Crimson clover seeding and termination dates.
Abstract
The use of winter cover crops is an integral component of conservation systems in a corn and cotton conservation agriculture rotation. Field experiments were conducted from the autumn of 2003 through cash crop harvest in 2006 at three locations. The treatments were five cover-crop-planting timings each fall and four cover-crop termination timings each spring. Five crimson clover or cereal rye planting timings occurred: on the average first 0○C temperature date, 4 and 2 weeks prior and 4 and 2 weeks after the average 0○C temperature date. Termination dates were 1–4 weeks prior to the average optimum soil temperature date for the establishment of each cash crop. Results showed that biomass production by winter covers decreased with even a week’s delay in winter cover-crop seeding and resulted in a corresponding increase in summer annual weed biomass. More than 10 times difference in biomass produced by clover was observed when clover was planted on the earliest date and terminated on the last date compared to late planting and early termination, rye eight times. Correspondingly, weed biomass was 556 kg ha−1 in the treatment with least rye biomass, eight times higher compared to the treatment with greatest rye biomass.
Keywords
- alternative weed control
- conservation tillage
- cover crops
- crop rotation
- weed biomass
1. Introduction
Resistance management has become the dominating weed science research and extension focus. In the Southeastern and Mid-South United States, questions concerning management of herbicide resistant
In the 2012 Weed Science special issue “Herbicide Resistant Weeds”, authors describe the need to understand a diverse best management practices (BMPs), including “emphasizing cultural management techniques that suppress weeds by using crop competitiveness” and “using mechanical and biological management practices where appropriate” [7]. Specific examples among many BMPs include crop rotation and cover-crops mulches, respectively. Interest in utilizing high-residue cover crops as a weed management tool is continually increasing from both producers and conservation organizations such as the Soil and Water Conservation Society and USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service among others who both actively support conservation practices through outreach programs and fiscal incentives. This special issue manuscript also states that the appropriate time for cover-crop termination is complex and that the optimum planting and termination timing will be regional and often farm-specific, and concludes “the greatest challenge to the use of any cover crop is the added complexity associated with integration into existing cropping systems.”
To reduce the use of intensive tillage practices in integrated weed management systems for controlling problematic weeds, further evaluation of alternative control strategies is necessary. High-residue cover crops, which have been shown to provide early-season weed control, may be utilized in cotton along with other management tactics to suppress
In the past, cover-crop termination has been facilitated utilizing pre-plant (PP) burndown herbicides before planting. The CES recommends terminating winter covers relatively early in the spring, due to concerns for excessive cover-crop biomass interfering with planting operations or excessive soil moisture depletion [23, 24]. However, planting into residue is commonplace (Figure 1) and it is well known that planting date affects subsequent residue cover [25].
Cooperative extension service recommendations also generally recommend waiting approximately 2–4 weeks after desiccating cereal winter covers before planting cotton to avoid allelopathic effects [26, 27]. However, little research has been conducted evaluating how management of high-residue cover-crop biomass production in situ affects biomass amounts attained as well as weed and crop response. Thus, the objective of this research was to determine how cover-crop planting and termination timing influence subsequent residue and weed biomass and crop yield responses.
2. Materials and methods
Field experiments were conducted at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station’s E.V. Smith Research Center at Shorter, AL, and Tennessee Valley Research and Extension Center at Belle Mina, AL, from autumn of 2003 through cash crop harvest in 2006. The experiment was also conducted at the University of Florida West Florida Education and Research Center at Jay, FL, from autumn of 2004 to cash crop harvest in 2006. The three locations were selected due to their relatively distant latitude positions and differing soil types, which, according to previous observations concerning forage biomass yield, would influence winter cover-crop growth. Latitude ranged from Belle Mina at 34.689595, E.V. Smith at 32.427626 to Jay, FL, at 30.777618. The soil types were Compass loamy sand (coarse-loamy, siliceous, subactive, thermic Plinthic Paleudults) at E.V. Smith, Decatur silty loam (fine, kaolinitic, thermic, Rhodic Paleudult) at Tennessee Valley, and a Dothan sandy loam (fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic Plinthic Kandiudults) at Jay.
The treatments were five cover-crop-planting timings each fall and four cover-crop termination timings each spring. The five crimson clover or cereal rye-planting timings occurred on the average 30 year first 0○C temperature date, 4 and 2 weeks prior and 4 and 2 weeks after the average 30 year 0○C temperature date. Termination dates were 1–4 weeks prior to the average 30-year optimum soil temperature date for the establishment of corn or cotton (Table 1 and 2). Termination dates were 4, 3, 2, and 1 week prior to the chosen date for corn and cotton establishment, which we based on the long-term average date of the minimum soil temperature ideal for corn (
Belle Mina, AL | Shorter, AL | Jay, FL | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2003/2004 | 2004/2005 | 2005/2006 | 2003/2004 | 2004/2005 | 2005/2006 | 2004/2005 | 2005/2006 | |
25-Sep | 27-Sep | 25-Sep | 09-Oct | 08-Oct | 12-Oct | 29-Oct | 04-Nov | |
09-Oct | 11-Oct | 11-Oct | 20-Oct | 21-Oct | 25-Oct | 10-Nov | 17-Nov | |
22-Oct | 26-Oct | 24-Oct | 10-Nov | 10-Nov | 07-Nov | 29-Nov | 02-Dec | |
04-Nov | 08-Nov | 07-Nov | 21-Nov | 03-Dec | 22-Nov | 13-Dec | 12-Dec | |
18-Nov | 18-Nov | 18-Nov | 08-Dec | 16-Dec | 07-Dec | 20-Dec | 22-Dec | |
23-Feb | 23-Feb | 22-Feb | 23-Feb | 23-Feb | 22-Feb | 03-Feb | 10-Feb | |
01-Mar | 01-Mar | 01-Mar | 01-Mar | 01-Mar | 01-Mar | 10-Feb | 17-Feb | |
08-Mar | 09-Mar | 08-Mar | 08-Mar | 09-Mar | 08-Mar | 17-Feb | 24-Feb | |
15-Mar | 18-Mar | 15-Mar | 15-Mar | 18-Mar | 15-Mar | 24-Feb | 03-Mar |
The experiment for each location was a randomized complete block design (
Belle Mina, AL | Shorter, AL | Jay, FL | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2003/2004 | 2004/2005 | 2005/2006 | 2003/2004 | 2004/2005 | 2005/2006 | 2004/2005 | 2005/2006 | |||||
25-Sep | 27-Sep | 25-Sep | 09-Oct | 08-Oct | 12-Oct | 29-Oct | 04-Nov | |||||
09-Oct | 11-Oct | 11-Oct | 20-Oct | 21-Oct | 25-Oct | 10-Nov | 17-Nov | |||||
22-Oct | 26-Oct | 24-Oct | 10-Nov | 10-Nov | 07-Nov | 29-Nov | 02-Dec | |||||
04-Nov | 08-Nov | 07-Nov | 21-Nov | 03-Dec | 22-Nov | 13-Dec | 12-Dec | |||||
18-Nov | 18-Nov | 18-Nov | 08-Dec | 16-Dec | 07-Dec | 20-Dec | 22-Dec | |||||
02-Apr | 04-Apr | 05-Apr | 23-Mar | 23-Mar | 22-Mar | 10-Mar | 16-Mar | |||||
09-Apr | 11-Apr | 10-Apr | 31-Mar | 30-Mar | 29-Mar | 17-Mar | 24-Mar | |||||
16-Apr | 18-Apr | 17-Apr | 07-Apr | 06-Apr | 04-Apr | 24-Mar | 31-Mar | |||||
22-Apr | 28-Apr | 24-Apr | 13-Apr | 13-Apr | 12-Apr | 29-Mar | 07-Apr |
Winter cover crops included crimson clover (
Because the central Alabama and West Florida sites had a well-developed hardpan, the experimental areas were in-row subsoiled within the week prior to corn and cotton planting with a narrow-shank parabolic subsoiler equipped with pneumatic tires to close the subsoil channel (KMC, Tifton GA, USA). Corn hybrid cv. Dekalb 69-72RR and cotton cultivars DP 444 BG/RR, ST 5242 BR and DP555BRR were planted at Shorter, Belle Mina, and Jay Florida, respectively. Each cash crop was planted 1 week after the final termination date for winter cover crops at each location with a four-row planter equipped with row cleaners and double-disk openers (Great Plains Mfg., Inc. Salina, KS, USA).
At the corn eight-leaf or cotton four-leaf growth stage, all aboveground biomass for all weeds were harvested from two between the row randomly selected 0.25-m2 sections per plot and treated in a similar manner as to cover-crop samples described above. Immediately after weed sampling, glyphosate was applied at 1.12 kg ae ha−1. Plots were then kept weed-free until harvest utilizing Alabama CES-recommended herbicide applications. For the determination of corn grain yield, the two center rows of each plot were harvested with a plot combine, dried to constant moisture (150 g H2O kg−1), and weighed. Seed cotton yield was determined by machine harvesting the middle two rows of each plot with a spindle picker.
Data were analyzed separately for each location using generalized linear-mixed models methodology as implemented in SAS® PROC GLIMMIX. Year, planting date and termination date, and all their interactions were considered fixed effects. Interaction of reps with planting date and termination date was considered random effects. Interaction effects were considered to be important whenever the calculated
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Crimson clover cover-crop biomass
Climatic conditions encountered at the three locations resulted in large differences in biomass production. The maximum biomass production (5447 kg ha−1) was observed at Shorter, AL, when crimson clover was seeded 4 weeks prior to the average first 0○C temperature and terminated 1 week prior to planting the corn cash crop (data not shown). The least biomass production (24 kg ha−1) was observed at Belle Mina, AL, when the clover was seeded at the last establishment date (4 weeks post 0○C temperature) and terminated 1 week prior to corn planting (data not shown).
The most general model for this type of study is a classification model that treats seeding and termination dates as categorical variables resulting in a 5 by 4 factorial arrangement. The three-way interaction was significant (
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
Clover biomass (kg ha−1) | |||
−4 weeks | 2861 | 1928 | 1904 |
−2 weeks | 1435 | 2336 | 1753 |
Median date | 604 | 945 | 757 |
+2 weeks | 304 | 263 | 381 |
+4 weeks | 76 | 121 | 85 |
SE | 172 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
−2 weeks | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
+2 weeks | <0.0001 | 0.009 | 0.265 |
+4 weeks | <0.0001 | 0.001 | 0.010 |
−4 weeks | 1808 | 4750 | 4511 |
−2 weeks | 2135 | 3827 | 3935 |
Median date | 1223 | 1061 | 1958 |
+2 weeks | 1321 | 359 | 805 |
+4 weeks | 914 | 414 | 425 |
SE | 332 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.462 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
−2 weeks | 0.117 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
+2 weeks | 0.998 | 0.302 | 0.030 |
+4 weeks | 0.884 | 0.373 | 0.002 |
−4 weeks | NA | 601 | 2123 |
−2 weeks | NA | 468 | 979 |
Median date | NA | 230 | 465 |
+2 weeks | NA | 103 | 205 |
+4 weeks | NA | 90 | 132 |
SE | 86 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | NA | 0.011 | <0.0001 |
−2 weeks | NA | 0.164 | <0.0001 |
+2 weeks | NA | 0.683 | 0.113 |
+4 weeks | NA | 0.605 | 0.026 |
Crimson clover dry biomass yield was significantly reduced by the delay in seeding date at all locations and years (Table 3).
In 2003–2004 at Belle Mina, crimson clover planted 4 and 2 weeks prior to the average 0○C date yielded 2257 and 831 kg ha−1 higher, respectively, than plots planted on the average 0○C date (604 kg ha−1), and 2785 and 1359 kg ha−1 higher, respectively, than the latest planting date. Similar trends were observed in 2004–2005 and 2005–2006 except for one comparison. Belle Mina is the coldest of the three experiment locations with an average temperature of 10, 5.5, and 3.8○C during November, December, and January, respectively. These observations indicate that it is very important to plant a legume cover crop such as crimson clover early enough to get sufficient growth before cooler temperatures reduce growing degree days. Less than 400 kg ha−1 of biomass was produced when crimson clover was seeded 2 weeks after the average 0○C temperature at Belle Mina in any year. At Belle Mina in 2003–2004 and 2005–2006, clover biomass was maximized by waiting until 1 week prior to planting to terminate the cover crop gaining an additional 521 and 195 kg ha−1, respectively, compared to terminating at the CES recommended 2 weeks prior to planting.
At Shorter, the variability in crimson clover biomass production among the years was very pronounced; biomass production was less in 2003 compared to 2004 and 2005. Significant reduction in crimson clover biomass production was observed with an advanced seeding date only in 2004 and 2005, as indicated by contrasts. If the seeding of crimson clover was delayed by 4 weeks compared to the earliest date, 3689 and 2553 kg ha−1 less biomass were produced in 2004 and 2005, respectively. No significant differences in crimson clover biomass production were, however, observed with early or delayed termination in 2004 and 2005 (Table 4).
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
Clover biomass (kg ha−1) | |||
−1 week prior | 1637 | 1015 | 1323 |
−2 week prior | 1116 | 1364 | 1131 |
−3 week prior | 832 | 1119 | 833 |
−4 week prior | 639 | 977 | 617 |
SE | 144 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | <0.0001 | 0.991 | <0.0001 |
−2 week prior | 0.022 | 0.059 | 0.007 |
−3 week prior | 0.550 | 0.729 | 0.431 |
−1 week prior | 1860 | 2348 | 2827 |
−2 week prior | 1315 | 2005 | 2385 |
−3 week prior | 1691 | 1813 | 2389 |
−4 week prior | 1054 | 2162 | 1706 |
SE | 335 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | 0.187 | 0.956 | 0.039 |
−2 week prior | 0.891 | 0.972 | 0.310 |
−3 week prior | 0.360 | 0.781 | 0.306 |
−1 week prior | NA | 474 | 1144 |
−2 week prior | NA | 217 | 945 |
−3 week prior | NA | 201 | 588 |
−4 week prior | NA | 300 | 446 |
SE | 77 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | NA | 0.264 | <0.0001 |
−2 week prior | NA | 0.787 | <0.0001 |
−3 week prior | NA | 0.687 | 0.426 |
Dry biomass accumulation was maximized if crimson clover was allowed to grow until 1 week prior to corn planting compared in 2006.
At the southernmost location Jay, except the three-way interaction, all other main and interaction effects were significant for crimson clover biomass production. Significant differences among years were observed, with biomass production less in 2004–2005 compared to 2005–2006. In 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, the earliest planting date resulted in 601 and 2123, respectively. With every 2-week delay in seeding, the cover-crop biomass production was reduced by more than half in almost all comparisons (Table 3). Significantly high biomass was accumulated when crimson clover was terminated only a week or 2 prior to the corn planting in 2005–2006 compared with the earliest termination date (Table 4).
3.2. Weed biomass in corn
The three-way interaction (year by PD by KD) was not significant for any location. The interaction of termination date with year was significant for both Belle Mina and Shorter locations (
At Belle Mina, weed biomass was only 81 kg ha−1 in 2003/2004 growing season corresponding to crimson clover biomass of 2861 kg ha−1 when the cover crop was seeded 4 weeks prior to the average 0○C temperature (data not shown). Weed biomass increased with delay in cover-crop seeding date indicating that a greater amount of crimson clover residue produced by earlier seeding dates suppressed early-season weed biomass production in corn. However, contrasts indicate no significant reduction in weed biomass if crimson clover was planted 4 or 2 weeks after the average 0○C temperature. In the 2004–2005 growing season, weed biomass production was significantly reduced by seeding crimson clover 4 and 2 weeks prior to the average 0○C temperature; again, the higher biomass production resulted in less weed biomass. No significant differences in weed biomass production were observed if crimson clover was seeded on the average 0○C temperature or thereafter. In 2005/2006, seeding dates had no significant effect on weed biomass production. No significant effect of delayed termination on weed biomass production was observed in 2003–2004 and 2004/2005 growing seasons compared to the first termination date (4 weeks prior to average 0○C temperature). However, in 2005/2006 growing season, a significant reduction in weed biomass was observed with only a week’s delay in crimson clover termination. This could be attributed to the increase in crimson clover biomass production with delayed termination, which in turn resulted in early season weed suppression.
At Shorter location, no significant increase or decrease in weed biomass production was observed with seeding of crimson clover earlier or later than the average 0○C temperature date. However, weed biomass production in general increased with delay in crimson clover seeding date; in 2003/2004 and 2005/2006 growing seasons, weed biomass ranged from 16 to 28 kg ha−1 for the first two crimson clover seeding dates, whereas the final seeding date plots averaged nearly 109 kg ha−1 weed biomass during both the growing seasons. The effect of termination dates was pronounced only in 2005/2006; significantly less weed biomass was produced if the termination was delayed by even a week (data not shown).
At Jay location, our southernmost location, no definite trend in weed biomass production was observed with earlier seeding or termination of the crimson clover (data not shown). This could be due to rapid decomposition of residue due to warmer temperatures and higher rainfall at this location compared to the northern locations.
3.3. Corn grain yield
Corn grain yield was not affected by crimson clover seeding and termination dates at Belle Mina. Though no statistically significant differences were observed, plots with the earliest seeding of the crimson clover yielded numerically highest at this location. At both Shorter and Belle Mina, significant differences in corn grain yield were observed across years (Tables 5 and 6).
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
Corn grain yield (kg ha−1) | |||
−4 weeks | 10,471 | 9262 | 4646 |
−2 weeks | 9474 | 8712 | 4686 |
Median date | 9963 | 8684 | 5228 |
+2 weeks | 10,054 | 8434 | 4607 |
+4 weeks | 9344 | 8414 | 4831 |
SE | 370 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.501 | 0.386 | 0.380 |
−2 weeks | 0.534 | 1.000 | 0.445 |
+2 weeks | 0.998 | 0.919 | 0.324 |
+4 weeks | 0.326 | 0.897 | 0.702 |
−4 weeks | 11,986 | 7631 | 5703 |
−2 weeks | 11,701 | 7701 | 5709 |
Median date | 12,429 | 7333 | 5629 |
+2 weeks | 11,325 | 7363 | 5840 |
+4 weeks | 11,533 | 7864 | 5296 |
SE | 379 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.592 | 0.847 | 0.999 |
−2 weeks | 0.175 | 0.731 | 0.999 |
+2 weeks | 0.015 | 1.000 | 0.949 |
+4 weeks | 0.065 | 0.431 | 0.792 |
−4 weeks | NA | 5582 | 13520 |
−2 weeks | NA | 6259 | 14328 |
Median date | NA | 5236 | 12982 |
+2 weeks | NA | 6318 | 12083 |
+4 weeks | NA | 6432 | 12694 |
SE | 945 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | NA | 0.972 | 0.878 |
−2 weeks | NA | 0.446 | 0.216 |
+2 weeks | NA | 0.397 | 0.560 |
+4 weeks | NA | 0.310 | 0.986 |
Grain yield decreased with the progression of the experiment. Weather conditions were different among the years, 2004 being a normal rainfall year whereas in 2005 majority of the rainfall was received in July at Belle Mina (6 in.) and Shorter (8.5 in.); 2006 was a drought year at both the locations throughout the summer. These differences in rainfall events can likely explain some of the yield differences observed among years at both the locations. Corn is most sensitive to water stress during silking or flowering, and pollination stages of growth and drought stress during this period can result in poor grain development and yield losses.
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
Corn grain yield (kg ha−1) | |||
−1 week prior | 9880 | 8389 | 4946 |
−2 week prior | 9707 | 8392 | 5201 |
−3 week prior | 10,117 | 9196 | 4842 |
−4 week prior | 9741 | 8827 | 4209 |
SE | 425 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | 0.988 | 0.745 | 0.370 |
−2 week prior | 1.000 | 0.748 | 0.155 |
−3 week prior | 0.818 | 0.827 | 0.491 |
−1 week prior | 10,916 | 7579 | 4382 |
−2 week prior | 12,094 | 7424 | 5949 |
−3 week prior | 12,453 | 8225 | 6933 |
−4 week prior | 11,717 | 7085 | 5278 |
SE | 500 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | 0.482 | 0.797 | 0.392 |
−2 week prior | 0.895 | 0.920 | 0.616 |
−3 week prior | 0.547 | 0.209 | 0.037 |
−1 week prior | NA | 5615 | 12,565 |
−2 week prior | NA | 5867 | 12,872 |
−3 week prior | NA | 6225 | 13,468 |
−4 week prior | NA | 6155 | 13,581 |
SE | 784 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | NA | 0.926 | 0.673 |
−2 week prior | NA | 0.987 | 0.853 |
−3 week prior | NA | 1.000 | 0.999 |
3.4. Cereal rye cover-crop biomass
When analyzed by location, the three-way interaction was not significant at Belle Mina. The interaction of experiment years with seeding date was significant. The main effect of seeding date, termination date, and year was also significant. In general, rye biomass production declined with every 2-week delay in seeding the cover crop (Table 7).
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
Rye biomass (kg ha−1) | |||
−4 weeks | 8878 | 5062 | 6396 |
−2 weeks | 7852 | 5232 | 4078 |
Median date | 6584 | 2863 | 2479 |
+2 weeks | 4500 | 2149 | 3085 |
+4 weeks | 2649 | 913 | 2066 |
SE | 611 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.004 | 0.006 | <0.0001 |
−2 weeks | 0.200 | 0.003 | 0.070 |
+2 weeks | 0.010 | 0.701 | 0.788 |
+4 weeks | <0.0001 | 0.018 | 0.933 |
−4 weeks | 5566 | 5331 | 6177 |
−2 weeks | 5053 | 4893 | 6269 |
Median date | 4344 | 2610 | 5372 |
+2 weeks | 2779 | 518 | 2553 |
+4 weeks | 1276 | 213 | 1370 |
SE | 356 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.020 | <0.0001 | 0.198 |
−2 weeks | 0.298 | <0.0001 | 0.128 |
+2 weeks | 0.002 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
+4 weeks | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
−4 weeks | NA | 3605 | 5006 |
−2 weeks | NA | 2982 | 5341 |
Median date | NA | 2559 | 4695 |
+2 weeks | NA | 1687 | 3349 |
+4 weeks | NA | 1545 | 2706 |
SE | 253 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | NA | 0.005 | 0.727 |
−2 weeks | NA | 0.480 | 0.142 |
+2 weeks | NA | 0.026 | <0.0001 |
+4 weeks | NA | 0.007 | <0.0001 |
Delaying cereal rye planting 4 weeks significantly lowered the rye biomass yield in all the years. Biomass production was in general less at this location in 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 growing seasons. Earlier termination of rye also significantly reduced biomass. Biomass production in all the years was increased if rye was terminated a week or 2 prior to cotton planting (Table 7). However, no significant differences in biomass production were observed if rye was terminated 3 or 4 weeks prior to cotton planting.
At Shorter location, all the interactions and main effects were significant for rye biomass production. Delayed seeding of rye significantly reduced dry biomass accumulation (Table 7). In 2004–2005, no significant differences in rye dry biomass accumulation occurred if rye was seeded on the third seeding date or later. Significant planting and termination date interaction were also observed at this location. The maximum biomass production was 8523 kg ha−1 in year 2006 when rye was planted 2 weeks before the 0○C temperature date and terminated a week prior to cash crop planting. The least biomass produced at Shorter was 140 kg ha−1 when covers were planted on the last planting date and terminated on the first planting date (data not shown).
At our southernmost location Jay, all two-way interactions and main effects were significant. Rye biomass production was better in year 2006 compared to year 2005. As observed at other two locations, delayed seeding or earlier termination reduced dry biomass accumulation by rye (data not shown). The maximum observed rye biomass at this location was 7468 kg ha−1 produced when rye was planted 4 weeks prior to the average 0○C temperature and terminated 2 weeks before the seeding of cotton.
3.5. Weed biomass in cotton
Dry weights of weeds were more in cotton compared to corn at all site years due to the earlier sampling time in corn when fewer summer annual weeds had emerged. The cover-crop biomass observed at each location was reflected in the subsequent results observed for weed control. The three-way interaction was not significant at any of the locations. The interaction of year with seeding and termination date was significant at all the locations except at Jay. The seeding by termination date interaction was not significant at any location.
In general, there was an increase in weed biomass in cotton with earlier termination and late planting of the rye cover crop. At Belle Mina, numerically less weed dry biomass was observed corresponding to a high rye cover-crop residue (Table 8).
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
−4 weeks | 31 | 133 | 214 |
−2 weeks | 54 | 182 | 455 |
Median date | 406 | 275 | 945 |
+2 weeks | 250 | 297 | 368 |
+4 weeks | 345 | 478 | 664 |
SE | 102 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.010 | 0.601 | <0.0001 |
−2 weeks | 0.017 | 0.865 | <0.0001 |
+2 weeks | 0.519 | 0.999 | <0.0001 |
+4 weeks | 0.965 | 0.283 | 0.077 |
−4 weeks | 316 | 289 | 62 |
−2 weeks | 318 | 381 | 53 |
Median date | 470 | 440 | 58 |
+2 weeks | 474 | 467 | 81 |
+4 weeks | 970 | 378 | 88 |
SE | 101 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | 0.425 | 0.438 | 1.000 |
−2 weeks | 0.437 | 0.953 | 1.000 |
+2 weeks | 1.000 | 0.997 | 0.998 |
+4 weeks | <0.0001 | 0.944 | 0.996 |
−4 weeks | NA | 48 | 53 |
−2 weeks | NA | 50 | 48 |
Median date | NA | 80 | 88 |
+2 weeks | NA | 53 | 85 |
+4 weeks | NA | 87 | 65 |
SE | 14 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−4 weeks | NA | 0.338 | 0.259 |
−2 weeks | NA | 0.390 | 0.160 |
+2 weeks | NA | 0.495 | 1.000 |
+4 weeks | NA | 0.993 | 0.626 |
Weed biomass averaged only 31 kg ha−1 corresponding to rye biomass of 8878 kg ha−1 in plots seeded with rye 4 weeks before the average 0○C temperature in 2003. No significant differences in weed biomass production were observed in 2004 among different seeding dates. In 2005, weed biomass was maximum in plots seeded with rye on the median seeding date averaging 945 kg ha−1 and less in the later-seeded plots. This is likely due to less rye biomass (2479 kg ha−1) production in these plots. No significant differences in the weed biomass production were observed among the termination dates in 2003 and 2004 (data not shown). In 2005, however, the plots terminated on the final termination date had the least weed biomass.
At Shorter, no significant differences in weed biomass production were observed among seeding dates in 2004 and 2005 (Table 8). The maximum observed weed biomass was 970 kg ha−1 corresponding to rye biomass of 1276 kg ha−1 in 2005, when rye was seeded 4 weeks after 0○C freeze. The effect of termination dates on weed biomass production was significant in 2003; weed biomass decreased with delay in rye cover-crop termination date (Table 9).
At Jay location, weed biomass production was less compared to other two locations. No differences in weed biomass production were observed among seeding dates at this location (Table 8). The delay in rye termination decreased weed biomass production. In 2004, however, plots terminated a week before cotton planting had more weed biomass than plots terminated 2 and 3 weeks prior to cotton planting (Table 9).
Cover crop seeding date | Growing season | ||
---|---|---|---|
2003–2004 | 2004–2005 | 2005–2006 | |
−1 week prior | 287 | 201 | 272 |
−2 week prior | 153 | 150 | 424 |
−3 week prior | 165 | 397 | 755 |
−4 week prior | 265 | 345 | 665 |
SE | 116 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | 0.998 | 0.678 | 0.035 |
−2 week prior | 0.815 | 0.456 | 0.288 |
−3 week prior | 0.858 | 0.975 | 0.890 |
−1 week prior | 104 | 141 | 17 |
−2 week prior | 341 | 389 | 74 |
−3 week prior | 532 | 430 | 64 |
−4 week prior | 1061 | 603 | 118 |
SE | 24 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | <0.0001 | 0.001 | 0.771 |
−2 week prior | <0.0001 | 0.228 | 0.973 |
−3 week prior | <0.0001 | 0.392 | 0.952 |
−1 week prior | NA | 64 | 20 |
−2 week prior | NA | 51 | 51 |
−3 week prior | NA | 48 | 83 |
−4 week prior | NA | 91 | 118 |
SE | 77 | ||
Dunnett’s |
|||
−1 week prior | NA | 0.322 | <0.0001 |
−2 week prior | NA | 0.070 | 0.001 |
−3 week prior | NA | 0.052 | 0.125 |
The decrease in dry weed biomass with corresponding increase in rye biomass is in accordance with the previous studies. Teasdale [29] concluded that weed biomass production is correlated with the cover-crop biomass. Smeda and Weller [30] also reported an increase in residual weed suppression by no-till-rye residues when the time between cover-crop desiccation and crop planting was reduced, probably due to allelopathic effects.
3.6. Cotton seed lint yield
There were differences in cotton seed lint yield among the years likely due to weather conditions but cotton lint yield was not affected by the rye cover-crop seeding and termination dates at any site year (data not shown). Cotton seed lint yield averaged 3784 kg ha−1 in 2003, 4269 kg ha−1 in 2004 to 2252 kg ha−1 in 2005 at Belle Mina. At Shorter, the maximum seed cotton lint yield was obtained in the year 2004 averaging 4065 kg ha−1. At Jay, yield was less in 2005 but was comparable to other two locations in 2005. Thus, cover-crop biomass did not interfere with attaining yields, and it reflects current knowledge on residue management at planting.
4. Conclusions
In this study, early planting of the cover crop with its later termination for subsequent corn and cotton plantings has increased cover-crop biomass accumulation compared to the late planting and early termination of the cover crop. Increased cover-crop biomass suppressed subsequent total weed dry biomass. These findings indicate that high-residue cover crops have predictable potential for suppressing early-season weeds in corn and cotton. If farmers are utilizing glyphosate-resistant corn-cotton rotation systems, these findings hold particular importance with current glyphosate-resistant weed-control issues. Because corn and cotton yields were not negatively impacted, we can conclude that high residue obtained by planting crimson clover or rye cover crops timely and terminating either a week or 2 prior to cash crop planting is feasible. Ideal management will result in maximum cover-crop biomass production and subsequent weed suppression.
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