MSSs number of documentation by years.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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Organizations that have to sell more each day and aspire to maintain or increase their current market share need to adapt laws such as occupational health and safety and consumer protection. Changing expectations of consumers and other stakeholders should also be considered. Moreover, they have to be flexible in their upcoming competition-based strategies so as to adapt to these changes. This adaptation plays a vital role for organizations. Within the scope of new competition-based strategy, organizations need to observe the developments taking place in their milieu, evaluate the current information, and by making best use of its resources so as to maintain sustainable development. In addition, the quality of products and services offered by businesses today is no longer adequate alone. Owing to the increased environmental awareness, current technological processes, procedures, and policies focus on improving and optimizing tools and techniques to minimize the effect on the environment. Indeed, management system standards (MSSs) are regarded as a strategic tool in order to effectively deal with processes such as governance, personnel, and occupational health and safety [1, 2, 3].
\nThere are two major milestones in the emergence of MSSs. First, there is the industrial revolution that facilitated mass production and thereby reduced cost. The latter is the World War II that caused a change in the perspective of industrialization and qualified staff of the states involved. In the aftermath of the war, new balances emerged in the world affecting quality development and the necessity of establishing certain standards [4].
\nMSSs are published by the International Standards of Organization (ISO). ISO was founded in 1947 with its main headquarters in Genova, Switzerland. It is an independent organization hosting members from 163 states. From 1947 up till now, ISO have published 21,623 international standards covering nearly all aspects of technology and trade [5].
\nThere are a total of 57 MSSs currently in effect, developed by ISO for different coverage and areas of use [6]. Some of these standards (e.g., ISO 9001, ISO 14001, ISO 45001, ISO 27001) are applicable for all sectors. Apart from these, there are also sector-specific standards such as ISO 22000 for companies producing food, food equipment, and food packaging; ISO 13485 for companies producing medical devices; and ISO 16949 for automotive and subsidiary industry sectors.
\nThe establishment of management system standards is optional for organizations. However, MSS has become a mandatory practice for organizations that want to keep-up with the developments in the world and gain prestige in trade [7, 8]. Various studies state that MSSs make positive contributions to the innovative performance of organizations when implemented constantly, systematically, and in the long run, it is also a vital tool for sustainable development. As a result, standards are becoming more and more important today [9, 10, 11].
\nEstablishing and managing MSS in organizations independently of each other lead to some difficulties in organizations and do not yield the desired synergistic effect [12]. Instead, it would be a more rational solution to gather different MSS under a single roof and to provide a holistic view to all standards, which is to integrate them all. Today, integrated management systems are considered as a practical and a useful method for the future [13, 14, 15].
\nThe purpose of this study is as such:
to share the necessary knowledge to improve the effectiveness of the integrated management systems,
to demonstrate its impact on sustainable development, and
to lead the relevant stakeholders in choosing the best option
Before dwelling on the content of IMS, it is necessary to explain the concept of integration. Integration refers to “completion” and “aggregation” [16]. However, the term integration should not be confused with “combination” and “compliance” in terms of MSSs.
\nCompliance refers to parallel management system standards prepared for the same discipline despite showing great differences in terms of structure and content [17]. With regards to the term combination, it is the creation of a new system by adding different management systems to each other. According to the British Standards Institute (BSI), there is a four-step process in MSSs-integrated practice that goes from combination to integration [18].
Different management systems are implemented independently of each other in the same organization and in the same time frame (combination)
The organization prepares for integration by identifying common elements of different management systems after implementation
The organization eliminates the differences and removes the contradictions among different management systems. It adds new elements to the initial common elements. This step is about the combination of the systems
The organization creates a new meta-system that integrates all identified common elements
Integration, in terms of management systems, refers to owning each MSS content
There are different views of integration in organizations [22, 23, 24].
No integration: Each system exists with its own identity in the institution
Partial integration: It refers to the harmonization of certain elements of each integrated system. It is projected at the middle management level that systems should be constructed according to business functions and be independent. It is assumed that systems should generally be compatible with each other, but this compatibility will not be 100%
Full integration: Each integrated system loses its identity and a single multi-purpose meta-system emerges. It is assumed that systems will form a complete integration at executive and operational level
As IMSs can be shaped according to the needs of an organization, they are capable of including different management system standards. Therefore, there are still debates about IMS. However, literature review on IMSs show that ISO 9001 (QMS), ISO 14001(EMS), and OHSAS 18001(OHS) standards are the most researched standards [25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. It is possible to make different integrations by adding ISO 9001-ISO 14001, ISO 9001-OHSAS 18001, ISO 14001-OHSAS 18001, ISO 9001-ISO 14001-OHSAS 18001, or other standards that are specific to the sector. In other words, there is no limit to MSSs integration. An exemplary model of IMS is shown in Figure 1.
\nISO 9001, ISO 14001, OHSAS 18001 IMS [
There are many studies highlighting the benefits of ISO 9001 for organizations. From an overall perspective to these studies, the advantages can be divided into two categories. Internal benefits include cultural change in employees, organized action, management efficiency, better documentation, increase in production efficiency, and reduction of costs.
\nExternal benefits include customer satisfaction and loyalty, increase in market share of the business, readiness for official audits, strengthening the organizational image, and increase in competitive power [33, 34, 35].
\nThe main reason for placing an emphasis on these three standards in studies conducted on IMSs is that human health, environmental dimension, and quality have become an integral part of today’s life. All three standards can be implemented in all the sectors regardless of activity type, size, and the number of employees of organizations. In addition, these standards cover different geographical, cultural, and social conditions [42].
\nISO publishes the documentation statistics on ISO management systems on a regular basis (Table 1) [43].
\nYear | \n2010 | \n2011 | \n2012 | \n2013 | \n2014 | \n2015 | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ISO 9001 | \n1,076,525 | \n1,009,845 | \n1,017,279 | \n1,022,877 | \n1,036,321 | \n1,034,180 | \n6,197,027 | \n
ISO 14001 | \n239,880 | \n243,393 | \n260,852 | \n273,861 | \n296,736 | \n319,496 | \n1,634,218 | \n
ISO/IEC 27001 | \n15,626 | \n17,355 | \n19,620 | \n21,604 | \n23,005 | \n27,536 | \n124,746 | \n
ISO 50001 | \n— | \n459 | \n2236 | \n4826 | \n6765 | \n11,985 | \n26,271 | \n
ISO 22000 | \n18,580 | \n19,351 | \n23,278 | \n24,215 | \n27,690 | \n32,061 | \n145,175 | \n
MSSs number of documentation by years.
The most common standards with the highest number of documentation globally are ISO 9001 and ISO 14001. They are followed by ISO 22000. The number of documentation increases in line with the increase in importance attached to management system standards. By observing Table 1, it can be stated that the reason why most studies are devoted to ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 among other integrated management systems is again evident in the number of certification.
\nISO did not publish an integrated management standard. However, based on performed research, 37 out of 57 that are currently in use can be applied in an integrated manner in terms of structure, content, terms, and definitions. There are common elements that facilitate MSS integration.
\nIMS can change according to the fields of activity, needs, mission, and visions of organizations. It is the author’s view that this change is continuous in par with changing conditions. There are still various views regarding IMSs implementation. Hence, there is no common model defined. The most accepted models for IMSs in literature are listed below:
\nThis model also has a system that uses all the resources in line with the same goals and objectives, so that the processes are compatible with each other. This system approaches each problem from a holistic point of view. This methodology helps to harmonize various functions of different MSSs. The integration in system approach can occur in different forms such as ISO 9001-based integration, ISO 14001-based integration, and ISO 9001-ISO 14001-based integration [44].
\nThis model makes an overall assessment of changes experienced by management systems in time, and creates a new model by assessing different integration models together. Management systems evolution model involves three phases namely standardization, rationalization, and integration. Renfrew and Muir [45] consider ISO 9001 as an initial point in terms of IMSs. Other sector-based cases were implemented later on. The next phase is the IMS matrix. The latter refers to the identification of similar elements among different MSSs. The fourth phase is the integration of procedures and processes. While it is possible to create integrated procedure for standards, it is rather difficult to attain this for processes. The next phase is QUENSH, which is the abbreviation of QU for quality, EN for environment, and SH for safety and health. Finally, a single management standard is formed (Figure 2).
\nManagement systems evolution model of Renfrew and Muir [
This model table shows the overlapping of elements. Its main purpose is to illustrate that different MSSs can be integrated [46]. Table 2 shows an IMS matrix sample [47, 48].
\nISO 9001:2015 | \nStandard number | \nISO 14001:2015 | \nStandard number | \n
---|---|---|---|
Scope | \n1 | \nScope | \n1 | \n
Normative references | \n2 | \nNormative references | \n2 | \n
Terms and definitions | \n3 | \nTerms and definitions | \n3 | \n
Context of the organization | \n4 | \nContext of the organization | \n4 | \n
Understanding the organization and its context | \n4.1 | \nUnderstanding the organization and its context | \n4.1 | \n
Understanding the needs and expectations of interested parties | \n4.2 | \nUnderstanding the needs and expectations of interested parties | \n4.2 | \n
Determining the scope of the quality management system | \n4.3 | \nDetermining the scope of the quality management system | \n4.3 | \n
Quality management system and its processes | \n4.4 | \nEnvironmental management systems | \n4.4 | \n
Leadership | \n5 | \nLeadership | \n5 | \n
Planning | \n6 | \nPlanning | \n6 | \n
Actions to address risks and opportunities | \n6.1 | \nActions to address risks and opportunities | \n6.1 | \n
Quality objectives and planning to achieve them | \n6.2 | \nEnvironmental objectives and planning to achieve them | \n6.2 | \n
Support | \n7 | \nSupport | \n7 | \n
Resources | \n7.1 | \nResources | \n7.1 | \n
Competence | \n7.2 | \nCompetence | \n7.2 | \n
Awareness | \n7.3 | \nAwareness | \n7.3 | \n
Communication | \n7.4 | \nCommunication | \n7.4 | \n
Documented information | \n7.5 | \nDocumented information | \n7.5 | \n
Operation | \n8 | \nOperation | \n8 | \n
Operational planning and control | \n8.1 | \nOperational planning and control | \n8.1 | \n
Performance evaluation | \n9 | \nPerformance evaluation | \n9 | \n
Improvement | \n10 | \nImprovement | \n10 | \n
IMS matrix sample.
There are different views in IMS matrix regarding the compatibility of elements between one another and their implementation by organizations. According to one point of view, there is a strong connection between ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, and it is possible to implement an IMS matrix in integration [49]. Another view suggests that standards have special functions pertaining to themselves, and problems are likely during an integration process based on IMS Matrix. [50].
\nBased on the findings thus far, it may be stated that the similarities between MSSs, especially among the quality management standards, are considerably higher than the differences. It is the author’s view that an IMS matrix is important as it shows how compatible or incompatible the different MSSs are in integration.
\nThe EFQM excellence model was prepared by the European Foundation for Quality Management in 1988 to enhance competitive aspects of European organizations. EFQM excellence model was developed in such a way that it can be employed as a quality system by all kinds of organizations regardless of differences in sector and capacity. The philosophy of this model is based on self-assessment by organizations themselves. This method enables organizations to identify their current situation and to develop new strategies to enhance processes. EFQM includes nine criteria, five of which are enablers, and the remaining four are results. These criteria are leadership, strategy, people, partnerships and resources, processes, products and services, people results, customer results, society results, and key performance results. There are 32 sub-headings under these criteria [51, 52] (Figure 3).
\nEFQM excellence model [
It is worth mentioning at this point that the EFQM excellence model was not developed for management systems integration. However, the criteria suggested by EFQM overlap to a great extent with MSSs. Therefore, integration is possible with reference to EFQM criteria.
\nISO Guide 72 defines all MSSs common elements and proposes a certain rational order for IMSs. Thus, it is possible to develop, review, compare, and revise many standards, while increasing in-between standard compatibility. Table 3 shows common elements defined for MSSs in ISO Guide 72 standard [53].
\nMain subjects that are common to all MSSs | \nCommon elements | \n
---|---|
1. Policy | \n1.1. Policy and principles | \n
2. Planning | \n2.1. Identification of needs, requirements and analysis of critical issues 2.2. Selection of significant issues to be addressed 2.3. Setting of objectives and targets 2.4. Identification of resources 2.5. Identification of organizational structure, roles, responsibilities and authorities 2.6. Planning of operational processes 2.7. Contingency preparedness for foreseeable events | \n
3. Implementation and operation | \n3.1. Operational control 3.2. Management of human resources 3.3. Management of other resources 3.4. Documentation and its control 3.5. Communication 3.6. Relationship with suppliers and contractors | \n
4. Performance assessment | \n4.1. Monitoring and measuring 4.2. Analyzing and handling nonconformities 4.3. System audits | \n
5. Improvement | \n5.1. Corrective action 5.2. Preventive action 5.3. Continual improvement | \n
6. Management review | \n6.1. Management review | \n
Common elements of ISO MSSs.
Each of the MSSs is revised according to changing conjunctures and conditions. As the compatibility among standards is taken into account for the aforementioned revisions, one might expect an increasing number of similar standards in the future in terms of structure and content. Hence, it is the author’s view that implementation of different integration types will be even more easier in the future.
\nThe history of ISO 9001 standard is older than the other standards. In addition, it is acknowledged that at present, companies initially establish this standard as it is applicable to all sectors. This is the most common model for IMSs establishment. System approach model, management systems evolution model, IMS matrix model, and ISO Guide 72, all comply with ISO 9001-based integration. In this integration system, ISO 9001 is established initially, and other systems are integrated following its implementation. This model is based on process approach [54].
\nIn this integration system, ISO 14001 is established initially, and other systems are integrated following its realization. It is the author’s view that this is rarely implemented, as it is generally preferred by companies whose products or services are expected to yield severe harms to environmental conditions. It is possible to benefit from the IMS matrix in this model. The main objective of this model is continuous improvement as it is the case in the PDCA cycle [55].
\nInitially, ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 standards are co-established as an integrated management system, and other systems are included in the integration later on [56].
\nThe main purpose of this model is to prepare common documentation for each standard to be integrated. The main approach is continuous improvement. Firstly, common documents are determined for each standard. This mainly results in the full integration of procedures and the partial integration of processes. This is because each standard has its own processes. Then, the other documentation is integrated into the system. An IMS matrix can be utilized for this integration model. Moreover, this model is one of the phases of management systems evolution model [57].
\nIMSs yield more benefits to the organization than it would benefit from the implementation of separate standards. Therefore, some countries have published a single management standard for integration. Single management standard was prepared with reference to organizations that are already implementing two or more standards.
\nIt is worth noting at this point that all standards are of equal importance. This is because each model has its own gains and drawbacks. The approaches of models toward the scope and integration are different from one another.
\nMoreover, some researchers [62] argue that the culture specific to any given society should be taken into account for integrated management systems or each system to be implemented. Hence, the need for developing new integration models still exists. Table 4 shows comparison of IMS models.
\nModel | \nScope | \nModel characteristics | \nPurpose | \nLimitations | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
The system approach | \nThe requirements in the standards | \nAn IMS based on both the PDCA circle and the process approach. | \nTo avoid the problems regarding to different underlying models | \nIgnores culture | \n
IMS Matriksi | \nThe standards themselves | \nHarmonization of the elements in the standards | \nShow combinability | \nAligned not integrated | \n
ISO Guide 72 | \nThe common elements | \nThe integration of common elements | \nAvoid duplication | \nAligned not integrated | \n
Integrated documentation | \nThe documentation | \nOne management handbook for all systems | \nSimplify and reduce documentation | \nAligned not integrated | \n
EFQM | \nTotal quality management | \nIncludes strategic and cultural management | \nBusiness excellence | \nDo not address the ISO certification requirements | \n
ISO 9001-based IMS | \nThe requirements in the standards | \nAn IMS based on the process approach | \nAn IMS based on the process approach | \nIgnores culture | \n
ISO 14001-based IMS | \nThe requirements in the standards | \nAn IMS based on the PDCA circle | \nAn IMS based on the PDCA circle | \nIgnores culture | \n
The single management standard | \nThe standards themselves | \nBased on only one common standard | \nOne company, one system | \nISO not exists, potentially inflexible, must be regularly updated | \n
Comparison of IMS models [57].
The rapid increase in production, and consequently, consumption has made the concept of sustainability even more important today. Sustainability is a three-dimensional concept involving environmental, economic, and social issues.
\nSustainable development for organizations can be defined as the ability to efficiently manage risks associated with economic, environmental, and social factors in order to create long-term value in organizations. By resolving the aforementioned risks from a holistic point of view, namely dealing with these risks via IMSs, it is possible to create positive contributions to performances and sustainable developments of organizations. In addition to benefits to organizations, it is revealed in many studies that IMSs have many gains that are closely relevant to sustainable development. Advantages influential on sustainable development can be summed up in six themes [63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
\nManagement results:
The image of the company was positively affected and it gained international prestige
It improved management of relationships with suppliers and subcontractors
A holistic perspective was offered to the events
A transparent management approach emerged
It saved time and costs by joint internal/external audits
It facilitated the interrelationship of activities and co-ordination
It attributed efficiency to internal and external communication
It made risks easier to control
It was beneficial for a clearer and explicit definition of liabilities and authorities
It ensured efficient use of resources
It facilitated strategic planning and decision making for executives
Bureaucracy and procedures decreased while documentation got simplified
The time and cost of implementing the systems decreased
Incompatibility among ISO 9001, ISO 14001, and 18001 reduced
Internal innovation increased
An easier and more efficient management system was achieved
Supplying capital became easier
A continuous improvement process started
The organization gains flexibility and speed for change
People results:
Employee motivation and awareness increased
Employees participated in system works at the highest level
Employees adopted the system more
Employees have more loyalty toward the organization
Newly-employed staff adapted to the system more rapidly and easily
Production results:
Productivity increased
Scraps and wastes are reduced
There is a considerable drop in error rate during process
There is a cutback of production time
Delivery process of productions is improved
Costs decreased and profit increased
Minimization in customer audits
Market results:
There is an increase in customer demand
There is a decrease in customer complaints
There is an raise in customer satisfaction
There is an amplification in quality perception of customers toward the organization
Competitive power improved
Market share and profitability grew
Environmental results:
Complying with legal liabilities toward environment became easier
The number of environmental damages decreased
Occupational health and safety results
Adherence to legal requirements in terms of occupational health and safety became easier
There is a decrease in the number of work-related accidents
Though IMSs offer many advantages, it may also have disadvantages for organizations. These are as follows: [73, 74, 75].
Focusing less on one or more than one of the standards constituting IMS
Documentation and the management thereof become more complicated compared to previous actions
Paper work and management associated costs increase
Human resources were not used effectively
There are also certain difficulties in implementing IMS. These include, but are not limited to:
Inadequacy of resources
Lack of information
Corporate culture
Difficulties in focusing on different fields
Constantly changing regulations and standards
Lack of qualified staff
Conflicts among employees and
Difficulties in making changes.
In addition, some studies revealed that some administrators who work in organizations are opposed to IMS applications because they think that their expertise areas will lose their importance and that in integrated management systems, their positions will no longer be needed [76, 77].
\nFrom the agricultural age to the age of industry and finally to the age of information, all organizations operating in the public and private sector need new approaches to meet customer expectations, while differentiating from their competitors and succeeding in the market. Moreover, approaches that can meet the expectations of all stakeholders have gained importance. It is neither possible for an organization operating in a competitive market to ignore common values such as environment, social responsibility, and human resources, which should be protected as they may be regarded as a company’s assets. Indeed, for a company to succeed in today’s antagonistic marketplace, management systems standards and integrated management systems may be regarded as providing a holistic view of these standards. They are considered as an important tool for solving aforementioned problems and ambiguities.
\nIntegrated management systems provide organizations with a management philosophy that enables processes to be successfully managed and achieve desired results. When the emerging management philosophy is internalized by executives and other employees, it has a positive impact on sustainable development as well as providing many benefits to the organization. Performed literature research indicates that integrated management systems have a constructive effect on management, employees, production, environment, market, occupational health and safety processes. However, these studies also highlight certain negative impacts that integrated management systems hold. Yet, if an assessment was made between the two, positive effects of integrated management systems would outweigh the negative ones. Integrated management systems focus on medium- and long-term goals of companies rather than the improvement in short-term indicators and form a corporate culture to this end.
\nDifferent approaches to integrated management systems are still underway. However, studies focus on creating a common IMS model for all sectors in general. Instead, it is believed that creating a sector-specific IMS model will be more rational. Moreover, it is thought that this work may provide stakeholders with a building platform so as to broaden their interest in integrated management systems.
\nForest is a conditional renewable resource which can be regenerated but needs a certain period of time to maintain its sustainable functioning. In India, the forest resources have been found to be depleting at a pace which is much high [1]. Rapid industrialization, urbanization and over-exploitation have resulted not only in decline but also in permanent loss of forest cover to an alarming rate [2]. The major driver behind all these factors is the uncontrolled population growth of humans which leads to the dramatic increase in the demand for wood and forest products. The over-exploitation of forest resources has taken place beyond the sustained yields to fulfil the needs of humans, thus bringing a change in the net forest cover [2, 3]. With the current rate of population explosion, the world population could be expected to increase from 7.6 billion to about 10 billion in the next 30 to 35 years [4]. The growing demand for food can be expected to rise by 50% in the given period, and it is a matter of serious concern. Rational utilization and proper management of the forest resources are the most viable ways to prevent mass destruction of forests and large-scale species extinction. It is necessary to find the links between the growing demands and meeting the demands in a sustainable manner. The scope of future studies must focus on the solution to establish this link by incorporating the principles of forestry, restoration ecology and natural resource economics.
Deforestation occurs when a land initially dominated by naturally occurring tree species is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has defined deforestation as
The value of forest is simple to understand but sometimes tough to quantify. The various values of the forest have been shown in Figure 1. Forest has a major contribution on the global economy and supports livelihood of the majority of rural populations in the world [7]. The direct uses of forest are most easy to quantify as it is directly related to economic returns. The indirect use and option value although play a major role in defining the valuation of the forest resources are seldom quantified and are being intangible in nature [8]. There is also a no-use value of the forest resources which considers leaving the current forest intact as a heritage for the future generation and for satisfaction and happiness of the current population. But, these eco-centric views alone cannot suffice the support for a change in policy and land use pattern. There are some other important values of forests that are difficult to quantify. One of the major roles that forests play is that it acts as a major carbon sink [9, 10, 11]. Plants utilize carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis and store it in the form of carbohydrates, and these carbohydrates reach the soil as dead organic matter and contribute to soil carbon sink. When forests are cleared, less CO2 is absorbed by plants, and atmospheric CO2 concentration increases with the passage of time due to unavailable sink. Also, there is a marked reduction in soil organic carbon with the loss of vegetation cover, thereby affecting the productivity of the ecosystem. Productivity is believed to be an indicator of carbon assimilation capacity, and hence the more productive the forests are, the more carbon it stores [12, 13, 14]. The tropical forests are among the most productive as well as the most threatened ecosystem in present time with the maximum rate of deforestation. Thus, it is imperative to control the rate of deforestation in order to avoid the adversities associated with it.
Different values of forests ecosystems
The value and functions of forests are immense and diverse. Similarly, the impacts of deforestation are global and commune the whole forest community. One of the major constraints in understanding the true impact of desertification on forests is the inadequacy and imprecise form of data.
The effect of large-scale deforestation is global, but it is necessary to assess its impacts on microclimate, regional climate and global climate to form a holistic understanding of mechanism [15]. The association of deforestation with the increased CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and changes in the mass balances and surface energy can result in climate change at the local and global level [16]. The change in land use pattern especially the clearing of forest cover affects both hydrometeorological and global CO2 concentrations leading to more warming as CO2 readily absorbs infrared radiation [17]. Clearing tree cover and vegetation leads to increase in albedo of the region as bare soil reflects more solar radiation than vegetation, which again is a factor for altering regional radiation flux [15, 18]. One of the noticeable changes in regional climates occurs when the cloud formation shifts to higher elevations from lowland plains as a result of deforestation in the later area [19]. In a global scale, deforestation leads to warmer and drier weather due to the synergistic effect of reduced evapotranspiration, increased albedo and CO2 concentration that triggers desertification, loss in biodiversity and melting of polar ice caps, ultimately leading to food insecurity. All these effects are successors of extremes in climate variation that are produced by the large-scale reduction in forest cover [20]. The estimated quantity of CO2 added to the atmosphere due to deforestation in the tropics is roughly two billion tonnes [21]. It is interesting to note that the CO2 emissions due to clearing of forest will almost be equivalent to 25% of what is added to the atmosphere due to anthropogenic emissions [22]. The shift in climate is somehow correlated to reducing forest cover. Further researches can clearly define the mechanisms and pathways by which these shifts are progressing and how they can be mitigated.
The global water cycle depends on the amount and distribution of precipitation for which one of the influencing factors is evapotranspiration [23]. There is a direct effect on drinking water on the basis of quality and quantity, fisheries and aquatic habitats, occurrence of flood and drought, life of dams on account of increase siltation and agriculture due to poor quality irrigation and crop yield [24, 25]. It must be recognized that the protective role of forests is operative and has a major impact on urban water resources [26]. Forests play an important role in maintaining the watersheds [27]. The degraded or degrading watersheds can be recovered by forestation, but once the forest or vegetation cover is lost, the watershed becomes vulnerable to erosion. This erosion leads to siltation in the downstream areas and consequently reduces the depth of river bed increasing the chances of flood. There are two main effects of deforestation that increase the chances of flooding. One is by reducing the tree fountain effect, i.e. interception and moisture uptake by the trees would cease after deforestation reducing the moisture holding capacity of soil that leads to greater runoff and erosion. And other is by the process of soil compaction and poor soil structure that will lead to reduced organic matter content of soil devoid of vegetation cover [28]. There are severe long-term effects on soil as a cause of deforestation. During slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation, an area of forests clears and exposes the bare soil to weather extremes of high solar insolation and heavy rainfall [29]. In the absence of the forest cover and organic matter, soil could not accommodate heavy precipitation, and the fertile layers of soil used to be easily washed away ultimately reduces the long-term productivity. The effect on soil is dependent on the interrelation and synergistic effect of evapotranspiration and infiltration that are directly altered due to loss in vegetation cover [23].
Deforestation directly increases erosion and siltation rates. There is an increased risk of flooding in Yangtze River basin in China and the major river basins in East Asia and the Amazonian basin [23, 30]. The slopes and terrains are more vulnerable to such situations. There are formations of shallow gullies which may be accounted for the concentrated flow of runoff that prevails due to long-term erosion. Cultivation and ploughing along the slopes cause rapid erosion in the areas with less vegetation cover [31]. In the Loess Plateau, the slopes of steepness greater than 15° showed shallow gully erosion as a result of cultivation activities [32]. The availability of dead vegetation can reduce the surface runoff from the early season rain and check soil erosion [33]. It is necessary to sustain the forest and vegetation cover to maintain the soil productivity and water quality of both the surface and underground sources.
Forests are very rich in biodiversity and store a vast gene pool, and the majority of species occur in the tropical forests. It consists of two-thirds of all known species and 65% of 10,000 species that are recognized as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [34]. The biodiversity could be regarded as an important asset that is necessary to conserve for future utilization. The World Health Organization states that the traditional people, almost 80% of them, rely on the local biodiversity for traditional medicines. A loss in the biodiversity may directly affect their health care and well-being [35]. Another most noticeable impact of deforestation is the increasing human-wildlife conflict. The decreasing forest cover is limiting the habitats of many species due to which is forcing them to intrude with human welfare [36]. There are increasing instances of invasion and animal killing. The northern margin of West Bengal, India, forms a significant portion of the Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot. The area has observed heavy fragmentation in the last decade, and as a result, there was a huge loss in the agricultural crop and both human and elephant life due to conflicts. There are reports of mortality of 20 elephants and 50 persons annually from this area [37]. It is also estimated that if deforestation in the Himalayas continue at the current rate, the dense forest cover (>40% canopy cover) will be restricted to 10% of land area in the Indian Himalayas by 2100. This may lead to a significant loss of 366 endemic plants and 35 endemic vertebrates [38]. The loss in biodiversity is of global concern irrespective of regional and local importance. Conserving the forest and an increase in forest cover certainly find a positive correlation with the increase and sustenance of biodiversity. Conversion of forest land to agricultural fields and other land use could be a threat to major loss in biological diversity in the near future.
Forests contribute to the world economy in terms of timber production and other forest produces. There are different contributions of forest as a means of direct employment in forestry services and other value-added contributions as recreation and aesthetics. The loss of tropical forest cover annually may account for about 45 billion US dollars [39]. The destruction of forest eliminates the sources of economic gain directly obtained and also eliminates the potential gain from the resources that the forest sustains as biodiversity, soil and water. Also, the destruction of forest increases the negative externalities in the form of increasing CO2 concentration, risk of flood and human-wildlife conflict [40]. The proximity of settlements to protected areas further intensifies the chances of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). It is reported that settled households face high risk of HWC due to their close proximity of the Kanha National Park in Central India [41]. Deforestation has its social influence in the form of long-term effect. Development is a serious concern for indigenous community as it certainly leads to a change or shift of their culture and tradition. The cultural and religious aspects of the community are seldom preserved amid infrastructural advancement that leads to land and social conflict [42]. In a study of household survey from rural areas of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh state of India, it was found that the poorest of the local community gained about 30% of their living from forest produce which was claimed to be even higher than the returns from agriculture. Also, forest provides an option as safety net during the period of crisis in rural areas [43]. Various ecological services provided by the forests have been lost due to deforestation which in turn has immediate effects on the local communities dependent on these services for their daily needs. The inclusive approach for the sustainable management of forest resource is a vital consideration that considers economy as a subset of the society which in itself is a subset of the environment. Such considerations can help sustaining the constantly declining forest cover and its long-term impacts.
The forest cover was found to be increased by ca. 1% for the year 2017 which is 21.54% of the total geographic area when compared to that of forest cover status in 2015 which is a positive sign towards the constant efforts that are being put in to protect the forest (Figure 2). This positive change in the forest cover is mainly attributed to the conservation and management practices that include afforestation activities, participation of local peoples for better protection measures in plantation areas and traditional forest areas, expansion of trees outside forest, etc. Also, with this increase in the forest cover, the country has procured 8th position among the top 10 countries reporting the greatest annual forest area gain. Although there has been an increase in the total forest cover in India, still there are certain regions within the country that has sought a reduction in the same (Figure 3). The main reasons attributed for this reduction are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. [44]. A transition in the various forest cover classes has also occurred over the past. The present status of forest cover (%) of India belonging to various forest cover classes has been shown in Figure 4. It has been found that there is a reduction in the moderately dense forest and an increment in the open forest depicting degradation of forest cover to some extent. Changes within the forest cover classes result in decrease in the production capacity, thereby leading to forest degradation [45]. Control and regular check of these activities can help in strengthening the conservatory efforts of forest protection. This is the necessity of the present time to conserve the forests in order to sustain the vital ecosystems and the major carbon sink to combat the effects of global climate change and ultimately maintain the environmental balance.
Forest cover status in India for the last 30 years (1987 to 2017).
MODIS-based land use/land cover map of India for the year (a) 2001 and (b) 2017.
Forest cover (%) of India for the year 2017 (Source: [
Forests are an invaluable resource that is being subjected to so many threats. In order to protect our forests, it is very much necessary to understand the reasons behind their destruction. Differentiating the agents and causes of deforestation will enable in understanding the same [36]. Several disturbances within the forest directly or indirectly contribute in destruction of the forest. This can be interpreted from the results obtained while surveying in different forest patches in India.
Arunachal Pradesh is one of the states that has more than 75% forest cover and has the maximum very dense forest cover type [44]. The state is highly diverse in terms of climate as well as forest cover with tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and alpine forests having higher NDVI (≥7.0) [46]. However, the pressure on forest resources is consistently increasing with the rise in population, development activities, large number of wood-based industries and unsustainable land use practices resulting in their degradation [47]. This has also resulted in decrease in the forest cover of the state [44]. Several disturbances were being observed during the field survey in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh during 2007 to 2010. The major disturbances that were found include lopping, cut stumps, litter collection, soil removal, grazing, fire, NTFP collection and fuelwood collection (Figure 5). Of these, fuelwood collection was found to be the most recurrent activity followed by grazing. Generally, fuelwood collection has not been considered as the major cause of deforestation but leads to the same in certain regions with reduced forest area such as in the Philippines, Thailand and parts of Central America [36]. Forest fire has also been observed as an occasional event in certain parts of Arunachal Pradesh. Fires are generally used as a tool in clearing the forest for shifting cultivation which is one of the major agricultural practices performed in the state. Fires when used responsibly act as a valuable tool in managing forest and agriculture, but when abused, it can lead to deforestation [48, 49]. Other disturbances that can be an indicator of deforestation include NTFP collection and presence of cut stumps in certain forests. Forests of the state are highly diverse in endemic as well as nonendemic species, which need intensive monitoring and management to conserve the species-rich ecosystems from ever increasing anthropogenic pressure and changing climatic conditions [50].
Major disturbances in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh.
Madhya Pradesh is among one of the states of India which is endowed with rich and diverse forests and comprises the largest forest cover in the country [44]. This is mainly because of the efforts that the state has put in to conserve and harness this invaluable resource through innovative measures like community participation and decentralization (MP) [51]. Even after these continuous efforts, there are certain regions within the state where the occurrence of several types of disturbances in the forest has been found. The common disturbances that were being observed during the field survey (2017–2019) include fire, grazing, fuelwood collection, forage removal, litter collection, NTFP collection, lopping, thatch collection, root collection, soil removal, etc. (Figure 6). Among all these fire has been found as the major recurrent type of disturbance in the forests of Madhya Pradesh. Other major disturbances were grazing followed by fuelwood collection. Since every type of deforestation is not intentional but some which are the results of amalgamation of anthropogenic and natural factors like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing can prevent the growth of young trees [52] and thus eventually degrade the quality and productivity of the forest.
Major disturbances in the forests of Madhya Pradesh.
The name of the state ‘Jharkhand’ itself connotes ‘area of land covered with forests’ and has been exhibiting a unique relation with forests since time immemorial [53]. During the forest cover assessment [44], a net increase of 29 sq. km in the forest cover has been observed in the state which is mainly because of the plantation and conservation efforts within recorded forest areas. Although, there was an increment of 314 sq. km in the forest cover within the recorded forest areas, because of the felling of trees outside the forests area, its effect on forest cover has been offset. Also, several types of disturbances can be seen within the forest areas during the field survey (2016–2018), and the major disturbances were fuelwood collection, grazing, forage removal, lopping, cut stumps, thatch collection, root collection, soil removal, litter collection and NTFPs collection (Figure 7). Most of these disturbances were occasional in nature. Although these disturbances are not that recurrent, a regular check is necessary in order to prevent the forests from degrading and in achieving a sustainable forest cover. The forest management strategies should focus on the increasing demands of different timber and non-timber forest produce to conserve the plant diversity of the natural forests of the state [54].
Major disturbances in the forests of Jharkhand.
Forest management and protection by the local communities is an age-old practice in India which can be traced back to the protective nature of the Bishnoi Community of Rajasthan towards the local forest and animals as the black buck. The idea of community-based forest management emerged in an administrative level in the 1970s and 1980s. The declaration of the Government of India in June 1990 marked the establishment of Joint Forest Communities in different India states as per the National Forest Policy of 1988. The Earth Summit of 1992 provided with a clear objective of Sustainable Forest Management to which India responded in a positive way. From an increase in the forest cover, non-timber forest product (NTFP) to conservation of native flora and fauna, a whole new realm of forest management strategy by the collaboration of forest departments and local communities aided in decelerating the degradation of natural forest in India [55]. The Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is equivalent to an informal contract in which the local communities are allowed to consume a portion of harvest and NTFP if they protect and conserve it for 5–10 years. In India there is no legal authority of the local community on the forest resource where as in other countries as in Nepal the Community Forest User Groups (CFUG) are registered under their Forest Act, 1993 [56]. It is the positive effort of the local communities of India that the area under Joint Forest Management increased from 22,017,583 ha to 2,144,000 ha in March 2006 with 106,482 recognized Joint Forest Management committees countrywide [57].
Deforestation is a major environmental challenge which has been persistent from the past, and the situation is more worsened at present. Therefore, there is an urgent need to focus on the mitigative measures in order to prevent the distressing effects of deforestation in the near future. In order to alleviate the problem of deforestation, the strategies should be based on the underlying causes of the same. Also, the strategies for mitigating the problem of deforestation require its effective implementation that needs the recognition of the roles of national, state and municipal governments along with the pro-active role of the civil society and private society [36]. The continuous increase in the human population especially in the developing countries has resulted in enhanced pressure on the forests for human settlements and other land use practices. A reduction in the growth rate of human population plays a crucial role in reducing the practice of deforestation [36]. Alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture can be adopted as a strategy to mitigate the deforestation by boosting the agricultural and forestry productions for the shifting cultivators ([58, 59]). The sustainable alternatives for slash-and-burn cultivation will assist the poor farmers in leading a better life without destroying additional forests [60]. Public policies and laws with greater security, accessibility to the minimal inputs required to maintain or enhance food production and an opportunity to the cultivators to market their products will aid in the sustainability of shifting cultivation systems [61].
Another strategy that can be applied to control the rate of deforestation is through the adoption of sustainable agroforestry, sustainable logging, agro-pastoral production systems, etc. [62]. The sustainable forest management practices can be promoted only if it is ecologically, economically and socially sustainable [36]. Agroforestry has been considered as one of the methods to curb deforestation which in turn aid in reduction of CO2 emissions and mitigation of climate change effect [63, 64]. The adoption of agroforestry practices has resulted in an increase in the income of agroforestry adopters as compared to that of non-agroforestry adopters and has also contributed towards improving soil fertility, reducing deforestation and conserving soil and water [65]. The provision of protected areas is one of the key steps towards an attempt to reduce deforestation which is generally motivated through biodiversity conservation [34]. Also, the global endeavours to reduce tropical deforestation are dependent heavily on the establishment of protected areas. It has been found that protection reduced deforestation as approximately 10% of the protected forests would have been deforested if they would have not been protected [66]. Tropical protected areas reduced deforestation which was liable for around one-tenth of total anthropogenic carbon emissions, thus playing a significant role in mitigating the effects of climate change and protecting biodiversity and ecosystem services [67]. Similarly, a total loss of 15.4% in the unprotected mangrove cover was compensated by the 15.7% rise in the protected mangrove cover (protected by government as per Ramsar Convention) which resulted in a net increase of 13.3% in mangrove cover across India in the last 25 years [68]. Implementation of forest certification can be among one of the strategies to control deforestation around the world. Forest certification is a process through which the producers identify their products in the marketplace and receive greater market accessibility and higher prices for their products by fulfilling certain stringent sustainable forestry standards [69]. Certification has played an important role in protecting Penten forests from 1986 to 2007, and the certified forests experience 20 times less deforestation than non-certified areas [70]. Thus, certification of forest can play a major role in controlling deforestation since the timber certification was found to be negatively related with deforestation, i.e. the increase in the certification process has resulted in a declination in the deforestation rate [71].
The Government of India has been continuously putting significant efforts in terms of conserving the forest resources. They have not only taken measures to conserve the present forest cover but also have initiated several measures to increase the forests and tree cover of the country. Both the national and state governments are jointly responsible for the sustainable management of the forest resources in India. Various steps, rules and laws have been brought and implemented in order to conserve the forest cover of India. Some of these rules and laws are [72]:
The Indian Forest Act, 1927: The act is an amalgamation of laws relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produces. It defines the procedures for declaring an area of a reserved forest, a protected forest or a village forest by the state government. With the amendment in the Act in 2012, it also prohibited the fresh clearances in forests and setting fire in a reserved forest.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (with an amendment in 1988): The main purpose of the proposition of this act was to conserve the forests and to look into the matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. With the implementation of this act, a prior approval of the Central Government is required for any sort of diversion of forest areas for the non-forestry purposes.
[73]: The establishment of the National Forest Policy was also among one of the steps taken by the Government of India in order to ensure compensatory afforestation, essential environmental safeguards, sustainable utilization, maintenance, restoration and enhancement of forest areas.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: The wildlife protection act was enacted basically to protect wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto with a view to ensure the ecological and environmental security of the country.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006: The act was framed with the purpose to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded. These recognized rights of the forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers include the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance which in turn aid in strengthening the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood and food security of the forest dwellings scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
Apart from these laws, the Government of India has also established Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, whose primary work is to gather and evaluate the country’s forest wealth through a nationwide survey to measure forest areas [74]. This in turn aids in determining the factors and drivers behind the loss or gain in forest cover of any particular region in India. Another council, i.e. the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), was established by the Government of India in 2009 as a National Advisory Council under the chairmanship of the Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for the monitoring, technical assistance and evaluation of compensatory afforestation activities. This was particularly meant to promote afforestation and regeneration activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses [75]. Certain scheme such as Integrated Forest Protection Scheme (IFPS) was being formulated by the government to save the forests from fire. The scheme was designed by combining the forest fire protection and management technique along with forest conservation. Various other missions and programmes such as the National Mission for a Green India (NMGI) and National Afforestation Programme (NAP) were also being launched by the Government of India where the main aim of NMGI was to improve the quality of five million hectares of degraded forests and to bring another five million hectares of non-forest areas under forest cover through social and farm forestry. On the other hand, the NAP was launched with the objective to develop the forest resources with people’s participation, with a focus on improving the livelihood of the forest-fringe communities, especially the poor [75].
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has been optimistic in strengthening the role of women in conservation of forest at local community levels since long. The National Forest Policy [73], for the first time, acknowledged the necessity of including woman members in forestry schemes. The Joint Forest Management Policy of 1990 mandated woman representatives not less than 40% in general body and 50% in executive body of the local forestry institutions like the JFM committee. Later in 2002, the Biodiversity Authority of India reframing the local biodiversity management committee structure mandated the reservation of one-third of its members as women. Thus, this understanding of the role of women in the local-level conservation measures and implementation of related rules has aided in improving the management of forest in rural regions of the country [76].
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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