Summary of splash thresholds under different surface conditions [42].
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44962",title:"Interacting with Objects in Games Through RFID Technology",doi:"10.5772/53448",slug:"interacting-with-objects-in-games-through-rfid-technology",body:'Interactive games aimed at educational environments are becoming increasingly important in children´s learning. At the same time, technological advances are definitely causing the arrival of new computational paradigms, such as Ubiquitous Computing or Internet of Things. Ubiquitous Computing was defined by Mark Weiser in 1988, which provides the user with advanced and implicit computing, capable of carrying out a set of services of which the user is not aware. Internet of Things is similar to the Ubiquitous Computing paradigm and was introduced by Kevin Ashton in 1999 [7]. The scenario is described as a daily life object network where all of the objects are digitalized and interconnected.
The main objective of this chapter is focused on how to exploit the evolution of technology to improve user interaction in game environments through digitalized objects with identification technology (such as RFID or Near Field Communication). Digitalized objects are used as interaction resources. They are used in conjunction with mobile devices providing the performance of tasks with a simple and intuitive gesture. In the first place, mobile devices offer sophisticated methods to provide users with services to make use of information and to interact with objects in the real world. In the second place, physical objects are associated with digital information through identification technologies such as RFID. In this context, physical mobile interactions allow users to play games through natural interaction with objects in the real world. This chapter has six sections. Section 2 describes some concepts such as: Ubiquitous Computing, the Internet of Things and the types of interaction used in games. Section 3 presents the general infrastructure of RFID systems. In section 4, we describe the development of two RFID games. In section 5 their advantages and disadvantages are presented. Finally, conclusions are set out in Section 6.
Ubiquitous computing involves computers and technology that blend seamlessly into day to day living. Weiser described the concept in the article [8] in 1991.
The idea of a disappearing technology can clearly be applied to the trend in RFID technology development. In recent years, RFID technology was used in retail [2] and logistics [3]. Nowadays RFID Technology is becoming such an ubiquitous technology, it has led to a particular interest in developing a system in smart spaces. The Internet of Things is similar to the Ubiquitous Computing paradigm, which was described by Kevin Ashton in 1999 [7]. This concept refers to the interconnection of everyday objects in a network. i.e., each object such as a table, a chair or a refrigerator may include integrated identification technology. In this way, the Internet evolves from traditional devices to real objects thanks to the use of technologies such as wireless sensors or RFID.
In this chapter we have focused on games as an educational tool for children\'s learning. A video game is a software programme created for entertainment and learning purposes in general. It is based on the interaction between one or more people and an electronic device that executes the game. Over the past decades, video games have become a mainstream form of entertainment and communication which are highly accepted and successful in the society. People like playing games for several reasons: as a pastime, as a personal challenge, to build skills, to interact with others, for fun, or as tool for learning. In recent years, the advancement of technology has allowed designs to implement intuitive and new forms of interaction between the user and the console. Some of the devices used are: Kinect, Wii, Multi-Touch Technology, Virtual Reality, and Identification technologies such as RFID, NFC. The following describes in detail the devices and ways of interacting that there are between systems and users.
Kinect is a motion sensing input device that is connected to the console and PC video. It allows the user to interact with the game through movement and voice. In order to function, it requires technologies such as sensors, multi-array microphone, RGB camera and an internal processor. Some existing games that incorporate this technology with learning games are: [4][5][6]. These games offer a new and attractive interaction technique based on movement and voice. However, the new interaction needs some getting used to, most especially for children who have either physical or cognitive disabilities, as it can be exhausting to play through movement. Another obstacle is the space requirement and the hardware, such as the camera, is more delicate and expensive. Another device developed to improve the interaction between user and console is the Wii Remote, which is used as a handheld pointing device and detects movement in three dimensions. This device incorporates technologies such as: accelerometers, Bluetooth...[21].The main problem is the need for battery.
In addition, there is Virtual Reality software using helmets, gloves and other simulators. In this way the user may feel more immersed in the game, and it is very engaging and motivating, but the problem is the high cost of devices, and the difficulty in the use of certain devices. Also, an additional person is required to control the players and devices [9][10]. Multi-touch technology for games allows the users to play on digital tabletops that provide both an embedded display and a computer to drive player interactions. Several people can thus sit around the table and play digital games together. This technology uses infrared LEDs and photodiodes, which are discretely mounted around the perimeter of the LCD. The principle of an infrared touch screen is the combination of an infrared (IR) LED and an IR-sensitive photodiode. As soon as there is an object or finger between the LED and the photodiode, the latter no longer detects the IR light from the LED. This information is the basis for the input detection. You can interact with them through multiple objects (including fingers). Some of the games implemented with touch technology for learning are:[11][12][13][14].
Identification technology such as RFID and NFC has been used to transmit the identity of an object using radio waves. In this way different types of interaction are allowed, such as touching which involves touching an object to a mobile device and enabling the user to perform the selected task. For example [15][16] show some projects using this technique.
Scanning: the mobile device or other device is capable of scanning information and interacting with the system to provide a service to the user.
Approach&remove: [17] this is a style of interaction which allows us to control user interfaces of a distributed nature by making a gesture with the mobile device. Interaction, as mentioned previously, may be absent or may simply consist of approaching the mobile device to digitized objects.
In this chapter we propose another kind of interaction, in which the mobile devices are stationary and the user used physical objects for interacting with the display.
Some systems that use identification technology are described as following: Smart Playing Cards [26] is a game based on RFID; this technology is integrated in cards. Augmented toys are digitalized with RFID technology simulating the real world [18] [19]. Meta-Criket is a kit developed for augmenting objects [25]. Hengeveld described in [20] the value of designing intelligent interactive games and learning environments for young children with multiple disabilities to increase their language and communication skills. In [21] we can find a proposal that digitalizes toys to help deaf children to learn sign language. This system [24] focuses on assessment and training for special children, allowing the user to store data through RFID cards data for processing daily and providing treatment advice. However, this project only focuses on monitoring the child and does not take into account activities to improve their intellectual ability. [22] describes a RFID musical table for children or people with disabilities. The table is designed for people who cannot navigate through menus or by using buttons on an iPod, and serves to enable them to select albums or songs from a music list from an iPod Touch. This system is very specific; it is more focused on entertainment. Logan Proxtalker [23] is a communication device which allows any user to communicate with symbols "PECS" System (Picture Exchange Communication), which is a device to retrieve vocabulary stored in different labels in order to play actual words. These systems provide entertainment and user interaction with the environment. The disadvantage is that are very specific and none of them has focused on the stimulation of the cognitive abilities of people with intellectual disabilities.
The advantages offered by these devices and systems are numerous. They enhance positive attitudes in users. They feel more motivated and encouraged to learn. However, the systems present the following disadvantages:
The user needs a minimum knowledge of computer use. Not everybody can use a computer and some devices, like a mouse or a keyboard are not intuitive for people with cognitive disabilities. They need someone to help them.
The system requires highly specialized hardware / software which can be expensive (simulators, virtual reality). In some games, impaired users may have difficulties finding specific information.
On the other hand, RFID technology has many benefits over other identification technologies because it does not require line-of-sight alignment, tags can be identified simultaneously, and the tags do not destroy the integrity or aesthetics of the original object. Due to the low cost of passive RFID tags and the fact that they operate without a battery, this technology is ideal for converting a real object in a physical interface capable of interacting with other devices
The main objective of the project was to develop educational games for children that offer easy interaction based on RFID. For this purpose, the advantages offered by games developed in the pre-computer age (traditional games) were combined with the advantages and benefits of computer games.
To begin with, there are many advantages of traditional games. These were designed and carried out in the physical world with the use of real-world properties such as physical objects, our sense of space, and spatial relations.
Pre-computer games interactions consisted of two elements: user-to-physical-world interaction and user-to-user interaction. The physical objects were easily assimilated by the children, allowing users to interact intuitively with them.
There are also many benefits of computer games. These are more popular than traditional games. Some the advantages are the following:
People create the illusion of being immersed in an imaginative virtual world with computer graphics and sound.
Computer games are typically more interactive than traditional games, which enables the user to feel more motivated.
Computer games allow feedback to be easily shown, as well as notifications about the game process and other important information.
Taking advantage of real physical objects and the benefits that new technologies offer us, we have designed a new way to interact with the system. It is based on physical objects that integrate RFID technology and allow us to interact with Graphics User Interfaces.
This kind of the system functions as follows: in the main game an interface is projected on the wall. Users with physical interfaces, i.e., the objects that integrate RFID tags, can interact with the main interface; this requires the mobile device that incorporates the RFID reader to interact with the main interface, which is necessary to bring objects to the mobile device (See Figure 1).
Digitized objects with RFID tags that communicate with the game\'s interface through the mobile device.
Due to the need to make a simple, accessible and intuitive system and considering the multiple technologies used to develop it, it was decided to follow an architecture based on three layers. The system infrastructure is divided in the following layers: Application Layer, Network Layer and Perception Layer. In the next section, we explain the latter in more detail (See Figure 2).
This layer is the intermediary between the user and the system. Its main function is to allow the user to easily interact with the system. In our case study, the games are designed for children and users with special needs and for this reason we must focus primarily on usability and accessibility of the system. The main requirements that have been followed for the development of this type of games are:
Designing simple interfaces so that users do not have to learn to use it, acquire new skills, or need help.
Avoiding distraction and facilitating the interaction so that the user need not know and memorize how the system works.
Avoiding fear of interacting with the system, as well as providing notification of game development and the collaboration of information among players.
System architecture divided into three layers: Perception, Network and Application
This layer is divided into two parts. Firstly, there are the objects that integrate RFID technology, also called interaction resources, and secondly, there are interaction devices, through which are offered relevant services.
Objects. Their main function is to facilitate the human-computer interaction. These resources need to have a RFID reader nearby to perform services. The main reason to use objects that interact with the environment is the following: The user uses human factors such as perception in order to interact with the environment. When an object similar to other objects with similar appearance is seen, the mind of the user automatically associates the object with its function.
Devices. These computing devices are used as input and output of a system. They are communication channels. They are responsible for obtaining information from users without that them being aware of it. In this particular case, a mobile device has been camouflaged in a toy in such a way that it is more engaging and intuitive to users. The devices available in the system are described as following:
Mobiles devices: These devices internally incorporate the RFID reader, allowing users to communicate with the system through RFID technology.
Projector: This shows the game user interface, the results and feedback. The software is run on a PC or laptop. It returns the information in textual and audio format to facilitate the use of games. It works dynamically and responds to the information sent to web services (Application Layer) through the communication network (Network Layer).
The user communication style with the device is very intuitive, which is why no prior knowledge is necessary (see Figure 3), it is only necessary to move the toy, card or object, depending on the game, closer to the mobile device (hidden in an object). The interaction and the processes that occur below the system are implicitly run by the user.
In this case, the collaborative screen shows the game which is being executed. It may show some objects and to associate that object the user has to interact with it, just by moving the corresponding object closer to the mobile device. From this moment all processes are run implicitly. The collaborative screen displays the pictures, text and sounds, depending on the game executed.
Interaction. The user brings the digitized object closer (interaction resource) to the mobile devices that contain the RFID Reader. This is an interaction device hidden in an object [27].
The communication between interaction devices (mobile devices) and interaction resources (digitalized objects) is the following: The RFID tag (embedded in the object) is a small chip integrated circuit, adapted to a radio frequency antenna that enables communication via radio. The energy to generate communication is received from the reader´s radio waves (integrated into the mobile devices).
The device on the client´s side includes a reader and a controller that is responsible for processing information received by the physical object and transforming it into useful information, such as an XML message that is sent to the server, which will process the message and trigger an action, such as the generation of user interfaces or the information requested at that time. The network technology is then used to notify the customer with through web services, connecting the two components: the client and the server (See Figure 4).
Communication is based on RFID technology. The mobile device has RFID reader inside. It sends electromagnetic waves when a digitalized object is close to mobile device. It processes the information contained in the object and carries out the required action.
This layer enables the information obtained from the perception layer to be transmitted. This layer is composed by different wireless access technologies such as, Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAMs) (IEEE 802.11 variants), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1). Wireless networks are a good option to establish wireless and mobile communications within the Internet of Things. We have used Wi-Fi technology because it allows connection of heterogeneous devices with the system (the computer interface that supports games and mobile devices which communicate with the objects). In addition, it allows user mobility, is highly scalable, efficient and lightweight.
This layer provides services to support the stimulating games. It is consists of a server, which is a computer as part of a network, providing services to the devices which are connected to it. It provides important functions such as Web Services database.
Web Services are a set of protocols and standards used to exchange data between applications in order to offer services. They facilitate interoperability and enable automated services to be offered, automatically causing the generation of user interfaces, thus allowing user consistency and transparency in use of the technology. Web services are of great importance in the trend of distributed computing on the Internet. To broaden and clarify the concept of Web services, we can quote a presentation by Dr. Marcos Escobar: “A Web Service is a software component that communicates with other applications by coding the XML message and sends this message via standard Internet protocols such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)”. Intuitively, a Web Service is similar to a Web site that has a user interface that provides a service to applications, by receiving requests through a message formatted in XML (Extensible Markup Language) from an application, it then performs a task and sends a response message, which is also formatted in XML. The standard protocol for messages is SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol). A SOAP message is similar to a letter: it is an envelope containing a header with the address of the recipient, a set of delivery options (data encryption), and a body with the information or data of the message. The performance of the web services is as follows: the client application sends an XML message to the server, and then the services contained provide an XML document called WSDL (Web Services Description Language). Its aim is to describe in detail the interfaces so that the user can communicate with the service. XML Web services are registered so that the user can easily find them. This is performed using UDDI (Universal Description Discovery and Integration). The response to the customer is another XML message that is capable of generating the user interface that the device in the client´s side is going to display at that moment. Figure 3 shows the communication that takes place between Web services and client applications.
Database is an organized collection of data, today typically in digital form. The data is typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality. In this case, the database is composed the idtag field. Each idtag is associated with the web service function. Among the functions are the following: execute a method, update information.
The internal operation is as follows: the web service receives the information, which is the output layer, and specifically the id tag which in this application has been read from mobile devices. The system checks the method associated with this id tag in the database. Web Service receives information about the method that it must execute. The execution of this operation depends on the following parameters: the object identifier, the executed game and the current status in the game. A common flow of actions that a user may perform could include:
Updating the database and results internally in the system.
The system automatically generates the corresponding game interface. The projector displays it. According to the action carried out, different messages might be shown.
If the answer is right, a message indicates the outcome of play. This user interface congratulates and encourages the children to continue playing. A few seconds later, the interface related to the game that is running appears, but at a higher level than before.
If the answer is wrong, a message indicates the outcome of the play. This user interface motivates and encourages them to try again. The next user interface is related to the game that is running at the time, but at the same level as before. Voices and motivating messages sound in every interface to make the user feel actively accompanied and encouraged.
The system automatically generates the corresponding mobile user interface. It shows feedback and status of the system according to the action carried out.
In this section we describe two systems built in the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Albacete). The main objective is to take advantage of RFID technology to build systems that improve the user experience.
We used the same architecture for both games, while changing the contents and taking into account the cognitive abilities that we aimed to stimulate in each particular case.
This system functions by projecting an interface on the wall in the main game. Users with physical interfaces, i.e., the objects that integrate RFID tags, can interact with the main interface; this requires a mobile device that allows the RFID reader to interact with the main interface by bringing an object closer to the mobile device to play the game. For example, if in the game an object must be associated with another, the user only has to bring the corresponding object closer to the mobile device for the system to recognize it and display the outcome of the game.
Intellectual disability, also called mental retardation, is a disability characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior skills manifested in conceptual, social and practical aspects [1].
So far, this group has always had barriers imposed by society and by technology as it has often not been known how to adapt to the personal needs of each of these people.
Gradually, this situation has been improving with technological assistance and that of society. However, many of these people consider the world of technology to be strange and difficult to use.
TrainInAb (Training Intellectual Abilities) is an interactive and collaborative game designed to stimulate people with intellectual disabilities. The game is based on RFID technology; it allows a new form of human-computer interaction to be integrated. The user can interact with the system through everyday objects such as cards, toys, coins, etc. (See Figure 5). For example, if in the game an object must be associated with another, the user only has to bring the corresponding object closer to the mobile device, which the system will then recognize and display the outcome of the game (See Figure 5 and Figure 6)
The package consists of three different types of game, each aimed at stimulating a different cognitive ability such as memory, calculation, attention and auditory discrimination.
They are divided into different levels to motivate the child when using the game. If the child fails, s/he loses a life and if the user wins, s/he moves on to the next level. Each level is more difficult.
It displays the external information differently, as it is different for every level.
The information is displayed as text, voice and graphics. In addition, the game can show the status and game results when the game ends
The feedback-state messages are motivating for the user who then feels more encouraged to continue playing.
The user has the possibility of repeating items.
The first image shows the Mobile devices interfaces. The next image shows the Physical user interfaces, that is, objects that integrate the RFID inside.The first objects are cards with images from the game, and the last image shows the notes and coins used for the game.
Main interface of the game designed to stimulate user memory, attention and calculative abilities.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobiological disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, inattention, and in some cases, hyperactivity. Children who are affected by this disorder have occasional difficulty paying attention or controlling impulsive behavior. This problem affects them in their daily lives at home, at school, at work, and in social settings.
StiCap, Stimulating Capabilities, is an interactive system to improve attention and learning in children with ADHD. It is directed towards psychological therapies, in schools, allowing supervision by professionals, parents, and teachers.
The system consists of three games: two oriented towards memory improvement and another one oriented towards vocabulary enrichment. It is composed of the following devices: cards integrating RFID tags used as interactive resources which allow a one-way transfer of information between a user and the system; mobile devices provide the necessary communication between the cards and the system and a projector or any other big display showing the game interface which is running on any PC or laptop.
Main interface of the game designed to stimulate user memory and attention [28]
In this section we will discuss the advantages offered by the integration of RFID technology in the new scenarios.
The main advantages of the system are the following:
Reduction of the cognitive load. This means that users have to rely more on recognition skills than on their memory and that they do not have to remember complicated abbreviations and codes. For this reason, it has been designed in a very graphic way and has also used common objects which can be easily assimilated.
Flexibility. This refers to the multiple ways in which the user and the system can exchange information. The information exchanged is displayed as text, voice, cheerful sounds or by using graphics. The goal is to adapt to any user, regardless of any disability or limitation he/she may have.
Flexibility in the number of users. This is a multi-player game. This allows users to share and exchange experiences with other users. The situation of each user may be complex and variable and for this reason, the game can also be used by one player.
Flexibility in terms of space. Players can be situated anywhere in the room, the only requirement is that the mobile device is connected to the server.
Very cheap to develop. Mobile devices will incorporate RFID technology in the short term and passive RFID tags are very inexpensive. In our case, only one mobile device is required, which is why it is low cost.
Expandable. It offers the possibility to extend the games. The topic can be changed easily. The only requirement is that the RFID must be integrated in the object selected.
Interaction with the system is simple and intuitive. Common items are familiar and can be easily assimilated by users, making it more predictable to use. They do not need prior knowledge of the system or device.
The cognitive stimulation of the system can enhance mental abilities such as perception, attention, reasoning, abstraction, memory, language, orientation processes, while optimizing their performance. These games can be used as therapy for the cognitive deficit.
Thanks to this technology, the implementation of new interfaces can be developed for any mobile device, allowing system usability and user-friendly interaction, thus improving user satisfaction.
One possible limitation are that it requires connectivity to another network interconnection. The server needs to contain all the data from RFID tags, so in very complex systems we can find a lot of data, which might be difficult to manage.
Educational games are currently making a very positive impact and are extremely successful among society, especially among children.
Emerging technologies and mobility are being inserted without society realising by providing services previously unthinkable. In recent years, devices have been invented that offer new techniques for interaction between humans and game consoles. Nowadays, the user can interact through movement, voice command control, virtual reality, mobile devices, etc... However, there are still some hardware limitations for children and especially people who need special education.In recent years, RFID technology is booming and being used to digitalize spaces and objects easily, so we are getting closer to the new paradigm predicted by Weiser, ubiquitous computing.Exploiting the advantages offered by this technology, this chapter proposes a new form of interaction based on objects that integrate RFID technology. In this way, anyone can interact with the software( in this case with the games )in an intuitive way.
This research has been partially supported by the Spanish CDTI research project CENIT-2008-1019, the CICYT TIN2011-27767-C02-01 project and the regional projects with reference PAI06-0093-8836 and PII2C09-0185-1030. I would like to especially thank to Yolanda Cotillas Aranda y Erica González Gutierrez for their collaboration on this project.
Thermal management becomes increasingly important and challenging as the increase of power/heat density is taking place in many engineering applications, products, and industrial sectors. One example is the electronics industry. Advances in semiconductor manufacturing technology create more compact integrated circuits for electric devices. The latest Fin Field Effect Transistor (FinFET) technology contributes to the reduction of fabrication node from 22 nm in the year of 2012 to the current 10 nm, and even to 5 nm in 2021. Using a 10 nm FinFET manufacturing process, Apple A11 chip could contain 4.3 billion transistors on a die of ~87 mm2, which is 30% smaller than the last version A10. In addition, thermal design power of electric chips, the maximum amount of heat removal from the electric chips, shows an increasing trend. As heat power density continues to grow, heat removal, also referred to as thermal management, is important for maintaining the temperature to meet material and safety constraints. In turn, the development and maintenance of electric devices rely on how effectively the heat is dissipated from the devices. The choice of cooling technology is a complicated systems work in high-power electronic, not only for fitting in the heat removal requirement from low power density to high power density, but also for considering the cooling efficiency, power load, overall power consumption of the cooling subsystem, and the cost of cooling infrastructure. This chapter focuses on fundamental heat removal capacities of cooling technology.
\nDifferent cooling technologies vary in their heat removal capacities, which are summarized in Figure 1. For low heat flux removal requirement, air-cooling, which removes the heat from the hot surface by airflow, is widely applied. The cooling performance can be enhanced by expanding the surface area or increasing the flow of air over the surface. The first approach is known as air free convection, while the second approach is air-forced convection. In comparison with free convection, the fluid motion in forced convection is generated by external source, for enhancing the local convection. In computers, cooling fins are added to heat sink for expanding the surface area, while a fan is attached to the cooling fins to enhance air convection. Heat flux by forced air convection can reach ~35 W/cm2 while only ~15 W/cm2 by free air convection (see Figure 1). Due to the increase of power density, many micro-electronic and power electronic devices now are in the range of heat flux beyond the air cooling capacity. Effective liquid cooling solutions are needed for thermal management of the high-heat-flux devices.
\nHeat removal capacity by applying different cooling technologies that is characterized by two parameters: Highest heat flux and heat transfer coefficient [1, 2, 3, 4].
Spray cooling is one effective solution, which has the huge potential in handling the high heat fluxes in high-power electronics such as supercomputer, lasers, and radars. Spray cooling has several advantages over other cooling techniques. In comparison with air-cooling and jet impingement cooling, spray cooling owns a high heat flux removal capacity. Spray cooling can transfer heat in excess of 100 W/cm2 using fluorinerts and more than 1000 W/cm2 using water (see Figure 1). Due to high heat flux removal capacity, spray cooling allows precise temperature control with low fluid inventory [5]. Besides, spray cooling has uniform cooling temperature distribution over the entire spray-covered surface. This is because the entire spray-cooled area is receiving fresh liquid coolant droplets. For jet impingement cooling, the coolant flows radially outwards from the impingement spot. The radial flow has non-uniform temperature, and the largest subcooling and the optimal local cooling occur at the stagnation point. The non-uniform cooling results in non-uniform surface temperature in the cooling area, which could be significant for high heat fluxes.
\nHowever, there are still some barriers for applying spray cooling for engineering applications. Significant pumping power is needed to achieve large pressure drop through spray nozzle to produce fine spray, but the low cost is first priority in commercial application of cooling technologies. Another fact that the design and fabrication of spray nozzle do not follow the identical industry standard makes the unpredictable spray characterization. Hence, it is hard to get a universal correlation of spray characterization to cooling performance, which also limits the implementation of spray cooling. Additionally, in comparison with the jet nozzle, nozzle orifice through the spray coolant is even smaller, increasing the possibility of orifice clogging and the occurrence of the dry-out area on the heated surface [6]. In spite of these barriers, spray cooling is still a popular cooling technology and many successful applications were reported for supercomputer (CRAY X-1) [7], laser diode laser arrays [8], microwave source components [9] and NASA’s reduced gravity aircraft [10].
\nIn spray cooling, liquid coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up into numerous droplets. The small droplets land on the cooled surface, where the flow of droplets becomes a thin liquid film radially flowing on the surface (see Figure 2a). The cooling is achieved through the convection heat transfer from the cooled surface to the film flow being impacted by continuous flow of droplets, nucleate boiling on the cooled surface, liquid conduction inside the film flow, and interfacial evaporation from the liquid film to the surrounding air. Spray cooling provides uniform cooling that can handle high heat fluxes in both single phase and two phases. The cooling performance as a function of spray characterization, flow conditions, surface conditions, and nozzle positioning was widely discussed in past decades. These studies focused on the relationship between the spray cooling performance and the entire spray flow. However, in these spray-level studies, the understanding of cooling mechanism of spray droplets is missing. At the droplet level, the impact conditions are classified into a few categories (see Figure 2b): (a) impact of single droplet on dry surface appearing in nucleate boiling, transition boiling and film boiling, (b) impact of single droplet on stationary film where the radial velocity of the film is close to zero, such as stagnation zone, (c) impact of single droplet on radially flowing film and (d) impact of droplet burst on flowing film (droplet groups that frequently impact the surface). Although spray impingement cannot be simply considered as the superposition of single droplets due to the interaction of the neighboring droplets [11], the study of local cooling performance at droplet level is still significant to the understanding of spray cooling mechanism, especially for the condition of the local film dominated by the droplet flow. Therefore, the research outcomes of spray cooling are reviewed from two aspects: the spray level and the droplet level.
\nSpray cooling mechanism at the entire spray level (a) and droplet level (b).
Spray cooling can handle high heat flux in the constrictive space of electronic package when comparing to air-cooling, pool cooling, and jet cooling. This is because numerous fresh droplets generated by spray nozzle randomly affect the entire surface, and directly transfer the heat from surface to the coolant. The difference of fluid dynamics between spray impact and other cooling methods is a key factor affecting the mechanism of local heat transfer and resulting in different cooling performance. The first step of studying spray-cooling mechanism is to observe what happened on the heated surface. Numerous fundamental studies have been conducted theoretically and experimentally, which focus on the key parameters affecting impact dynamics and the relevant heat transfer mechanism. There are four aspects that have been demonstrated to significantly affect cooling performance, including spray characterization, nozzle positioning, phase change and enhanced surface [5, 6, 9].
\nSince the earliest study on spray cooling by Toda [12, 13], many researchers put effort on spray characterization, the relevant cooling performance and the critical heat flux (CHF) in spray cooling. Spray characterization mainly involves droplet size, impact velocity, droplet flux, and volumetric flux. However, in experimental studies it is difficult to change only one parameter and isolate the remaining parameters. For example, on the cooled surface the increase of flow rate of coolant spray is accompanied with the increase of impact velocity and volumetric flux with a constant impact area. That is reason that the conclusions made on the dominant impact parameter are not consistent in previous studies of spray cooling.
\nChen et al. [14] studied effects of three spray parameters of droplet size, droplet velocity and droplet flux on CHF. By adjusting spray nozzles, operating pressures, and spray distance between the nozzle exit and the heater surface, the effect of one spray parameter was studied while the others were kept constant. It was found that the mean droplet velocity is the most dominant parameter affecting CHF followed by the mean droplet flux, while the Sauter mean droplet diameter (\n
In single-phase spray cooling, spray droplets land on a radially flowing film. Some researchers studied the property of the flowing film and its relation to spray cooling performance. Pautsch and Shedd [17] used a non-intrusive optical technique to measure the local film thickness generated by sprays. The film thickness was found to remain constant when the heat transfer mechanism was dominated by single-phase convection. Beyond the spray impact area, the dry-out phenomena appear even when the CHF is not reached. In the nucleate boiling regime, Horacek et al. [18, 19] measured the dry-out area, which was characterized by the three-phase contact line length, and measured using a Total Internal Reflectance technique. The wall heat flux was found to correlate very well with the contact line length. This contact line heat transfer mechanism was summarized by Kim [20] as one of main heat transfer mechanisms in the two-phase regime.
\nCooling performance can be influenced by changing the spray positioning. There are two significant positioning parameters in the study of spray cooling (see Figure 3): nozzle-surface distance \n
(a) The 2D geometry is on the central plane (z-x plane) of the cone perpendicular to the impacted surface (x-y plane). The positioning of the nozzle is determined by inclination angle \n\nθ\n\n and spray height \n\nH\n\n. \n\n\nH\nn\n\n\n is the required spray height by normal impact to cover a given impact length \n\nL\n\n. (b) Impact area with constant impact length \n\nL\n\n formed by the spray inclined at different angles \n\nθ\n\n [21].
Some researchers focus on the effects of spray inclination on heat transfer performance. The impact area is circular for normal impact \n
There are three reasons addressed for contradictory conclusion of spray inclination. One is regarding the different nozzle positioning. As illustrated in Figure 3, two key parameters, spray distance and inclination angle, determine the nozzle positioning. However, at a certain inclination angle some studies [23] applied the constant spray distance, while others [4, 24, 25] adjusted the distance for the constant impact length. Another reason is related to the assumption of one dimensional steady-state conduction through the neck of cartridge heater for the surface heat flux calculation. Inclined spray impact causes considerable temperature difference on the cooled surface (see Figure 4). Hence, the radial conduction should be taken into account for inclined spray cooling. The last reason is from the surface temperature measurement location. Different radial locations provide different temperature measurement due to significant temperature difference in inclined spray cooling.
\nLocal surface temperature distribution for normal impact (a1) and inclination affect with \n\nθ\n=\n\n30° (b1). Local droplet velocity and the relevant local heat transfer coefficient are plotted along the centerline in (a2) and (b2) [27].
To obtain surface temperature distribution in inclined spray, some researchers investigated local heat transfer by replacing cartridge heater with sputter-coated thin film heater, which enables infrared thermography for temperature measurement [21, 27, 28]. All of these studies found significant temperature difference on cooled surface for inclined spray cooling (one example in Figure 4b1). Gao and Li [27] compared the droplet impact velocity and heat transfer coefficient distribution along centerline for normal impact and inclined spray impact (see Figure 4a2 and b2). The impact velocity was captured by a Stereo-Particle Imaging Velocimetry system. The trend line of heat transfer coefficient and droplet velocity shows clear correlation. For both cases, the locations of maximum droplet velocity coincide with the locations of the highest heat transfer coefficient. The further study by Gao and Li [21] indicated the global cooling shows slight diminishment for small inclination angle and enhancement for large inclination angles. On the central plane of the spray cone, the enhancement and diminishment of the local cooling performance are in general agreement with the increase and decrease of the spray flux. Thin film heater is not reliable for the surface temperature greater than boiling point, and experiments are tested in single-phase region. This is the limitation of thin film heater, and the robust heater for boiling test is needed for future study.
\nSimilar to pool boiling curve, the heat transfer curve of spray cooling can be separated to four regimes: single phase regime, nucleate boiling regime, transition boiling regime and film boiling regime [12, 13]. In the single phase regime, the heat flux linearly increases with increasing surface temperature difference between heater surface and coolant. Forced convection by radially moving film and evaporation on unsteady interface of thin film layer, play dominant roles in single-phase regime [29]. In the nucleate boiling regime, bubbles begin to repeatedly occur at nucleation sites on the heated surface, and the heat flux sharply increases as compared to single-phase cooling. Once the nucleation sites cover the heated surface completely, average heat flux will reach a peak value, which is defined as Critical Heat Flux (CHF).
\nOnce reaching the CHF and coming to the transition boiling (decreasing region in the boiling curve), the efficiency of heat transfer on the heating surface significantly decreases. Liquid coolant absorbs heat from the surface and forms the vapor blanket, so the surrounding liquids are hard to get to the heater surface. That is the reason for the sharp decrease of heat flux in this regime. In the film, boiling regime an interesting phenomenon is an increasing trend of heat flux. Massive heat is generated from the heated surface and radiation heat transfer becomes a key heat transfer mechanism between the heated surface and the liquid, so the heat flux tends to increase from the Leidenfrost point. Considering the safety limit and fast implementation of electronic cooling, researchers’ attention is paid to the theoretical correlation in single phase regime and nucleation boiling regime.
\nIn the single phase regime, Rybicki and Mudawar [4] proposed the correlation for dielectric PF-5050 spray, which is
\nHere \n
The correlation has an accuracy of ±7.3% for varied pressure drops. Heieh and Tien [29] studied R-134a spray cooling, and correlated the Nusselt number to the Weber number, size distribution and sensible heat effects in the single phase regime, which is
\nIn the nucleate boiling regime of spray cooling, the heat flux increases with the surface temperature faster than that in single-phase regime. Yang et al. [31] proposed two reasons. In nucleation, boiling bubble appears and grows on nucleation sites as the liquid coolant changes to the vapor. During the phase change, a larger amount of heat is removed from the heated surface, resulting in a temperature drop on nucleation sites. The other reason is attributed to the influence of secondary nucleation and evaporation on the heat flux enhancement [32]. When the numerous droplets impinge on heated surface, air is entrained into the liquid film, forming an air layer underneath the droplets. The air layer reaches the liquid-covered surface and finally breaks up into many tiny gas nuclei, which serve as secondary nucleation sites. Hence, the number of secondary nucleation sites is proportional to the droplet flux across the surface, which was proved in Yang’s experiments [33]. Using water as coolant liquid, Mudawar and Valentine [16] proposed the CHF correlation with respect to the local volumetric flux \n
In another study by Estes and Mudawar [34], a universal CHF correlation was constructed for spray cooling by using Fluorinerts FC-72 and FC-87 as well as the water.
\nEnhancing spray cooling by changing the surface structure is one effective and low-cost approach, which benefits from optimal liquid management and enhancement of local cooling efficiency. According to the structure size, enhanced surface is classified into four categories: mini-structured surface, micro-structured surface, nano-structured surface, and hybrid-structured surface. Most of early studies of spray cooling have been conducted on flat surfaces. A few of them focus on the effects of surface roughness on cooling enhancement. Pais et al. [35] fabricated three rough surfaces using polishing grit with the size range of 0.3–22 μm and examined the roughness influence on heat removal capabilities. Tests showed that as the surface roughness decreases the CHF increases. CHF is up to 1200 W/cm2 on the surface by polishing grit of 0.3 μm while only 1000 W/cm2 on the surface by 22 μm grit. This is because the large surface roughness implies a thicker film thickness, leading to the later bubble breakup and departure, the impeding of vapor escape, the increased resistance to heat flux through evaporation on film surface, and the dampening of droplet impingement.
\nMini-textured surfaces feature structure size above 1 mm, and the structure types of cubic pin fins, pyramids, and straight fins and so on (see Figure 5a). Silk et al. [23] observed that addition of finned structure to cooled surface decreases the convective thermal resistance, and increases the convection heat transfer relative to the flat surface, since the total wetted surface area is larger on the enhanced surface. Although the cubic pin fins and straight fins have the same wetted surface area, cooling performance of straight fins surface exceeds that of the cubic pin fins surface. This is attributed to liquid management on the heated surface and cooling efficiency on the wetted surface area. Xie et al. [39] indicated that the fin arrangement is a dominant factor in enhancing heat transfer rather than the wetted surface area. The improper fin arrangement causes the thick and slow moving liquid film and thus worsens the local cooling performance. This point of view needs further validation by measuring the change of local surface temperature.
\n(a) Millimetric structured surface [23], (b) micro-structured surface [36], (c) Nano-structured surface [37], (d) hybrid micro/nano structured surface [38].
Micro/nano or hybrid structured surfaces have been attracted huge attention to spray cooling as micro fabrication technology advances new micro-/nano-engineered surface in the last decade (see Figure 5b, c, d). The experimental studies [36, 39, 40, 41] applied micro-textured surfaces with surface feature size from 25 to 480 μm, which is close to liquid film thickness but larger than average droplet size. Micro-textured surfaces showed slight effect on heat transfer enhancement in the flooded region, but greatly enhancing cooling performance in the thin film and partial dry-out regions as compared to the flat surface. The study by Zhang et al. [37] showed that nanostructured surface has better cooling performance since the contact angle is smallest on the nanostructured surface as compared to micro-structured surfaces and flat surfaces. Recently, Chen et al. [38] developed a hybrid micro/nano structured surface by growing the ZnO nanowire arrays on the top of etched micro-structured silicon wafer. Test results showed that cooling performance of hybrid surface is better than the micro-structured surface in boiling regime because of its great wetting capacity and reduction in dry-out surface area. If comparing performance of nanostructured surface [37] and hybrid surface [38], there is no significant difference in heat flux enhancement relative to the smooth surface.
\nThe impact dynamics during spray cooling is complicated as it involves many liquid phenomena, such as spreading, receding, splashing, droplet collision, generation of stationary film and radially flowing film, and liquid flooding. All of these impact phenomena result from the interaction of droplet flow and film flow on the impact surface. Droplet flow includes three types: single droplet, droplet train (continuous droplets formed from jet breakup), and droplet burst (portion of droplet train selected at a certain frequency). Similarly, film flow conditions involve dry surface (no film), stationary film, radially flowing film, or their combination on the cooling surface (see Figure 6).
\nSingle water droplets with same velocity and diameter (\n\n\nU\n0\n\n\n= 1.85 m/s, \n\n\nD\n0\n\n\n=3.2 mm) impact three different surface conditions: (a) dry surface, (b) stationary water film, (c) flowing water film [42].
The droplet and film flow conditions are two flow parameters directly determining the heat transfer mechanism of spray cooling. Coolant droplets bring significant temperature difference between the expanding droplet flow and flowing film, which contributes to the reduction of thermal resistance inside the film layer and enhancement of heat transfer from the heated surface to the flowing flow. Fluid dynamics on the impact surface is responsible for the local convection heat transfer. The fast flowing film transfers more heat to downstream. Thin film thickness reduces the thermal boundary layer and encourages evaporation from the liquid interface. Therefore, the fluid dynamics study of droplet affecting film enables us to get insight into thermal results of droplet impact on the film-cooled hot surface, and further understand spray cooling performance. The relevant literature is reviewed based on the droplet flow condition: single droplet impact, droplet train impact, and droplet burst impact.
\nThe dry surface usually appears in two-phase spray cooling, which is shown by the change of contact line length. The researchers reported that the critical heat flux in spray cooling is achieved at the greatest contact line length. On dry surface, droplet impact dynamics on droplet-covered surface area is essential to local cooling performance. The process of a liquid droplet impact was divided by Rioboo et al. [43] into five successive phases: kinematic, spreading, relaxation, wetting, and equilibrium. Most research work has been focused on spreading and relaxation. In the spreading phase, contact line expands radially until reaching a maximum spreading, which is determined by droplet initial diameter, impact velocity, surface tension, viscosity, and wettability of the solid surface (Li et al. [44]). The maximum spread diameter is of critical importance in spreading phase. Clanet et al. [45] found that on a super-hydrophobic surface the maximal spread is significantly dependent on the viscosity of liquid droplets and scales as a function of Weber number~We1/4. van Dam and Clerc [46] found a significant difference of maximum spread between substrates with small and large contact angles, showing the significant influence of wettability in the later stage of impact. A lower air pressure was found to suppress the droplet spreading, leading to a smaller maximum spread [47].
\nSome analytical models were proposed to predict impact process, most of which were based on the energy conservation of the impact droplet. Chandra and Avedisian [48] developed an empirical correlation of viscous dissipation, including estimated spreading time, simplified dissipation function, and estimated volume of viscous dissipation. Gao and Li [49] proposed a theoretical model based on the actual dynamic shape of the droplet that could successfully predict the maximum spreading diameter and receding diameter during the recoiling process. Some of the researchers put efforts on the investigation of splash using varied dry surfaces. Surface roughness and textures were demonstrated to influence the splash limit [50, 51]. Droplet impact on a moving surface was found to show different splash and non-splash phenomena as compared to stationary surfaces [52]. Previous studies on splash threshold under different surface conditions are summarized in Table 1.
\nSurface conditions | \nThreshold parameter K | \nCritical value Kc | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Dry surface | \n(WeRe1/2)1/2 | \n57.7 | \nMundo et al. [50] | \n
We0.5Re−0.391 | \n0.8458 | \nVander Wal et al. [53] | \n|
Moving dry surface | \nWeRe1/2(1−2.5\n | \n5700 | \nBird et al. [52] | \n
Stationary liquid film | \n(WeRe1/2)0.8 | \n2100 | \nCossali et al. [54] | \n
We0.5Re0.17 | \n63 | \nVander Wal et al. [53] | \n|
Flowing liquid film | \nWeRe1/2(1 + \n | \n3378 | \nGao and Li [42] | \n
Summary of splash thresholds under different surface conditions [42].
On heated dry surface, Bernardin et al. [55] mapped the boiling curve of droplet impact cooling as the same as the spray cooling. In the regime of single-phase liquid cooling, Pasandideh-Fard et al. [56] observed that increasing impact velocity would enhance heat flux around the impact area. This is because the raising droplet velocity promotes droplet spreading, thus increasing the wetted area on the heated substrate. However, increasing droplet impact velocity slightly enhances heat flux at the impact point. Batzdorf et al. [57] proposed a theoretical mode to predict the heat transfer rate during the droplet impact. The theoretical prediction is more accurate when the liquid Prandtal number \n
On superheated surface with temperature over 200°C, Tran et al. [58] found three significant phenomena after droplet impact: contact boiling (droplet contacts with the surface), film boiling (vapor layer formed underneath the droplet), and spray film boiling (vapor layer and tiny droplets ejected upward) (see Figure 7a). Their experiments showed that the maximum spreading of a droplet impact follows a universal scaling with the Weber number (~We2/5), which is steeper than that on nonheated surface (~We1/4) [45]. The steeper curve on heated surface results from a driving mechanism, which is caused by the evaporating vapor radially expanding and pushing liquid outward. Staat et al. [59] indicated that the Leidenfrost transition temperature shows little dependence on the Weber number of affecting droplet, but the transition to splashing shows a strong dependence on the surface temperature. Adera et al. [60] reported the formation of non-wetting droplets on a super-hydrophilic micro-structured surface by slightly heating the surface above the saturation temperature of the droplet fluid, which is contributed by the increased thermal conductivity and decreased vapor permeability of the structured region. In experimental study of Jung et al. [61], the transient temperature distribution during droplet spread was detected using infrared thermography. In contact boiling, the droplet coolant contacts the surface and the maximum heat flux is quick to reach at early impact stage ~2 ms at impact point. In film boiling, non-wetting surface appears at the early impact, and the maximum heat flux is even lower than that in contact boiling due to the existence of vapor layer underneath the droplet. On heated surface, the study of simultaneous impact of multiple droplets is few, which needs further discussion of droplet collision influence on contact line and local evaporation. This benefits the understanding of two-phase spray cooling and optimization of cooling efficiency.
\n(a) Phase diagram of water droplet impact on a superheated surface [58], (b) plot of the maximum spreading diameter versus weber number [58].
Stationary film occurs in the center of normal spray impact, or locates where the spray nozzle axis insects with the impact surface in inclined spray (see Figure 2). On a stationary film, most researchers focused on spread process and splash formation mechanism after impact. Yarin and Weiss [62] developed a quasi-one-dimensional model, which predicts the existence of a kinematic discontinuity in the velocity and film thickness distribution. The discontinuity corresponds to the emergence of an uprising liquid sheet. Roisman and Tropea [63] generalized Yarin’s theory for the case of arbitrary velocity vectors in the liquid films both inside and outside the crown. Yarin and Weiss [62] experimentally found the crown radius from the impact center could be expressed as a function of the non-dimensional spreading time. Two empirical parameters existing in their model was given by the later study of Cossali et al. [64]. Droplet impact on a stationary film may or may not result in the splash. Finding the threshold condition for splash impact has been the focus of a few experimental studies. Cossali et al. [64] tested drops of various mixtures of water and glycerol affecting a thin liquid film and proposed an empirical parameter for predicting the occurrence of splash impact. For thick films, Cossali et al. [54] and Rioboo et al. [65] found a critical value of the threshold parameter, i.e. \n
The interaction between droplet flow and film flow is fundamental fluid dynamics in single-phase spray cooling or nucleate boiling (see Figure 2b). Impact dynamics was addressed in some researches. Alghoul et al. [66] presented an experimental investigation of a liquid droplet affecting onto horizontal moving liquid films. An asymmetrical crown shape was observed due to the effect of the moving film. Che et al. [67] demonstrated the on inclined falling flow asymmetrical crown shape is also formed after droplet impact. Gao and Li [42] further analyzed the early evolvement of droplet impact based on experiments and theoretical model (see Figure 6c). Once droplet lands on the film, the droplet flow quickly spreads and pushes the liquid outwards, causing the uprising liquid sheets. However, crown sheet is asymmetric owing to the collision mechanism on crown base. At the early stage of droplet impact, the direction of spreading flow is opposite to that of film flow at the upstream of impact point, while their direction is the same at the downstream. Uprising crown sheet may splash, which is dependent of the instability of the sheet rim. The stretching rate of crown sheet is a key factor influencing the rim instability. Analysis was conducted to derive equation of stretching rate, finding that the highest stretching rate appears at the location which droplet spreading flow is right opposite to the film flow, and the location is also the most probable location of splash. The value of splash threshold was provided to estimate whether splash occurs or not. The secondary droplets from splash fly away from the cooled surface, which do not contribute to the cooling performance. In other words, suppression of splash occurrence should benefit cooling enhancement.
\nThe late study of Gao and Li [68, 69] further observed the whole development of droplet impact on flowing film, and demonstrated its relation to the local cooling. The impact process is observed by high-speed video, showing two states: spreading state, replacing state. In spreading state, the droplet flow spreads and gradually slows down until reaching the maximum spread. After that, the droplet flow is pushed towards the downstream and eventually replaced by the film flow. The measured temperature also shows two stages: response stage when the temperature quickly decreases, and recovery stage in which the temperature recovers to the steady state. An enhancement factor was proposed to indicate convection enhancement relative to the steady-state cooling. The peak enhancement is used to consider enhancement influence of impact velocity, droplet size and film flow rate, which is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the droplet flow rate to the film flow rate~\n
One possible phenomenon in spray cooling is that fresh droplets continuously impact the surface at a certain frequency. The droplet flow is defined as the droplet train flow. The fluid dynamics behind this is the interaction of continuous droplet train flow with the flowing film formed on the heated surface. To investigate heat transfer of spray cooling from this aspect, a few studies have been conducted on the heat transfer of continuous droplet train impinging on hot surfaces. Qiu et al. [70] demonstrated surface temperature influence on the impact dynamics. Prior to the steady state, the droplet film spreads on the heated surface, and the surface temperature enhances the spreading rate of the flowing film when the surface temperature is over the boiling point. With the increase of the surface temperature the steady-state film-wetted area decreases, and eventually maintains constant after the temperature is greater than 190°C. Besides, the temperature also affects the splashing angle (see Figure 8). A stable splashing angle marked by red line is established at higher surface temperature greater than 192°C. The later study of Qiu et al. [71] showed that the inclination of the droplet train decreases the splashing angle and increases the averaged secondary droplet size.
\nThe impact dynamics of droplet train at different surface temperature and the droplet velocity is 15.2 m/s [70].
Soriano et al. [72] presented an experimental observation of multiple droplet train impingement. Impact spacing between multiple droplet streams would affect spreading and splashing in impact regimes, and the optimal cooling performance was achieved when the film velocity was not disturbed by adjacent droplet streams. Zhang et al. [73, 74] further demonstrated that both impact spacing and impingement pattern significantly affect local and global cooling performance on the hot surface. In comparison with the circular jet impingement cooling, the droplet train impingement achieves a better cooling performance for various impingement patterns. The same conclusion was made when comparing the cooling performance of droplet train and jet impingement on flowing film that cools the hot surface [75]. Through piezoelectric nozzles more groups of jet flow were generated and broke up to droplet train for cooling the hot surface [76], and the maximum heat flux reaches~ 170 W/cm2 with the nozzle diameter of 25 μm. However, unclear impact dynamics and its relation to local cooling need the further study.
\nOur recent studies try to understand spray cooling from droplet burst aspect [75, 77]. Different from droplet train cooling, it assumed that in spray cooling droplet groups impact the surface at a constant frequency rather than droplet train. Each droplet group is defined as a droplet burst, and each burst contains a constant number of droplets, which is called burst size. The frequency at which droplet bursts are generated is called the burst frequency. The generation mechanism of droplet burst was first proposed by Gao and Li [75, 77] and implemented in tests. A droplet generator combined with controlled interrupter is applied for droplet burst generation. A droplet train is ejected from droplet generator with droplet frequency \n
Droplet burst flows are generated by interrupting a droplet train flow (\n\n\nf\n0\n\n=\n\n1000 Hz) using an interrupter with an angle θ = 330° and varied frequencies \n\n\nf\nb\n\n\n: (a) 18.3 Hz, (b) 13.5 Hz, (c) 25.0 Hz, (d) 30.1 Hz, and (e) schematic of a droplet burst flow with \n\nn\n=\n\n6 [75, 77].
For the impact of one droplet burst (see Figure 10), at \n
(a) Impact dynamics of a drop burst flow affecting the film flow; (b1) surface temperature distribution at \n\nt\n=\n 0 s; (b2) & (b3) temperature change; (c1) heat transfer coefficient at \n\n\n\nt\n=\n\n\n0 s; (c2) & (c3) change of heat transfer coefficient [75, 77].
For the impact of one droplet burst flow, the temperature at impact point is measured. Temperature measurement shows that the burst flow causes the temperature to quickly decrease, and then the temperature fluctuates with the constant fluctuation frequency and amplitude in full-developed stage. The fluctuation frequency is equal to the burst impact frequency. The temperature at the impact point remains lower than the film cooling temperature without droplet burst impact. Heat transfer coefficient shows three development stages of the convection: affecting, restoring, and restored. During the restored stage, local cooling has returned to the film cooling. The restored stage may not exist if the time interval between bursts \n
The comparison of burst flows shows that the trough value of the fluctuating temperature, \n
Spray cooling is one effective cooling technology for handling high-power density and high heat flux removal requirement. In spray cooling, liquid coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up into numerous secondary droplets affecting heated surface that is covered by radially flowing film. The cooling is achieved through the convection heat transfer from the heated surface to the film flow, nucleate boiling, liquid conduction inside the film flow, and interfacial evaporation from the liquid film. Based on research outcomes reported in the literature, spray cooling technology is reviewed from two aspects: the spray level and the droplet level. In the spray level, these studies emphasize the cooling performance to spray property. Some key properties are summarized in this chapter, involving spray characterization, nozzle positioning, phase change, and enhanced surface. In the droplet level, the studies focus on local heat transfer associated with droplet impact conditions, which are classified into a few categories: impact of single droplet on dry surface, stationary film, flowing film, impact of droplet train, and impact of droplet burst. Although spray impact cannot be simply considered as the superposition of single droplets, the studies in droplet level provide experimental and theoretical basis to explain what happened on heated surface and the relevant local heat transfer mechanism in spray cooling.
\nIntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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