromide–water solution and its application in the exergetic evaluation of absorption refrigeration systems LiBr‐H2O. International Journal of Energy Research. 2012;36:166–181. DOI: 10.1002/er.1790
  9. 9. Hollands KGT. The regeneration of lithium chloride brine in a solar still for use in solar air conditioning. Solar Energy. 1963;7:39–43. DOI: 10.1016/0038‐092X(63)90003‐3
  10. 10. Tobishima SI, Okada T. Effects of quinoneimine dyes on lithium cycling efficiency for LiClO4‐propylene carbonate. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 1985;15:901–906. DOI: 10.1007/BF00614366
  11. 11. Kimura K, Tanaka M, Kitazawa S, Shono T. Highly lithium‐selective crown ether dyes for extraction photometry. Chemistry Letters. 1985;8:1239–1240. DOI: 10.1246/cl.1985.1239
  12. 12. Dunner DL, Fieve RR. Clinical factors in lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1974;30:229–233. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1974.01760080077013
  13. 13. Millard MJ, Kurtis KE. Effects of lithium nitrate admixture on early‐age cement hydration. Cement & Concrete Research. 2008;38:500–510. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.11.009
  14. 14. Tyrsa VE, Burtseva LP. Generation of thermonuclear energy by fusing hydrogen and lithium atoms. Technical Physics. 2003;48:807–812. DOI: 10.1134/1.1593184
  15. 15. Blink JA, Hogam WJ, Hovingh J, Meier ER, Pitts JH. High‐yield lithium‐injection fusion‐energy (HYLIFE) reactor. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry. 2014;62:4276–4284. DOI: 10.2172/6124368
  16. 16. Mansfield DK, Strachan JD, Bell MG, Scott SD, Budny R, Marmar ES, et al. Enhanced performance of deuterium–tritium‐fueled supershots using extensive lithium conditioning in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor. Physics of Plasmas (1994‐Present) 1995;2:4252–4256. DOI: 10.1063/1.871050
  17. 17. Karki K, Epstein E, Cho JH, Jia Z, Li T, Picraux ST, et al. Lithium‐assisted electrochemical welding in silicon nanowire battery electrodes. Nano Letters 2012;12:1392–1397. DOI: 10.1021/nl204063u
  18. 18. Swann AC, Koslow SH, Katz MM, Maas JW, Javaid J, Secunda SK, et al. Lithium carbonate treatment of mania. Cerebrospinal fluid and urinary monoamine metabolites and treatment outcome. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1987;44:345–354. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800160057008
  19. 19. Marocho SM, Ozcan M, Amaral R, Bottino MA, Valandro LF. Effect of resin cement type on the microtensile bond strength to lithium disilicate ceramic and dentin using different test assemblies. Journal of Adhesive Dentistry. 2013;15:361–368. DOI: 10.3290/j.jad.a28624
  20. 20. Vikström H, Davidsson S, Höök M. Lithium availability and future production outlooks. Applied Energy. 2013;110:252–266. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.04.005
  21. 21. Sonoc A, Jeswiet J. A review of lithium supply and demand and a preliminary investigation of a room temperature method to recycle lithium ion batteries to recover lithium and other materials. Procedia Cirp. 2014;15:289–293. DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2014.06.006
  22. 22. Hao H, Liu Z, Zhao F, Geng Y, Sarkis J. Material flow analysis of lithium in China. Resources Policy. 2017;51:100–106. DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.12.005
  23. 23. Swain B. Recovery and recycling of lithium: A review. Separation and Purification Technology. 2017;172:388–403. DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2016.08.031
  24. 24. Grosjean C, Miranda PH, Perrin M, Poggi P. Assessment of world lithium resources and consequences of their geographic distribution on the expected development of the electric vehicle industry. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2012;16:1735–1744. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.11.023
  25. 25. Chan LH, Leeman WP, Plank T. Lithium isotopic composition of marine sediments. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems. 2006;3613:107–109. DOI: 10.1029/2005GC001202
  26. 26. Chitrakar R, Makita Y, Ooi K, Sonoda A. Synthesis of iron‐doped manganese oxides with an ion‐sieve property: lithium adsorption from Bolivian brine. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2014;53:3682–3688. DOI: 10.1021/ie4043642
  27. 27. Kesler SE, Gruber PW, Medina PA, Keoleian GA, Everson MP, Wallington TJ. Global lithium resources: relative importance of pegmatite, brine and other deposits. Ore Geology Reviews. 2012;48:55–69. DOI: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.05.006
  28. 28. Marinsky, JA, Marcus Y, editors. Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction: A Series of Advances. Vol. 12. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1995. p. 93
  29. 29. Yanagase K, Yoshinaga T, Kawano K, Matsuoka T. The recovery of lithium from geothermal water in the Hatchobaru area of Kyushu, Japan. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan. 1983;56:2490–2498. DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.56.2490
  30. 30. Yoshinaga T, Kawano K, Imoto H. Basic study on lithium recovery from lithium containing solution. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan. 1986;59:1207–1213. DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.59.1207
  31. 31. Epstein JA, Feist EM, Zmora J, Marcus Y. Extraction of lithium from the dead sea. Hydrometallurgy. 1981;6:269–275. DOI: 10.1016/0304‐386X(81)90044‐X
  32. 32. Deng TL, Zhou H, Chen X. Salt‐water System Phase Diagrams and Applications. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2013. 11, pp. 203–205
  33. 33. Lepshkov JH, Vopapeva NW. Inorganic Salts Phim. 1958;3:278
  34. 34. Lepshkov JH, Vopapeva NW. Inorganic Salts Phim. 1961;6:1961
  35. 35. Lepshkov JH, Vopapeva NW. Inorganic Salts Phim. 1962;7:1699
  36. 36. Hu KY, Chai WQ. A study of phase equilibria in the quaternary aqueous salt system H+, Li+, Mg2+//Cl−– H2O at 0°C. Acta Chimica Sinica. 1965 31:189–197
  37. 37. Zhang FX, Guo ZJ, Chen PH Ma JH, Chen YS. Studies on the solubility and the isothermal evaporation process in the quinary system Li, Na, K, Mg/Cl‐H2O at 25°C. Chemical Research in Chinese Universities. 1987;8:301–305
  38. 38. Zhang FX, Guo ZJ, Chen PH, Ma JH, Chen YS. A study on the ternary system LiCl‐MgCl2‐H2O at 25°C. Journal of Northwest University (Natural Science Edition). 1988;18:75–78
  39. 39. Ouyang HT, Zeng DW, Zhou HY, Han H, Yao Y. Solubility of the ternary system LiCl–NH4Cl–H2O. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2011;56:1096–1104. DOI: 10.1021/je101056t
  40. 40. Yu XD, Jiang DB, Tan Q, Zeng Y. Solid–liquid equilibrium in the aqueous system containing the chlorides of lithium, rubidium and magnesium at 323 K. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2014;367:63–68. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2014.01.037
  41. 41. Meng LZ, Gruszkiewicz MS, Deng TL, Guo YF, Li D. Isothermal evaporation process simulation using the Pitzer model for the quinary system LiCl + NaCl + KCl + SrCl2 + H2O at 298.15 K. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2015;54:8311–8318. DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.5b01897
  42. 42. Wang SQ, Guo YF, Li DC. Solid‐liquid phase equilibria in the ternary systems (LiCl + MgCl2 + H2O) and (Li2SO4 + MgSO4 + H2O) at 288.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2015;60:821–827. DOI: 10.1021/je500946w
  43. 43. Li B, Wang QZ, Li J, Fang C, Song P. A study on the ternary systems Li+, K+/SO42−‐H2O and Li+, Mg2+/SO42‐‐H2O at 25°C. Acta Physico‐Chimica Sinica.1994;10:536–542
  44. 44. Fang CH, Li B, Li J, Wang QZ, Song PS. Studies on the phase diagram and solution properties for the quaternary system Li+, K+, Mg2+/SO42‐‐H2O at 25°C. Acta Chimica Sinica. 1994;52:954–959
  45. 45. Sun B, Li B, Fang CH, Du XH, Song PS. Studies on the phase diagram and solution properties for the quinary system, Li+, K+, Mg2+/Cl−, SO42‐‐H2O at 25°C. Journal of Salt Lake Research. 1995;3:50–56.
  46. 46. Li B, Sun B, Fang CH, Du XH, Song PS. Studies on the phase diagram for the quinary system Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+/SO42‐‐H2O at 25°C. Acta Chimica Sinica. 1997;55:545–552
  47. 47. Wang SQ, Guo YF, Li DC, Tang P, Deng TL. Experimental determination and modelling of the solubility phase diagram of the ternary system (Li2SO4 + K2SO4 + H2O) at 288.15 K. Thermochimica Acta. 2015;601:75–81. DOI: 10.1016/j.tca.2015.01.003
  48. 48. Liu YH, Guo YF, Wang XK, Deng TL. Phase equilibria in the ternary system (LiCl + Li2SO4+ H2O) at T=308.15 K and p=0.1 MPa: Experimental data and predictions using the Pitzer model. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2015;391:85–89. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2015.02.009
  49. 49. Zeng Y, Yin HA, Tang ML, Wang LS. Studies on the phase diagram and liquid physicochemical properties for the quinary system, Li+, Na+, K+/CO32‐–H2O at 298 K. Chemical Engineering(China). 1999;27:45–47, 57
  50. 50. Deng TL, Yin HA, Tang ML. A study of solubilities and physicochemistry properties of equilibrium solutions in the reciprocal quaternary system Li+, K+/Cl‐, CO32‐–H2O at 298 K. Chemical Research in Chinese Universities. 2000;21:1572–1574
  51. 51. Deng TL, Yin HA, Tang ML. Experimental and predictive phase equilibrium of the Li+, Na+//Cl‐, CO32‐–H2O system at 298.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2002;47:26–29. DOI: 10.1021/je000368b
  52. 52. Zeng Y, Yin HA, Tang ML, Feng XX. A study of the phase equilibrium for quinary system Li+, Na+, K+//CO32‐, Cl‐–H2O at 298.15 K. Chemical Journal of Chinese Universities. 2003;24:968–972
  53. 53. Sang SH, Tang ML, Yin HA, Zeng Y. A study on the phase equilibrium of the quaternary system K2CO3–Na2CO3–Li2CO3–H2O at 288 K. Chinese Journal of Applied Chemistry. 2004;21:509–511
  54. 54. Song PS, Du XH. A study of solubilities and physicochemistry properties of equilibrium solutions in the quaternary system Li2B4O7–Li2SO4–LiCl–H2O at 25°C. Chinese Science Bulletin. 1986;3:209–213
  55. 55. Song PS, Fu HG. Solubilities and properties of solution in the reciprocal system Li+, Mg2+/B4O72‐, SO42‐–H2O at 25°C. Chinese Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 1991;7:344–348
  56. 56. Zeng Y, Tang ML, Yin HA, Wang LS. An Experimental study on the equilibrium phase diagram and solution properties of the ternary systems Li+/CO32‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 298 K. Journal of Mineralogy & Petrology. 1999;19:89–92
  57. 57. Zeng Y, Xiao X, Yin HA. A study on the phase equilibrium and solution properties of the quaternary system Li+, K+//CO32‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 298 K. Journal of Chemical Engineering of Chinese Universities. 2002;16:591–596
  58. 58. Yin HA, Hao LF, Zeng Y, Tang ML. Studies on the phase equilibrium and physicochemical properties of solutions for the quinary system Li+, Na+//CO32‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 298 K. Journal of Chemical Engineering of Chinese Universities. 2003;17:1–5
  59. 59. Yin HA, Sang SH, Tang ML Zeng Y. Equilibrium of quaternary system Li+, K+//CO32‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 288 K. Journal of Chemical Industry and Engineering (China). 2004;5:464–467. DOI: 10.3321/j.issn:0438‐1157.2004.03.001
  60. 60. Deng TL. Phase equilibrium for the aqueous containing lithium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and borate ions at 298.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2004;47:1295–1299. DOI: 10.1021/je049975f
  61. 61. Sang SH, Yin HA, Tang ML. (Liquid + solid) phase equilibria in the quinary system Li+ + Na+ + K+ + CO32‐ + B4O72‐ + H2O at 288 K. Physical Inorganic Chemistry. 2005;36:1557–1562
  62. 62. Gao DL, Wang Q, Guo YF, Yu XP, Wang SQ, Deng TL. Solid‐liquid phase equilibria in the aqueous ternary system Li2SO4 + LiBO2 + H2O at T = 288.15 and 298.15 K. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2014;371:121–124. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2014.03.019
  63. 63. Gao DL, Guo YF, Yu XP, Wang SQ, Deng TL. Solubilities, densities, and refractive indices in the salt‐water ternary system (LiCl + LiBO2+ H2O) at T = 288.15 K and 298.15 K and p = 0.1 MPa. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2015;60:2594–2599. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jced.5b00121
  64. 64. Zhang N, Guo YF, Liu YH, Wang SQ, Deng TL. Thermodynamic phase equilibria of the aqueous ternary system (LiCl + LiBO2 + H2O) at 308 K: Experimental data and predictions using the Pitzer model. Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan. 2016;49:324–331. DOI: 10.1252/jcej.15we045
  65. 65. Cao LN, Li L, Zhang N, Guo YF, Deng TL. Phase equilibria of quaternary system LiCl–LiBO2–Li2SO4–H2O at 298.15 K. Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2016;67:1117–1122. DOI: 10.11949/j.issn.0438‐1157.20151204
  66. 66. Guo, YF, Li L, Cao LN, Yu XP, Wang SQ, Deng TL. Solubilities, densities and refractive indices in the aqueous quaternary system of lithium sulphate, lithium metaborate, and lithium carbonate at 288.15, 298.15, 308.15 K and 0.1 MPa. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jced.6b00777
  67. 67. Li L, Guo YF, Zhang SS, Sheng MM, Deng TL. Phase equilibria in the aqueous ternary systems (LiCl + LiBO2 + H2O) and (Li2SO4+ LiBO2 + H2O) at 323.15 K and 0.1 MPa. Fluid Phase Equilibria. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2016.12.013
  68. 68. Hu KY, Chai WQ, Liu DG. A study of phase equilibria in the quaternary aqueous salt system H+, Li+, Mg2+//Cl‐ – H2O at 0°, 20°, 40°. Liu Dagang’s Science Works Collection. Beijing: Science Press; 1977. pp. 162–183
  69. 69. Zhang BJ, Sun B, Deng TL. Progresses on meta‐stable phase equilibria of salt‐water system. Journal of Salt and Chemical Industry. 2007;36:39–34. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673‐6850.2007.01.014
  70. 70. Zhang BJ. Metastable phase equilibrium of quaternary system Li+, Na+, Mg2+//Cl‐–H2O and ternary system Na+(K+), Mg2+//Cl‐–H2O at 35°. [Dissertation]. Chengdu University of Technology; 2007
  71. 71. Deng TL, Li D. Solid‐liquid metastable equilibria in the quaternary system (NaCl + LiCl + CaCl2 + H2O) at 288.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2008;53:2488–2492. DOI: 10.1021/je8000798
  72. 72. Zeng Y, Yu XD, Zhang JQ, Li LG. Metastable phase equilibria in the aqueous ternary system containing potassium, lithium and chloride ions at 298.15 K. Advanced Materials Research. 2011;233–235:1619–1622. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.233‐235.1619
  73. 73. Chang WH, Zeng Y, Yan SY, Zhang ZH. Metastable phase equilibrium in the ternary system LiCl + KCl + H2O at 323 K. Journal of Salt & Chemical Industry. 2012;41:26–28
  74. 74. Yu XD, Zeng Y, Yang JY. Sold‐liquid isothermal evaporation metastable phase equilibria in the aqueous quaternary system LiCl + KCl + RbCl + H2O at 298.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2012;57:172–132. DOI: 10.1021/je200880m
  75. 75. Li ZQ, YU XD, Yin QH, Zeng Y. Thermodynamics metastable phase equilibria of aqueous quaternary system LiCl + KCl + RbCl + H2O at 323.15 K. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2013;358:131–136. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2013.08.011
  76. 76. Guo ZZ, Liu ZQ, Chen JQ. The metastable phase equilibrium in the system Li+, Mg2+//Cl‐, SO42‐–H2O at 25°. Acta Chimica Sinica. 1991;49:937–943
  77. 77. Wang SQ, Deng TL. Metastable phase equilibria of the reciprocal quaternary system containing lithium, sodium, chloride, and sulphate ions at 273.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2010;55:4213–4215. DOI: 10.1021/je1003669
  78. 78. Li ZY, Deng TL, Liao MX. Solid‐liquid metastable equilibria in the quaternary system Li2SO4 + MgSO4 + Na2SO4 + H2O at T = 263.15 K. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2010;2931:42–46. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2010.02.016
  79. 79. Deng TL, Yin HJ, Guo YF. Metastable phase equilibrium in the aqueous ternary system (Li2SO4 + MgSO4+ H2O) at 323.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2011;56:3585–3588. DOI: 10.1021/je800482y
  80. 80. Meng LZ, Yu XP, Li D, Deng TL. Solid‐liquid metastable equilibria of the reciprocal quaternary system (LiCl + MgCl2 + Li2SO4 + MgSO4 + H2O) at 323.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2011;56:4627–4632. DOI: 10.1021/je200563j
  81. 81. Gao J, Deng TL. Metastable phase equilibrium in the aqueous quaternary system (LiCl + MgCl2 + Li2SO4 + MgSO4+ H2O) at 308.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2011;56:1452–1458. DOI: 10.1021/je1008526
  82. 82. Liu YH, Deng TL Song PS. Metastable phase equilibrium of the reciprocal quaternary system LiCl + KCl + Li2SO4 + K2SO4 + H2O at 308.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2011;56:1139–1147. DOI: 10.1021/je1010888
  83. 83. Wang SQ, Guo YF, Deng TL. Solubility prediction for the reciprocal quaternary system (Li+, Mg2+//Cl‐, SO42‐–H2O) at 273.15 K using Pitzer ion‐interaction model. Advanced Materials Research. 2012;549:437–440. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.549.437
  84. 84. Guo YF, Liu YH, Wang Q, Lin CX, Wang SQ, Deng TL. Phase equilibria and phase diagrams for the aqueous ternary system (Na2SO4 + Li2SO4 + H2O) at (288 and 308) K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2013;58:2763–2767. DOI: 10.1021/je4004146
  85. 85. Guo YF, Gao DL, Han HJ, Shen DL, Wang SQ, Deng TL. Metastable phase equilibria in the aqueous ternary system (Na2SO4 + Li2SO4 + H2O) at 308.15 and 348.15 K. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2013;358:56–59. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2013.07.048
  86. 86. Liu YH, Guo YF, Yu XP. Solid‐liquid metastable phase equilibria in the five‐component system (Li + Na + K + Cl + SO4 + H2O) at 308.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2014;59:1685–1691
  87. 87. Bu BH, Li L, Zhang N, Guo YF, Wang SQ, Sun LY, Deng TL..Solid–liquid metastable phase equilibria for the ternary system (Li2SO4 + K2SO4 + H2O) at 288.15 and 323.15 K, p = 0.1 MPa.Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2015;402:78–82. DOI: 10.1016/j.fluid.2015.05.044
  88. 88. Li L, Bu BH, Zhang N, Guo YF, Deng TL. Metastable phase equilibria for the ternary aqueous system of lithium sulphate and potassium sulphate at T = 308.15 K: Experimental data and prediction using Pitzer model. Russian Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 2016;61:1169–1174. DOI: 10.1134/S0036023616090138
  89. 89. Sang SH, Yin HA, Zeng Y, Liu FY. Study on metastable equilibria in quaternary system Li+, Na+//SO42‐, CO32‐–H2O at 288 K. Acta Chimica Sinica. 2006;64:2247–2253
  90. 90. Yan SY, Yin HA, Liang Q, Tang ML, Wang LM. An experimental study on metastable phase equilibria in the quaternary system Li+, K+//Cl‐, CO32‐–H2O at 298 K. Chemical Research and Application. 2008;20:166–168
  91. 91. Sang SH, Yu HY, Cai DZ. Study on metastable equilibria in quaternary system Li+, Na+//SO42‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 288 K. Chinese Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 2005;21:1316–1320
  92. 92. Sang SH, Yin HA, Tang ML. (Liquid + solid) phase equilibria in the quinary system Li+ + Na+ + K+ +CO32‐ + B4O72‐ + H2O at 288 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2005;50:1555–1558. DOI: 10.1002/chin.200548015
  93. 93. Zeng Y, Shao M. Liquid‐solid metastable equilibria in the quinary system Li+, K+//Cl‐, SO42‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 288.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2006;51:219–222. DOI: 10.1021/je050337m
  94. 94. Sang SH, Yin HA, Lei NF. (Solid + liquid) metastable equilibria in quaternary system Li2SO4 + K2SO4 + Li2B4O7 + K2B4O7 + H2O at 288 K. Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics. 2006;38:173–178. DOI: 10.1016/j.jct.2005.04.002
  95. 95. Yan SY, Chen T, Liang Q, Yin HA, Zeng Y. A study on metastable equilibrium in the quaternary reciprocal system of Li+/Cl‐, CO32‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 298 K. Chinese Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 2006;26:95–97
  96. 96. Zeng Y, Lin XF, Meng S. Study on metastable phase equilibrium of quaternary system Li+, K+//CO32‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 273 K. Chemical Engineering (2008) 36:47–50
  97. 97. Qu SD. Study on the metastable equilibrium of the quinary system Li+, K+//CO32‐, SO42‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 273 K [Dissertation]. Chengdu University of Technology; 2008
  98. 98. Sang SH, Zhang X, Zhao XP, Xiao LJ. Metastable equilibria in the quinary system of Li+, K+//CO32‐, SO42‐, B4O72‐–H2O at 288 K. Acta Chimica Sinica.2010;68:476–480
  99. 99. Gao SY, Song PS, Xia SP, Zheng MP. Salt Lake Chemistry: A New Type Salt Lake of Boron and Lithium. Beijing: Science Press; 2007
  100. 100. Song PS, Yao Y, Li J. Thermodynamics and phase equilibria of the salt lake brine system at 25°. Progress in Chemistry. 2000;12:255–267
  101. 101. Pitzer KS. Thermodynamics of electrolytes I: Theoretical basis and general equations. Journal Physical Chemistry. 1973;77:268–277. DOI: 10.1021/j100621a026
  102. 102. Pitzer KS. Activity Coefficients in Electrolyte Solutions. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: The Chemical Rubber Company Press; 1991. pp. 75–153
  103. 103. Deng TL, Li J, Li L, Zhang SS, Guo YF. Application of calorimetry to the study of thermodynamic properties of borate systems. Journal of Tianjing University of Science & Technology. 2016; 31:6–12. DOI: 10.13364/j.issn.1672‐6510.20150098
  104. 104. Yao Y, Sun B, Song PS, Zhang Z, Wang RL, Chen JQ. Thermodynamics of aqueous electrolyte solution—Isopiestic determination of osmotic and activity coefficients in LiCl–MgCl2–H2O at 25°. Acta Chimica Sinica. 1992;50:839–848
  105. 105. Zhang Z, Yao Y, Song PS, Chen JQ. Isopiestic determination of the osmotic and activity coefficients of aqueous mixtures of Li2SO4 and MgSO4. Acta Physico‐Chimica Sinica. 1993;9:366–373
  106. 106. Yang JM, Yao Y, Xia QY, Li BH, Xu SY, Yang JY. Isopiestic determination of the osmotic coefficients and Pitzer model representation for the Li2B4O7 + LiCl + H2O system at T = 298.15 K. Journal of Solution Chemistry. 2008;37:377–389. DOI: 10.1007/s10953‐007‐9244‐0
  107. 107. Li J, Song PS, Yao Y, Wang RL. Thermodynamic properties of KCl–LiCl–H2O at 25°. Acta Physico‐Chimica Sinica. 1992;8:94–99
  108. 108. Wang DB, Song PS, Yang JZ. Thermodynamics of mixture of boric acid with lithium borate and chloride. Chinese Journal of Chemistry. 1994;12:97–104. DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.19940120201
  109. 109. Wu YC, Smith MB, Young TF. Heats of mixing of electrolytes having common ions. Journal of Physical Chemistry. 1965;69:1868–1872. DOI: 10.1021/j100890a014
  110. 110. Wood RH, Smith RW. Heats of mixing of aqueous electrolytes. I. Concentration dependence of 1‐1 electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry. 2002;69:2974–2979. DOI: 10.1021/j100893a025
  111. 111. Leung WH, Millero FJ. The enthalpy of formation of magnesium sulphate ion pairs. Journal of Solution Chemistry. 1975;4:145–159. DOI: 10.1007/BF00649155
  112. 112. Apelblat A. Enthalpy of solution of lithium sulphate and lithium sulphate monohydrate in water at 298.15 K. Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics. 1985;17:769–773. DOI: 10.1016/0021‐9614(85)90108‐9
  113. 113. M Bán, Madarász J, Bombicz P, Pokol G, Gál S. Thermal and structural study on the lattice compound 1, 4‐diammoniumbutane bis (theophyllinate). Thermochimica Acta. 2004;420:105–109. DOI: 10.1016/j.tca.2003.12.033
  114. 114. Li J, Li B, Gao SY. Thermochemistry of hydrated lithium borates. Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics. 1998;30:681–688. DOI: 10.1006/jcht.1997.0324
  115. 115. Li P, Liu ZH. Hydrothermal synthesis, characterization, and thermodynamic properties of a new lithium borate, Li3B5O8(OH)2. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2010;55:2682–2686. DOI: 10.1021/je900947d
  116. 116. Li P, Liu ZH. Synthesis, structure and thermodynamic property of a new lithium borate: Li4[B8O13(OH)2].3H2O. Chinese Journal of Chemistry. 2012;33:847–853
  117. 117. Zhang ZH, Tao ZC, Yin GY. Heat capacities and thermodynamic functions of the aqueous Li2B4O7 solution in the temperature range from 80 K to 355 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 2007;52:866–870. DOI: 10.1021/je060462d
  118. 118. Yin GY, Yao Y, Jiao BJ, Chen SP, Gao SL. Enthalpies of dilution of aqueous Li2B4O7 solutions at 298.15 K and application of ion‐interaction model. Thermochimica Acta. 2005;435:125–128. DOI: 10.1016/j.tca.2005.04.007
  119. 119. Yin GY, Yao Y, Liu ZH. Enthalpies of dilution of aqueous mixed solutions of LiCl and Li2B4O7 at 298.15 K. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 2009;95:377–380. DOI: 10.1007/s10973‐008‐9239‐0
  120. 120. Li JC, Zhai ZX, Zeng ZM, Wang LY. Thermo‐chemistry of solution of salt lakes(IV): Heats of dilution, heat capacities and apparent molal enthalpies of Li2B4O7—Li2SO4—LiCl—H2O system at 298.15K. Journal of Salt Lake Research. 1993;1:34–38
  121. 121. Li L, Zhang SS, Liu YH, Guo YF, Deng TL. Heat capacities and the ion‐interaction of lithium tetraborate aqueous solution system. Chemical Journal of Chinese Universities. 2016;37:349–353. DOI: 10.7503/cjcu20150594

Written By

Long Li, Yafei Guo and Tianlong Deng

Submitted: 31 August 2016 Reviewed: 07 March 2017 Published: 30 August 2017

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Continue reading from the same book

View All
Chapter 6 Marmara Seawater Desalination by Membrane Distilla...

By Coskun Aydiner, Derya Y. Koseoglu Imer, Salim Once...

2092 downloads

Chapter 7 On the Purification of Agro-Industrial Wastewater ...

By Javier Miguel Ochando-Pulido and Antonio Martinez-...

1512 downloads

Chapter 8 Solar Thermal‐Driven Desalination Pursuing Product...

By Ben Xu, Peiwen Li and Penghua Guo

1636 downloads