Comparison of different techniques: approximate processing time and sample size.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tOur rapidly shrinking, interconnected world is experiencing an unprecedented change in the face of digital innovation and emerging globalization. As the world’s population spirals beyond 7.7 billion, international economies are becoming more integrated and mutually dependent upon one other. These interconnected economies are subject to political, social, and cultural expectations unimagined in past decades. Employee skill sets that were in high demand only a few decades ago are now considered obsolete and unnecessary. New occupations are evolving in the face of digital advancement only to be quickly replaced by other emerging occupations more suitable to satisfying transitioning expectations. The changes are endless. Educational systems can no longer educate for today’s jobs. They must educate for tomorrow’s jobs. They must empower the future of their national economies while remaining mindful of the needs of tomorrow’s global economy. They stand at the intersection of globalization and technology. The only thing certain is change.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is intended to examine the educational issues encountered in such an environment. The book aims to afford a fresh examination of theory, research, and practice into this field of study and to provide the reader with an insight into the challenges, successes, and opportunities encountered by today’s educational institutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-470-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-469-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-471-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",bookSignature:"Dr. Lee Waller, Dr. Sharon Waller, Dr. Vongai Mpofu and Dr. Mercy Kurebwa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",keywords:"Global Skill Sets, Career Development, International Networking, Adult Education, World Education Culture, Modernization, International Standards, Educator Preparation, Educational Technology, Educational Impact, Curriculum Development, Sociocultural Issues",numberOfDownloads:613,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Lee Waller completed a Ph.D. in Higher Education Administration from the University of North Texas, he spent 17 years in the American community college system and served for 9 years at Texas A&M University-Commerce before joining the AURAK family.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr.Sharon Waller spent 13 years at a Sherman Independent School District where she served as an educational diagnostician, curriculum coordinator, and teacher, her teaching and research focus on special education, strategic educational leadership, and effective assessment of student learning.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/263301/images/system/263301.png",biography:"Prof. Lee Waller completed a Ph.D. in Higher Education Administration from the University of North Texas. He earned his BS in Education and MS in Mathematics from Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas. Prof. Lee spent 17 years in the American community college system and served for 9 years at Texas A&M University Commerce before joining the AURAK family. Prof. Waller’s teaching and research focus on digital learning, strategic educational leadership, and effective assessment of student learning. Prof. Waller was recently awarded (2014) the Effective Practice Award for Excellence in the Utilization of Emerging Technology by the Online Learning Consortium (formerly Sloan-C). 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She joined the AURAK family as Manager of Counseling, Testing, and Disability Services in 2105. Dr. Waller’s teaching and research focus on special education, strategic educational leadership, and effective assessment of student learning.",institutionString:"American University of Ras Al Khaimah",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"299343",title:"Dr.",name:"Vongai",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",slug:"vongai-mpofu",fullName:"Vongai Mpofu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/299343/images/system/299343.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vongai Mpofu is a seasoned Science teacher educator with a strong background in school leadership and science teaching. She holds a Ph. D. in Science Education from the University of Witswatersrand in South Africa and have twelve years of University teaching experience at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE). She joined University service at BUSE with a wealth of experience of heading several high schools in Zimbabwe. She has been in university leadership as a chairperson of the Department of Science and Mathematics Education as well as the acting Dean of the Faculty of Science Education. Dr. Vongai has a good record for teaching, research, and community engagement as well as qualities of good leadership. She is also engaged in journal editorship and peer reviews. She is actively involved in research and leadership related events inclusive of presenting conference papers and facilitating in research and leadership events. 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Currently, she is working in the Zimbabwe Open University’s Faculty of Education and Department of Educational Studies teaching courses in Educational management at both Bachelors and Masters levels. Mercy Kurebwa holds a Certificate in Education (Morgenster Teachers College), Bachelor’s Degree in Educational Administration, Planning and Policy Studies and a Master’s Degree in Administration, Planning and Policy Studies (University of Zimbabwe) and a Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Education (Zimbabwe Open University). Mercy Kurebwa has published 53 journal articles and has also presented over 20 papers at local and international conferences. The focus of the publications and presentations was on Assessment, Open and Distance Learning (ODel), Early Childhood Education, issues in schools, leadership and a few social issues. 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This concept is drawing attention in the aerospace industry as commercial aircraft designs transition from primarily metallic structure to carbon and glass fiber composite materials reduce weight and increase durability. Over the next 20 years, approximately 12,000 aircraft currently utilized for different purposes will be at the end of service life. In 2015, Boeing projects a demand of 38,050 new airplanes at a total value of $5.6 trillion [2] over the next 20 years, an increase of 3.5% from the previous year’s forecast. With current trends in aircraft design, these airplanes are likely to contain increasing quantities of composite materials. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for example, is about 50% composite by weight, equating to roughly 32,000 kg of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). The increased use of composites in aerospace has benefits in terms of fuel efficiently and durability. An immediate concern, however, is the large amount of thermosetting composite scrap generated during the manufacturing process.
In current aerospace and automotive production lines, 10–20% or more of virgin carbon fiber reinforced prepreg sheets end up as production wastes (Figure 1), as large prepreg rolls are cut into desired shapes to manufacture parts. This production scrap accounts for a significant source of composite waste. A second waste stream is end-of-life (EOL) thermoset composites. The total combined volume of end of life and production waste generated by the thermoset composites market in Europe is expected to reach 304,000 tons by 2015 [5]. Composite waste reduction and disposal are pressing concerns worldwide. Traditional disposal routes include landfilling and incineration. The financial and environmental costs of these methods, however, are steadily increasing. The composite industries, from suppliers and part manufacturers to customers, are seeking more sustainable solutions for reusing and recycling composite materials.
Motivation and potential applications of the composite oriented strand board (COSB), top middle shows the scrap generated during manufacturing, the scrap is trimmed to rectangular strands (center) and subsequently used for a variety of applications [3, 4].
Technique | Approximate processing time | Maximum sample size |
---|---|---|
Ultrasonic scan (3-D) | 4–6 hours | 1 × 1 m by sample thickness |
Microscopic image (2-D) | 1–2 hours | 5 × 5 cm |
Micro-CT (3-D) | 6–12 hours | 3 × 5 cm × 5 mm by sample thickness |
Comparison of different techniques: approximate processing time and sample size.
Jin et al. have been actively seeking viable methods and processes to turn in-process waste into useful products and components [6, 7, 8, 9]. Research efforts thus far have focused on the repurposing of prepreg scrap into reused composite products including consumer products like skateboards and structural materials like reused composite oriented strand board (COSB), hat stiffened panels, etc. These components are fabricated by cutting prepreg trim waste into rectangular strands and curing them using out-of-autoclave (OoA) techniques like vacuum bag only (VBO), oven cure, and hot pressing. The work presented here originated from an NSF G8 Research Council funded project on “Sustainable Manufacturing through Out-of-Autoclave Processing”. The first phase of the project focused on evaluating the manufacturing feasibility and mechanical properties of components made from scrap prepreg. As part of this work, finite element analysis (FEA) was utilized to predict the mechanical properties of scrap-based composites. Jin et al. and Jain et al. [7, 8] used FEA and mean field homogenization hybrid methods to predict equivalent modulus of the COSB. Jin et al. [10] built a 3-D parametric FE model for random fiber composites with high volume fraction and fiber aspect ratio based on innovative 3-D spatial mathematic algorithm. In related work, Faessel et al. [11] created a finite element model on low-density wood-based fiberboards to study their local thermal conductivity, using a model based on X-ray tomography. While preliminary experimental and model results have shed light on the processing and mechanics of composites fabricated from prepreg scrap, a more detailed understanding of the microstructure of the materials is required, including voids. Details of void morphology and microstructure, as obtained through nondestructive techniques, can be utilized to build detailed and FEA models. This work describes results of NDT analysis of COSB fabricated from rectangular prepreg strands of uniform size.
A reused carbon fiber epoxy COSB demonstrator panel was produced using OoA techniques [9]. The part was then analyzed for mass and void distribution using ultrasonic C-scan. After scanning, the COSB was cut down using a CNC milling machine. Void content and void morphology were investigated using both microscopic examination of polished cross sections and state-of-the-art stitched high-resolution micro-CT techniques. The results, pros and cons of the three techniques are compared and discussed later in this chapter.
A demonstrator COSB panel (Figure 2, Left) was first manufactured. Fresh prepreg (UD Tape T40/800B with Cytec CYCOM 5320-1 epoxy resin) was manually cut into rectangular strands (10 × 20 mm) and distributed evenly on an aluminum plate. The prepreg was subsequently cured using a compression molding hot press (Wabash) into a flat COSB panel measuring 215.9 × 215.9 mm. The manufactured panel is analogous to a composite version of the ubiquitous wood-based strand board (Figure 2). A CNC milling machine with a diamond cutting wheel was used to section the COSB into seven individual plain tensile specimens (25 × 200 mm) in accordance with ASTM D3039 [12] standard for quasi-static tensile testing. Six coupons were tested in a loading frame (INSTRON), and elastic modulus was determined from the resulting load-displacement curve, the details of which are presented elsewhere [7].
Composite oriented strand board (COSB, left), similar to wood OSB (right).
The remaining coupons (prepared from the center of the COSB) were cut into smaller pieces (25 × 50 mm) for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) using ultrasound A and C scans, high-resolution micro-CT, as well as cross-sectional imaging analysis, that are discussed in Section 3 of this chapter.
A commonly used nondestructive testing method used for composite materials is ultrasonic test [13]. Ultrasonic testing is a noncontact method, which typically requires a coupling agent (often water) and therefore an extensive setup. Ultrasound scans, when performed properly, enable defects such as delamination and debonding to be detected easily and accurately [14, 15].
Ultrasonic A-scans were performed on both the demonstrator COSB sample and a reference panel. The reference laminate was an autoclave-cured Cytec 5320-1 composite panel with known low void content (<1%, by microscopic image study). To carry out the scans, the ultrasound transducer was fixed in position at the center of the specimen. A pulse-echo mode was utilized to interrogate defects within each panel. The strength of the reflected ultrasonic echoes as function of time is presented in Figure 3. The A-scan of the reference laminate (Figure 3, Upper) reveals clear top surface and back surface reflections. The region between these top and bottom surfaces (Gate 2, the interior of the panel) shows <3% signal attenuation, indicating a low void content. The A-scan of the COSB (Figure 3, Lower), in contrast, shows roughly 20% signal attenuation between the top and back surface reflections, indicating greater void content within the composite.
Upper: ultrasonic A-scan plot of the referenced autoclave cured composite laminates: void content <1%. Lower: the A-scan result of a COSB, indicating greater signal attenuation compared to the referenced laminate: void content ~6%.
While the A-scan mode reveals critical information about the ultrasound signal attenuation, visual maps of panel quality can be produced using a C-scan mode, which is one of the most suitable method for production inspection of composites using a conventional pulse-echo or pulsed through-transmission system. In this study, a 10-MHz transducer was focused on the top surface of the specimen and gated on the echo from a glass reflector plate (Figure 4). The pulse passed through the specimen twice. A quantized display was used, so the various attenuation levels are presented as finite changes to tone density on a plain view of the specimen. The white regions are of lowest attenuation. There is no attenuation in the absence of a specimen, which accounts for the white border outlining each sample.
Ultrasonic scan setup. At the top is the arm with a 10-MHz transducer installed. The samples are placed in the water pool underneath.
Ultrasonic C-scans were performed on the following specimens: a quasi-isotropic reference panel that was manufactured using heated platen compression molding (Figure 5, Left), and the demonstrator COSB (Figure 5, Right). These two panels are both made of same prepreg material (Cytec 5320-1). The transducer moved in two dimensions within a range in the x-y plane covering the whole flat panel area. The total time for the transducer to cover the entire laminate (215.9 × 215.9 mm) was about 6 hours. The images in Figure 5 display the peak signal response within a time or depth interval of interest as a function of transducer position. There are two observations from the examination of the C-scan images. First, the COSB displays high signal attenuations (max ~90%) when compared to continuous fiber laminates (max ~10–20%) This confirms that, not surprisingly, COSB has a much higher overall void volume fraction compared to that of the reference panel (void volume fraction <1%). Secondly, insights into the distribution of resin and fiber in each sample are revealed in the C-scan images. We observe that the distribution of matter in COSB is significantly more uneven than in the conventional continuous prepreg laminate. The uneven distribution of the matter in COSB is probably due to less free-flowing resin as compared to the continuous prepreg plies. Also, the discontinuity and random orientation and location of the strands play an important role.
Ultrasonic C-scan results. Left: reference panel, quasi-isotropic layup, heated platen compression molding cured. Right: the demonstrator COSB.
Microscopic scan results of (from top to bottom): (a) the demonstrator COSB (made of fresh prepreg strands). Void content = 2.07%, (b) COSB sample made from prepreg strands aged in room temperature for 14 days. Void content = 0.81%, (c) COSB sample made from prepreg strands aged in room temperature for 28 days. Void content = 2.41%, (d) an autoclave-cured reference sample with continuous prepreg fibers.
To gain more insight into void morphology and assess the validity of NDT analysis, the void contents of test laminates were also evaluated using optical microscopy. To investigate a method for reducing void content in COSB, two samples with smaller sizes (50 × 50 mm) were fabricated from prepreg aged for 14 and 28 days at room temperature, in addition to the demonstrator COSB made of fresh prepreg strands. The samples for cross-section imaging were prepared from the center of each panel, and measured 50 mm in length and 3 mm in thickness. Cross sections were prepared via mechanical polishing with silicon carbide abrasive papers on a grinder-polisher (Struers), at successive grits of 150, 240, 400, 600, 1200, and 2400. Cross-sectional images were acquired using a digital microscope (Keyence) at a magnification of 100×. Approximately, 20 images were obtained from each sample to assemble a full-scale image of the cross section. Images were processed and merged using image-processing software for void content analysis. The images were first converted to gray scale. Voids were manually selected and filled to distinguish from solid phases. An image analysis program (ImageJ [16]) was used to convert each image into a binary map of voids (black pixels) and solid (white pixels). The areal void contents was then calculated and used as a representation of void volume fraction (Figure 6).
COSB made from fresh prepreg strands, 14-day room-temperature-aged-, and 28-day room-temperature-aged prepreg strands yielded void contents of 2.07, 0.81, and 2.41%, respectively. The COSB sample made from prepreg with 14 days of out time had the lowest void content. This is because prepreg is partially cured during room temperature aging time, resulting in decreased tack and easier manipulation during layup and more efficient air removal during cure. This aging process can have beneficial results in the short term, but when prepreg is aged over its shelf life (28 days), viscosity increases such that resin flow is hindered and flow-induced voids are formed.
X-ray CT is an effective nondestructive technique for studying the details of internal defects. This technique was first applied in designing medical CT device. Because nonmetal composite materials have a similar composition to human bodies, the medical CT devices were well suited to imaging of carbon fiber epoxy composite materials. The device can be used for 3-D image reconstruction to detect defects (microcracks, inclusions, voids, delamination and debonding), determine distribution of mass, and accurately measure and display internal structural configurations. Previous studies [14] have indicated that the resolution of micro-CT is well suited to the detection of internal and surface defects in carbon fiber epoxy composites. In this work, a Phoenix Nanotom Tomographic machine (General Electric) with a Hamamatsu C-7942 detector and an Mo anode was utilized to perform micro-CT scans on the demonstrator COSB. A micro-CT sample (25 × 50 × 3 mm, Figure 7, Left) was prepared from the center of COSB. Electric tensions between 30 and 55 kV and current intensities between 190 and 220 μA were used. Spatial resolutions between 2.5 and 14.5 μm/px were attained from the above setup.
Left: a micro-CT sample prepared from the center coupon of COSB. Right: a 2-D micro-CT image of cured COSB sample (resolution: 2.5 μm/px). Deformed prepreg strands and their curvature were observed. Morphology of the voids was also presented.
Initial scans showed that clear boundaries between strands cannot be resolved using X-ray absorption tomography, even at the highest resolution. However, when viewing continuous frames of scanned images, an animation reveals strand boundaries. This observation was helpful in identifying the shape of deformed strands and stitching multiple volumes for further postprocessing and analysis. The technique proved to be valuable for estimating void content. Thus, all samples were scanned in sets of 3–4 simultaneous samples to optimize available tomography time. Updated settings used were 80 kV and 150 μA, with a 500 ms exposure time. The attained resolution was 13.04 μm/px.
Multiple scans were performed on different regions from a single sample in order to cover the entire sample volume. The obtained volumes were reconstructed using a user-defined computer program. By stitching and cropping, an individual volume containing the complete sample volume was obtained. Results are displayed in Figure 8. Detailed void content and void morphology information was extracted from the stitched volume, as presented in Figure 9. In the demonstrator COSB made of fresh prepreg strands, voids mostly appear as needle shapes, and void content was determined to be 8.55%. This is considerably higher than the 2.07% void content determined via microscopic analysis. This is not surprising, as the void content from micro-CT is obtained from a 3-D volume, while the void content concluded from microscopic imaging is obtained from 2-D images. There is a difference of one spatial degree between two sources of data. Because micro-CT can reveal void information in 3-D, it has advantages compared to 2-D techniques such as microscopic images of polished sections.
Stitching of multiple scanned volumes to obtain completed final micro-CT scanned volume.
Extracted void content (8.55% voids) and void morphology of COSB (left and middle). Close-up view of void morphology (right).
The curvature of the deformed strands is a critical parameter when trying to predict and optimize the modulus and strength [7, 8] of COSBs using FEA techniques. Micro-CT allows for examination of this critical parameter. Several shapes of deformed strands (10 × 20 mm), extracted from the micro-CT data, are displayed in Figure 10. Strands have various deformed shapes after being cured within the COSB, due to the randomness and complex geometry of the material (Table 1).
Extracted shape of deformed strands in COSB.
In this chapter, the void content, void distribution, void morphology and deformed strand shapes of carbon fiber epoxy composite panels were examined. Microscopic cross-sectional analysis and NDE techniques (ultrasound and micro-CT) were employed. Traditional laminates and reused COSB were examined using these techniques. Conclusions on the pros and cons of each technique are discussed below:
Ultrasonic scans evaluate the overall void distribution in a panel-level scale. Macrolevel information such as void cluster regions, and distribution of matter, can be revealed by this technique. Ultrasound scans can also evaluate relatively large sample sizes.
Signal attenuation level does not directly link to void content. Ultrasonic scans cannot offer a void content number quantitatively and accurately without the use of reference panels. Overall relative panel level void content can be estimated when compared to ultrasonic image of a reference panel with low void content.
Microscopic imaging of cross sections is one of the most convenient methods in evaluating composite void content. The process of sample preparation including cutting, polishing and image postprocessing are relatively straightforward and less time consuming compared to other methods.
However, it is not nondestructive. Samples need to be cut and polished. Extra-damages are possible to be introduced during sample preparation procedure. Also, void content is only investigated in the area of the cross-sectional cut, which is a 2-D area but not a 3-D volumetric study. The results vary based on location within the sample.
Micro-CT is a nondestructive method. It yields accurate void content values, and reveals void morphology. However, it is time consuming and requires a large amount of image-processing work. One high-resolution micro-CT scan can take up to dozens of hours and engage dozens of GBs of data space in computer system.
Limitation of the sample size cannot be ignored. Due to the limitation of scanning time and storage, the sample size of micro-CT is relatively small, normally within a few millimeters in length and width. As a result, some materials could potentially loose representativeness when examined via a micro-CT scan.
Due to this limitation of the sample size, overall void distribution in panel size level cannot be obtained. So, this technique does not work well for large panels with none-even mass distribution.
The void contents of COSB made of reused production scraps as well as conventional composite laminates were studied using different NDE methods, including ultrasonic C-scan, micro-CT scan, and microscopic image analysis of polished cross sections. Results were reported and the general pros and cons of the different techniques as well as specific observations relative to the COSB material have been identified. The void content, void distribution, void morphology and curvature and geometries of the deformed strands obtained by the NDE techniques in this study are valuable information for future COSB design and optimization. With these information, methods such as FEA [7] and hybrid methods using analytical solutions and homogenization schemes [8] can be used to predict various mechanical responses of such material. Future work will be focused in these directions.
The authors are grateful to NSF G8 program and to Airbus for supporting this research through Airbus Institute for Engineering Research (AIER) Program. M.C. Gill Composites Center in Los Angeles, U.S. and IMDEA Materials Institute in Madrid, Spain are thanked for supporting this work. Vanesa Martinez, Jose Luis Jimenez, Miguel De La Cruz Pacha, Dr. Federico Sket, Dr. Claudio Lopes, and Dr. Ignacio Romero are thanked for their useful suggestions and warm discussions in the summer of 2015.
This is a review about the concept of quality of life: today this notion is very important and its definition is really complex; as a matter of fact, it has evolved over the years and become an increasingly articulated idea (i.e., it is specified by the perception of one’s physical, psychological, and emotional health, by the degree of independence, by social relations, and by the type of interaction with one’s context). We also can note that the quality of life construct is broader than that of health, it is not a synonym of it (as we will analyze). In this sense, being healthy is considered a dimension of quality of life and health-facilitating behaviors are considered the predictors of the quality of life itself [1]. These aspects and many other features are going to be analyzed in depth and clarified in this narrative review.
The debate regarding quality of life is quite ancient. Starting from early Greece, Plato had devoted several years of his life in developing a perfect government where quality of life for citizens is a mainstream. The precise term “quality of life” however had not yet been coined at that time; actually, it was introduced later, in the 1970s. We can synthetically define the quality of life as a person’s judgment about various aspects of his/her own physical, social, and psychological well-being. The growing importance of personal evaluation of life aspects supported the development of a more precise definition of this concept and the need of a scientific assessment using psychometric standardized tests: thus, an initiative to develop a scientific quality of life assessment was born. The World Health Organization has therefore started a specific research aimed to create a rigorous measurement of this construct. The specific need to develop this research arose for several reasons. First, during recent years, beyond traditional health indicators (such as morbidity and mortality), there has been a broadening focus on the measurement of health outcomes [2], on the inclusion of measures of perceived health, on the impact of disease and impairment about daily activities and behavior [3], and on functional status/disability status measures. Furthermore, it is important to remember that it was also noted that while these questionnaires were beginning to provide a general measure of the impact of the disease, they did not actually assess the specific quality of the disease. This is the reason why, later, some specific questionnaires were developed to measure quality of life in the context of distinguishing diseases. A criticity arose because many measures of health status have been developed in the United Kingdom and in North America, the translation of which for their use in other settings appearing quite unsatisfactory and time-consuming [4]. A third important reason was the need to go beyond the increasingly mechanistic model of medicine that deals only with the eradication of disease and symptoms. The awareness that this model is obsolete reinforced the need for the introduction of a new humanistic perspective into health care. It is widely recognized that health care is essentially a humanistic transaction where the patient’s well-being is the primary aim; it no longer stops just at making the symptoms disappear, but it is more inclusive and complete. To deal with these reasons, the World Health Organization created the initiative to develop a quality of life assessment promoting a holistic approach to health and health care, as emphasized in the World Health Organization’s definition of health as the “state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely as the absence of disease and infirmity.” Precisely in 1995, this organization defined in an extensive and articulated way the quality of life as the subjective perception that individuals have of their position in life, in their life context, culture and value system, and in relation to the achievement of their goals and their expectations, reference standards, and concerns. The result is a very complex concept in which the quality of life refers to various dimensions: the perception of one’s physical, psychological, and emotional health, the degree of independence of the individual, social relations and the type of interaction with their own life context. As we have anticipated, the concept of quality of life therefore appears broader than that of “health,” being not synonymous with “health” [5] but at the same time being intertwined with this notion and with the concept of a biopsychosocial paradigm. The definition of quality of life given by the World Health Organization links together a huge amount of studies [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14], and in this way being in a state of good health is considered only one dimension of quality of life, and behaviors facilitating health are considered predictors of the quality of life itself. An acknowledgement of these aspects is necessary in order to distinguish the notion of quality of life from the notion of health. It is important to point that the definition of quality of life always includes a reference to the physical state of the subject, but it is not enough to describe the quality of a person’s functionality. The latter can be detected with standardized parameters, since it is mostly correlated to the degree of satisfaction perceived with respect to these standardized parameters and the level of physical functionality.
In this chapter, we present a definition of quality of life that shifts the emphasis from the scope of objectively definable functionality to the focus on subjectivity. In the field of objectivity, the disease is described as a defined clinical and physical state (the disease) and as the different areas of functionality (work area, psychological area, social area, etc.). It is also important to consider that quality of life refers to a subjective point of view, which is embedded in a cultural, social, and environmental context. In different geographic areas, there can be different concepts and different cultural values that can influence people’s perception. It is also important to state that the World Health Organization’s quality of life definition focuses on the respondents’ “perceived” quality of life; it does not require a measure of any detailed symptoms, conditions, or diseases, nor disability as objectively judged, but rather the perceived effects of disease and health interventions on the person’s quality of life. Starting from this point of view, an assessment of this multidimensional concept was developed, incorporating the individual’s perception of health status, psychosocial status, and other aspects of life. For several years, the importance of going beyond an observation of the quality of life from an individual point of view was also underlined, and already in 2003 an Italian researcher, Ingrosso, encouraged a collective and social research in this field. In particular, he states that the topic of quality of life can characterize the perspective about a local community and its dynamics. In this broader definition of quality of life, Ingrosso refers to the evaluation that individuals of a population make about the correspondence of certain personal and collective endowments with respect to their own scale of needs and values, based on their own orientations and experiences. He put as example how citizens of a specific local community can express judgments about the adequacy or inadequacy of policies or complexes of interventions that are implemented in a specific geographic territory [15]. He also pointed out that in recent years the debate about the quality of life has partially gotten lost in generalities. The debate was also divided between the extendibility of the objective component and the subjective one, thus losing the perspective about the sense of collective, contextual, relational, and operational evaluation with which the term was originally used as from the 1970s. Scientific research can thus modify the collective knowledge about this topic, to stimulate the citizens, whether directly or indirectly, to think about some aspects regarding the lines of intervention consistent with their own expectations. Therefore, not only quantitative methods like indicators and surveys, but also qualitative surveys and dynamic surveys, such as participatory research-process methods, are useful for the purposes of these surveys. These methodologies are often indicated as the first fundamental step when carrying out interventions in a city or territory [15]. Today the social aspect of quality of life is increasingly present, so the concept of quality of life now is often strictly related to the terms “livable” and “livability,” referring to the more or less desirable economic and social environment of a town, a metropolis, or a country: nowadays, these terms have become part of the common language.
Often, as before said, the concept of quality of life is confused with the concept of health, but this is wrong because the term health is not enough to explain the quality of life. For example, some individuals can live with a poor functional status or a poor health status but they express a high quality of life, or vice versa; moreover, quality of life cannot also be equated simply with the terms “lifestyle,” “life satisfaction,” “mental state,” or “well-being.” As anticipated in the last decades, several scientific studies have tried to define this construct better, outlining the most appropriate areas and tools for the investigations and the observation of this concept; in fact during the past years two classes of complementary health status measures have emerged: objective measures of functional health status and subjective measures of health and well-being. These measures are multilevel and multidimensional, and there are many published quality of life measures. A really important measurement scale is the World Health Organization’s Quality of Life scale; this questionnaire measures this specific area by examining the answers that the subject can provide on a Likert scale (from 1 to 5). This questionnaire exists in two versions:
the World Health Organization’s Quality of Life scale-100 (WHOQOL-100);
the World Health Organization’s Quality of Life scale Brief (WHOQOL-Brief).
These scales can also be used to assess variation in quality of life across different cultures or to compare different subgroups. The WHOQOL-Brief is a 26-item version, which summarizes the WHOQOL-100 (i.e, the 100-item version, which is longer); both these questionnaires are useful in clinical settings, medical practices, audits, policy-making, and in the assessment of the effectiveness of different treatments. The brief version of WHOQOL can also be used in a variety of different cultural settings, it is easily administered and does not impose a huge burden on the respondent. The answers are always given on a Likert scale (from 1 to 5); the questions that are addressed in the short version of the test are presented in Box 1.
WHOQOL-26 items.
How would you rate your quality of life?
How satisfied are you with your health?
To what extent do you feel that physical pain prevents you from doing what you need to do?
How much do you need any medical treatment to function in your daily life?
How much do you enjoy life?
To what extent do you feel your life to be meaningful?
How well are you able to concentrate?
How safe do you feel in your daily life?
How healthy is your physical environment?
Do you have enough energy for everyday life?
Are you able to accept your bodily appearance?
Have you enough money to meet your needs?
How available to you is the information that you need in your day-to-day life?
To what extent do you have the opportunity for leisure activities?
How well are you able to get around?
How satisfied are you with your sleep?
How satisfied are you with your ability to perform your daily living activities?
How satisfied are you with your capacity for work?
How satisfied are you with yourself?
How satisfied are you with your personal relationships?
How satisfied are you with your sex life?
How satisfied are you with the support you get from your friends?
How satisfied are you with the conditions of your living place?
How satisfied are you with your access to health services?
How satisfied are you with your transport?
How often do you have negative feelings such as blue mood, despair, anxiety, depression?
The creation of this questionnaire involved a collaborative approach to international instrument development [16], the aim being to develop a questionnaire that could be individually filled in a collaborative way and in several settings. In order to achieve these results, several culturally different centers were involved in operationalizing the scale’s questions about the quality of life, and also in question writing, question selection, and pilot testing. Thanks to this approach, standardization and equivalence between different settings were guaranteed. Many centers in different geographic areas were selected in order to include differences in the levels of industrialization, types of health services, and other elements that were relevant to the measurement of quality of life (e.g., the perception of self, the perception of the dominant religion, and the specific role assigned to the family in a cultural context). This method ensured a real internationality of the collaboration.
To summarize, quality of life questionnaires should include different domains:
physical domain (which refers to physical sensations, health, and pain),
psychological domain (which refers to emotions, such as anxiety and desperation),
level of independence domain (which refers to the autonomy of the person in various life areas, from the financial to the physical one),
social relationships domain (which refers to social interactions with family, friends, and professionals)
environmental domain (which refers to aspects of the environment that can promote the development of a person) [16].
It is also important to mention that with regard to the measurement of quality of life in illness situations, there are specific questionnaires [17] such as the WHOQOL for people with HIV or diabetes.
In summary, we can state that it is important to note that the definition of quality of life always includes a reference to the physical state of the subject, but is no longer considered only on the basis of the quality of the functionality of a person, detectable with standardized parameters, since they are described in relation to the degree of satisfaction perceived with respect to this level of functionality: this definition shifts the emphasis from the scope of objectively definable functionality to that of subjectivity; the detection of both these two aspects can probably constitute a reliable measure of the quality of life [1]. Finally, we can affirm that within the sphere of objectivity, disease is understood as a defined clinical framework and the different areas of functionality: physical, psychological, social, and work. In the context of subjectivity, the perception of disease and patient satisfaction are placed in the various areas of life, in which it is conceivable that the state of health may influence. Concluding, we can detect that the most common method of measuring quality of life is the administration of questionnaires, and that there are two families of questionnaires: generic and specific for pathology [1].
Health care professionals are increasingly recognizing that measurements only focused on disease outcomes are an insufficient determinant of health status. Accordingly, nowadays the focus has shifted from the idea of physical/psychological well-being as the elimination of a problem or a disease to a conceptualization of well-being as a promotion of quality of life. This shift of perspective has radically changed not only our concept of health and disease, but also that of the human being, of his/her life process and crises [18]. For a long time, the conditions of well-being have been defined on the basis of normative models that have produced health models consistent with the biomedical model, which was very reductive. Only in relatively recent times, and certainly thanks to the contribution of health psychology, we have begun to implement a new approach that claims the specificity of a discipline connected to the singularity and uniqueness of the subject. This uniqueness, to be grasped, also requires openness to a complex thought, capable of overcoming the reductionist perspective and the dichotomies [18]. Today we accept that to understand a phenomenon we have to take into account the context, the individual perspective and perception of the person that is involved in this context, and the multiple dimensions that contribute to the generation and understanding of the reality that we are studying. All these cognitive shifts have a particularly important impact on care systems and on devices that are designed to intervene in critical situations, which are also the result of the culture and context that can produce them, and consistent with the social representations of illness, health, quality of life, and with the scientific theories that are built on those representations. Today we agree on the need to abandon the medicalist logic of “restitutio ad integrum” adopting a new mentality that redirects our approach to reality [18]: also the concept of quality of life is therefore now detached from the biomedical model, which has been surpassed also thanks to the biopsychosocial model that we will analyze in the next paragraph.
The biopsychosocial paradigm characterizes health psychology [19] and the specific areas regarding quality of life that are analyzed in depth by this discipline. The perspective of the biopsychosocial paradigm was introduced by George Engel who coined the term “Biopsychosocial Approach” as a privileged modality both to decode and understand the processes of health and disease throughout the existential path, and to articulate forms of care [20, 21]. The biopsychosocial model is inspired by the paradigm of complexity, in sharp contrast to biomedical reductionism, as well as to the hierarchization of sciences. It adopts the perspective of the general theory of systems developed by Von Bertalanffy [22], which considers a set of interrelated events as a system that manifests specific functions and properties according to the level to which it is placed compared to a wider system. In fact, this systems theory states that all levels of the organization are connected to each other, so that the change of one affects the change of the other; for example, a biological change affects the psychological level and social level and vice versa [20, 21]. The biopsychosocial model refers to three basic principles: dialogue-connection, relationship, and humility. This paradigm considers the person as a “whole”: as a genetic heir, a subject of reflection and decision, as well as a historical-cultural and family subject. The axioms of this model are inclusive (focused on the understanding of diversity) and not exclusive, the perspectives of this approach are conceived as global, always considering biological, psychological, and social facets together [19]. Today we therefore refer to the biopsychosocial model whose fundamental assumption is that every condition of health or disease is a consequence of the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors and we therefore move beyond the old dualism that separated the body from the mind; it is therefore an attempt to see people in their entirety. It is based on the key concept that the person represents a biological unit made of both body and mind, that is, not only of a biological body but also of psychic and emotional factors, which play a decisive role not only in balancing the life of the individual but also in the genesis and development of organic diseases. Health can therefore be understood as the product of the interaction between a physical-mental-social unit. As a matter of fact anyone who wants to sufficiently understand another person cannot simply observe the individual aspects, which, although important, do not allow to understand his/her overall situation, but must approach him/her on the contrary by seizing his/her entirety and his/her complexity. The centrality of this model has been confirmed and validated by scientific literature. This model marked the shift from a traditional medical model centered only on the body (and on illness as a purely biological event) to a medicine centered on the person [20, 21]. Today there is the awareness that a biopsychosocial screening, more than a compartmentalized approach of medical and psychosocial models, can help the planning of a more effective treatment in case of illness and can also prevent distress [23]. Human beings tend to grow through the development of complex systems that are intertwined with each other and affect the three main areas explored by the model biopsychosocial paradigm:
the biological part, consisting of all the systems and subsystems that are part of it;
the part of the mind and,
last but not least, the interpersonal/social part.
These three areas are always interacting with each other and are always present in every vital event, so any alteration of the patient’s state of health will be recognized by a change in the integration between these three systems that are linked and intertwined [24].
Finally, we can state that in order to approach the concept of quality of life and the knowledge and care of the person in his/her complexity also means to examine the relations between these three systems simultaneously.
To summarize, we can affirm that the concept of quality of life (as it is intended in the field of medicine and health psychology) refers mainly to the well-being of the individual from a physical, cultural, social, and psychological point of view, also considering the cultural context and its value and, furthermore, considering the individual’s objectives, standards, and life expectancy [25]. Several studies have therefore proposed to develop a quality of life model that would integrate objective and subjective perspectives; some authors also focused on multidimensional nature of this construct by analyzing in depth some key areas: physical well-being, emotional well-being, the material well-being, potential development of the subject and his/her daily activities [26, 27]. Other authors have proposed a holistic model that describes the quality of life as a dynamic process that links the individual reality with the social reality emphasizing the importance of environmental factors and personal factors, and the relationship that the person establishes with the constraints and resources of the environment in which he/she lives [28].
We can conclude by stating that the quality of life construct refers to an indicator of material well-being expressed by money gain and economic resources, of psychophysical well-being of the individual, and the outcome related to the effectiveness of the programs implemented in support of various individuals [29]. The assessment of quality of life can be carried out according to different methodological approaches, but we have to note that making an univocal operationalization of this construct can be sometimes quite difficult for its complexity [30]. Finally, we can also point out that a key distinction between self-report questionnaires can be done according to their targets: they can be generic, or they can refer to the quality of life in relation to a specific disease, such as HIV, as we anticipated. In particular, we can use the first type of generic measurement indifferently on a heterogeneous population, like intelligence tests. We can also divide generic measuring instruments into two macro categories: profile tests, in which the scaffolding represents the evaluation of multiple dimensions of quality of life, which can be observed individually, or we can find tests that offer a single synthetic score. Every approach has its pros and cons, to be considered when choosing them for a specific objective. According to another methodological approach, instead, the subjective dimension of the illness experience is privileged to allow an in-depth analysis of the quality of life understood as a life process capable of facing pathological events. From this point of view, the semi-structured interview may also be useful [31]. In any case, it is always important to integrate the objective observation with the subjective part because (as we stated) the biological, social, and psychological dimensions are always intertwined with each other.
Concluding, we can consider that it makes sense to refer in this context to what was declared by the International Society for Quality of Life Studies [32], which stated overall that the quality of life includes both an objective point of view and a subjective point of view, and involves areas relating to material well-being, health, productivity, affectivity, safety, society, and inner well-being. The objective area includes a sound measure of objective well-being while the subjective sphere includes personal satisfaction. Personal satisfaction has to be linked to the importance assigned by the individual to some subjective and cultural values; however, we can note that the definition of objective could be misleading: social indicators are usually chosen from a theory, or are based on the availability of individual valuation data, influencing researchers’ choices. Also the social situation in which the survey is developed has a great influence, but unfortunately these aspects are often ignored or undervalued [19]. On the other hand, it must be specified also that if the perception of quality of life is reduced to a simple psychological survey of consumer satisfaction, it is a really limited perspective because all the relational, social, and cultural facets that the quality of life assessment should contain (referring to the biopsychosocial paradigm) are lost [20, 21]. Certainly all the sets of knowledge obtained through the assessments should be collected with a scientific method that is based on technically reliable and shared hypotheses. It is also necessary to rely on constructive epistemological and methodological interpretations, and it is important that the researchers should not attribute to the data collected an indisputable value of reality, but rather of a map that, because of its characteristics and controllability, allows it to express an orientation. The goal cannot in fact be just abstractly cognitive, but rather that of triggering a process of knowledge, elaboration, and participation in the population concerned, especially if the investigation aimed at finding a shared priority scale [19]. It is also important to note that it is the duty of every mental health professional to work in the direction of maximizing people’s well-being and quality of life, but this task cannot be the sole responsibility of the professionals of this discipline. On the contrary, it must be a common goal of all those who, in any capacity, deal with individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions [33]; to do this better, we have to consider human beings in their complexity, and this is possible by using the biopsychosocial paradigm [34] and the articulated concept of quality of life.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
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\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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