\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Since the first years of the introduction of cocaine by Carl Koller in 1884, the evolution of regional anesthesia has been continuous, gradual and safe. Its development has been based on anatomy, the pharmacology of local anesthetics and adjuvant drugs, as well as advances in the various blocking techniques, with ultrasound guidance being the most recent advent. The use of ultrasound in regional anesthesia has shown the reduction of complications, which makes it mandatory to knowledge and acquire skills in all ultrasound-guided techniques.
\r\n\r\n\tUltrasound-guided regional blocks will be reviewed extensively, as well as intravenous regional anesthesia, thoracic spinal anesthesia. The role of regional anesthesia and analgesia in critically ill patients is of paramount importance. In addition, we will review the current role of regional techniques during the Covid-19 pandemic. Complications and malpractice is another topic that should be reviewed. Regional anesthesia procedures in some specialties such as pediatrics, orthopedics, cancer surgery, neurosurgery, acute and chronic pain will be discussed.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-570-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-569-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-571-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo, Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna and Dr. Guillermo A. Castorena-Arellano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",keywords:"Regional Anesthesia, Ultrasound-Guided Regional Anesthesia, Local Anesthetics, Preventive Analgesia, Peripheral Blocks, Pediatric Regional Anesthesia, Intravenous Regional Anesthesia, Techniques, Complications, Adjuvants in Regional Anesthesia, Opioids, Alfa2 Agonists",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Whizar-Lugo has published more than 100 publications on Anesthesia, Pain, Critical Care, and Internal Medicine. He works as an anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as an associated researcher.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169249/images/system/169249.jpg",biography:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and completed residencies in Internal Medicine at Hospital General de México and Anaesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán in México City. He also completed a fellowship at the Anesthesia Department, Pain Clinic at University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Currently, Dr. Whizar-Lugo works as anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group, and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as associated researcher. He has published many works on anesthesia, pain, internal medicine, and critical care, edited four books, and given countless conferences in congresses and meetings around the world. He has been a member of various editorial committees for anesthesiology journals, is past chief editor of the journal Anestesia en México, and is currently editor-in-chief of the Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care. 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Dr. Saucillo-Osuna has lectured at multiple national and international congresses and is an adjunct professor at the Federación Mexicana de Colegios de Anestesiología, AC, former president of the Asociación Mexicana de Anestesia Regional, and active member of the Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional.",institutionString:"Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"346513",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo A.",middleName:null,surname:"Castorena-Arellano",slug:"guillermo-a.-castorena-arellano",fullName:"Guillermo A. 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A significant number of scientific research have been carried out from the surface layers to the deeper parts of the Earth, by taking into account the research merits from high latitudes. In this book, progress and achievements by seismological studies in the polar region are summarized from the mid-twentieth century to the present. Characteristics of seismic wave propagation, heterogeneous structure, and dynamics of the Earth’s interiors are demonstrated, which have been conducted by many international research in both areas of the Arctic and the Antarctic regions. Practically, the following scientifically achieved results are introduced by using seismic waves and travel-time data: inner structure and dynamics of the crust and mantle in high latitudes, seismicity and focal mechanism, seismic wave propagation within the global point of view, seismotectonics in the Earth’s history, and other involved topics in terms of “polar seismology.” Major location names in both polar regions are illustrated in Figure 1a and b.
(a) Surface topography and bathymetry in the Antarctic (ETOPO1, [
The International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008) program had been conducted as a half-century anniversary from the International Geophysical Year (IGY 1957–1958), when the Antarctic expeditions for scientific purposes started with the involved countries in the polar region. The IPY 2007–2008 was a big international program composed of multidisciplinary science branches such as upper atmosphere, meteorology, glaciology, geosciences, oceanography, and biosciences conducted by a significant number of polar scientists involved [1]. In this book, many of the seismological achievements are carried out by the IPY, including contributions from Japanese seismologists. In addition, the recent trend in scientific investigation for physical interaction between multi-sphere system within the polar surface environment (i.e., atmosphere-ocean-cryosphere-solid Earth) is especially introduced. “Cryoseismology,” most of all, is a new and recent progressing topic of seismic approach to investigate characteristics of seismic waves and seismicity in terms of long-term climate changes such as global warming. The most recent seismic achievements in both polar regions are compiled in the special issue on “Polar Science” [2].
It is noticed that, moreover, the index introduced in this book intends to demonstrate the present status of the polar region not only to the global seismologists but also to all the general public who are interested in this topic. It is hoped that this book could provide remarkable knowledge and new understanding about the present environments and past history within the dynamics of the global system. The reader could surely attain fruitful information on the advancement of frontier research in the polar region, which is currently progressing, from this book.
In this section, historical issues on seismic observation mainly conducted at the Japanese Antarctic stations are presented. During the IGY, the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition (JARE) started the main base camp Syowa Station (SYO; 69.0°S, 39.6°E; Figure 1a), Eastern Dronning Maud Land, in the Lützow-Holm Bay (LHB) of East Antarctica. Seismological observations at Syowa Station began since 1961 by the 3rd JARE (JARE-3) as one of the monitoring stations in the Antarctic within the global observation network. In this regard, the seismic observations, similar to the other long-term observations such as meteorological and aurora research, have been carried out over the half-century. During the past few decades, infrastructure systems and data logging huts/buildings have been replaced according to the development of observation techniques and logistical background of the polar region. Moreover, characteristics, kinds, and purpose of the observational data varied drastically during the long period. Sincerely maintained by winter-over expedition members, seismic observations at Syowa Station continued over all the seasons without any serious problems. Since 2004, digital seismic waveform data have been transmitted from Syowa Station to the National Institute of Polar Research (NIPR), Tokyo, Japan, by using the “Intelsat” satellite telecommunication system. The transmitted data have also been stored in huge data library system of NIPR and opened to the global seismological community [3, 4]. For example, the seismic waves caused by a huge earthquake in the Tohoku region, in northeast Japan (M = 9.0; March 11, 2011), as well as another large disaster earthquake that occurred at Christ Church, New Zealand (M = 6.3; February 22, 2011), were clearly recorded, and continuous monitoring observations have been carried out until now at SYO [5].
In order to cover the high-latitude areas of the Earth, several seismic stations belonging to the Federation of Digital Seismographic Network (FDSN) [6] have been increasing in the Antarctic since the 1980s. Many of the stations have been located at the margins of the continent, where the permanent winter-over stations of corresponding nations have individually been existed (Figure 2a and b). The East Antarctic continent, where Syowa Station is located, and the Greenland in the Arctic have advantages of recording teleseismic events occurring over the globe with a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio. There are some reasons for the advantages: stable Precambrian-aged continent composed of hard rock areas on the surface layer and deep “lithosphere” underneath, low local seismicity in the vicinity of the recording stations because of the same reason of old and stable continents, low artificial noises because of far distance from major human activity regions in particular for the Antarctic, and so on. The Syowa Station has provided precious seismic data to the global community as one of the major stations of FDSN in the Antarctic continent, as well as one of the Japanese contributing global network (POSEIDON/PACIFIC-21). The seismic data from SYO (travel times, waveforms, hypocentral information, etc.) have been offered to several international centers and organizations via NIPR, for example, to the International Seismological Center (ISC), the National Earthquake Information Center of the United States Geological Survey (NEIC/USGS), the Data Management System of the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (DMS/IRIS), and others. In addition, seismic data of SYO have been provided to the Japanese National Data Center of PACIFIC-21 network, that is, the Earth Information Center inside the Japan Agency for Marine Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) [4]. It is noticed that details of the data archive and publication procedure from NIPR are described in the meta-database portal server (http://scidbase.nipr.ac.jp/).
(a) Upper: global distribution of the seismic stations (gray triangles) including those in polar regions (red triangles). SYO indicates Syowa Station. Lower: variation in the number of seismic stations reporting bulletin data to the ISC from the Antarctic (left) and the Arctic (right) regions. All figures are modified after [
At the majority of stations belonging to FDSN in the polar region, high-resolution and wide dynamic–range broadband seismographs (Streckeisen Seismometer type 1; STS-1) have been installed and operated in the last three decades. The STS-1 has been known as the most standard seismographs in global seismology, and almost all teleseismic events with magnitude over four occurring on the globe are recordable at Syowa Station. After a rapid spread of FDSN stations over the Earth in the 1980s, continuous observations by using STS-1 started in 1989 at the Syowa Station. By combining the data from both the STS-1 and the short-period seismographs hagiwara erectric seismometer (HES) that started observation during the IGY, teleseismic events detected at SYO have been varying within few hundreds of their identified number during the last two decades [4] (Figure 3). Long-period variations in teleseismic detectability since the era of IGY are summarized [5]. Seismological studies by using the data at SYO are classified into heterogeneous structure and dynamics of the inner core and surrounding mantle viewed from southern high latitudes, crustal structure, seismicity and earthquake source mechanism of the Antarctic Plate and the Antarctic continent, crustal movement and ice-related seismic activities associated with cryosphere dynamics, and the other topics. A significant number of achievements by seismological investigations and new findings are demonstrated in more detail in the succeeding chapters of this book. As an example, long-term data at SYO were utilized to reveal a superrotation of the inner core of the deep interiors over 30 years based on the analog record from IGY [7]. In this regard, long-term compiled data such as the research of dynamics in deeper parts of the Earth have efficiently been used. Therefore, the seismic station in the polar region including the Syowa Station is expected to continue offering the high-quality data as an important permanent observation site in southern high latitude among global seismology.
Historical reporting features of the Antarctic station (SYO) based on the ISC Bulletin. The upper panel shows the timeline of variations in the travel-time residuals for P waves at SYO. Each dot represents the median residual for 1 month of data. The green line is the overall median; the orange line shows the standard deviation based on the median absolute deviation, while the red line shows twice the standard deviation. The red dots represent those months when the absolute value of the annual median residual exceeds the long-term median by more than a standard deviation. The bottom panel shows the reported number of teleseismic events at SYO in 1967–2011 by ISC (after [
In the vicinity of Syowa Station, several field stations of broadband seismographs have been conducted around the LHB region since 1997 (Figure 1a) [8, 9, 10]. The portable broadband array stations have contributed to the Global Alliance of Regional Networks (GARNET), together with the international projects conducted during the International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008). Details about the IPY projects and observation networks are given in Chapter 2. On the contrary, deep seismic surveys (DSSs) using active seismic sources were also carried out in 2000 and 2002 on the ice-sheet plateau nearby Syowa Station in LHB. The DSSs consist of the observations/analysis specks of the wide-angle reflection/refraction methods as a major part of the “Structure and Evolution of East Antarctic Lithosphere (SEAL)” project [11] by JARE. From the DSS, seismic velocity model of the crustal structure and seismic reflection section of the lithosphere of the LHB region were investigated, which are situated between the Western Enderby Land and the Eastern Dronning Maud Land (DML; Figure 1a). Detailed results of the DSS are given in Chapter 4.
It is also noticed that the international collaboration project was carried out in the USA and New Zealand (the International Mount Erebus Seismic Study; IMESS) at the Ross Island of Ross Sea, West Antarctica, for few years since 1980 (near McM station; Figure 1a). From the project, microseismicity associated with volcanic eruptions of Mount Erebus was investigated in detail [12]. Moreover, ocean bottom seismic observations were held at the Antarctic Peninsula in 1990–1991, in collaboration with Polish geoscience group. Precise crustal structure and extension regime around the area were studied at the Bransfield Strait (BFS; Figure 1a) [13].
In contrast to the Antarctic, there have been no permanent seismic stations in the Arctic region by Japan (more than 66°N; Figure 2); however, several temporary observations have been done in Eastern Asia including in Far East of Russia. In 1994, a seismic station at KMS (Figure 1b), the northern root of Kamchatka Peninsula, Far East of Russia, was installed by Nagoya University as the northernmost station of the Japanese global network (POSEIDON). In spite of the difficult access from Japan, the station has continued observation until now. The noise level of the KMS station has been quite low and can record a significant number of microseismicity involving seismic fault system near the station. After the North Sakhalin earthquake (M = 7.6, May 1995), microseismic and global positioning system (GPS) observations started around the large area including KMS station in collaboration/cooperation with the Russian Academy of Science. In 2005, a big project started in order to reveal the stagnant slab and relation with mantle dynamics by using broadband seismic regional network. From the temporary network observations, amalgamation mechanism of the stagnant slab (subducting Pacific Oceanic plate) in the upper mantle depths beneath the East Asia region was obtained. Moreover, seismic activities around the North Sakhalin area have been advanced by using the obtained data. From 2009 to 2012, large temporary seismic array stations have been carried out (NECESSArray) at northeastern China mainland, in collaboration with China, the USA, and Japan. Several major seismological targets were achieved such as the formation mechanism of the China mainland continent, shape of the subducting stagnant slab underneath the stations, and source mechanism of huge mantle plumes under the Pacific Ocean [14]. Besides, temporal observation using broadband seismographs was conducted at the Baikal Rift Zone (BRZ; Figure 1b) in 2004–2006 in collaboration with the Russia Academy of Science (RAS). Crustal structure and seismicity at BRZ were investigated in detail [15, 16].
Including the abovementioned studies before the IPY, internationally collaborated seismic network in Greenland will be introduced in detail in Chapter 6. The regional network aimed to investigate the relationship between the glacial seismicity and the global warming process in the Arctic region.
In the developing world, energy crisis is the main reason for less progress and development. Renewable and sustainable energy may be of bright future for scientific lagging and low-income countries; further, sustainability through smart materials got a huge potential; so, hereby keeping in view the energy crisis which developing world is facing for many decades, there exists a possibility for obtaining energy through cheap, sustainable, and smart carbon materials. The nanostructures which are made up of sp2-hybridized carbon such as fullerene, carbon nanotubes, and graphene remain pivot point of advanced carbon functional material research [1]. As we look into the reversible electrochemical strength keeping in view of their great electric conductivity, chemical and mechanical durability, and the custom fitted structures that can be developed from advanced carbon functional materials, carbon materials have been the most significant anode material for the Li-ion batteries [2]. Advanced carbon functional materials may include graphene, carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes, respectively. Moreover, CNTs and graphene with high explicit surface territories can store higher charge capacity by the adsorption/desorption of particles at the anode/electrolyte interface. The higher charge capacity is hence incredible subject to the qualities of the carbon material, for example, its pore structure, doping, and defects. In this way, the advancement of electrochemical capacity in carbon needs a judiciously planned structure. One issue identified with the utilization of CNTs and graphene for electrochemical storage is the agglomeration of the nanostructures that prompts diminished efficiency [3, 4]. There has been progressive demand for the electrochemical energy storage with high energy density and remarkable rate performance. Electrical double layer capacitors (EDLCs), additionally known as supercapacitors (SCs), have attracted a worldwide attention because of their long cycle life and high power density but comparatively low energy density of commercially available carbon-based SCs. Graphene has attracted an in-depth attention in energy storage applications relating to its distinctive options of high surface space, flexibility, chemical stability, and remarkable electrical and thermal conduction [5]. Energy storage capacity defines advanced energy technologies. Further, superior energy storage may be obtained through various routes like using pyrrolic (N5) and pyridinic (N6) doping in carbon materials, or superior energy by KOH activation in carbon materials, or through carbonization in organic matter, respectively. Further, energy storage using pyrrolic (N5) and pyridinic (N6) doping, or KOH activation, or through carbonization in organic matter will be discussed one by one.
For energy storage, ideal structures may become complex due to agglomeration at nanolevel during carbon reconstruction process. The gathering of sp2-hybridized carbon nanostructures to frame a 3D arrangement can adequately hinder any agglomeration and sustain electrical properties of the building structures. Moreover, the 3D arrangement gives channels for particle relocation. Required carbon structures may be obtained through the freeze drying or aqueous treatment of graphene or CNT suspensions with the help of templates. With increasingly proficient electron move and a progressively powerful structure, a customized 3D carbon will give possible higher electrochemical charge capacity by interfacing the structure squares covalently rather than by van der Waals communications. A graphene with a SSA of ≈850 m2.g−1 has indicated astounding electrical and mechanical attributes for Li-ion batteries. Nitrogen doping may be used to increase electrochemical storage in the advanced functional carbon materials and consequently to increase the capacitance at the anode/electrolyte interface [4, 6]. At the edges of graphene, it is experimentally proved, in the electrolyte, that the nitrogen ions have benefited the wettability of solo carbon layers. Consequently, it would increase the overall capacitance, which may occur due to ideal Faradaic redox responses. For Li-ion storage capacity of the carbon (N-doped), it may provide extra dynamic sites, which helps adsorption (Li-ion), resulting in an enhanced gravimetric limit [6, 7]. Among the N-dopants in graphitic carbon, pyrrolic (N5), pyridinic (N6), and quaternary N, pyrrolic N, and pyridinic N are viewed as additional dynamic for electrochemical storage, while the graphitic structure is the most fragile among them. Also, topological imperfections, for example, di-vacancy and Hurler Stone-Ribs deserts in the graphitic carbon may give additional dynamic destinations to particle adsorption or on the other hand for charge move in electrochemical storage. Furthermore, various works have demonstrated the significant job of full-scale macropores and mesopores in the particle transportation for high power thickness or brilliant rate execution in supercapacitors or Li-ion batteries. Along these lines, a carbon for unrivaled Li-ion capacity would preferably have the accompanying highlights, a 3D arrangement which contains the mesopores for quick particle relocation and a covalently associated structure made of sp2-hybridized carbon for high electrical conductivity [6, 8]. Further, a finely tuned arrangement of dopant molecules and deformities for increasingly dynamic locales is another requirement. To accomplish a carbon with these highlights, scientists picked a high-energy carbon nanostructure, C60, which is more receptive than CNTs and graphene, as the antecedent, and treated it with KOH at temperatures of 500–700°C [6]. The mentioned treatment helps changing the C60 molecules to carbon which contains enhanced nitrogen along with defects. Nitrogen which presents in the doped carbon consists of two types (pyrrolic and pyridinic). With 7.8% nitrogen-doped carbon, porous carbon (when used as anode) has shown 600 mA h g−1 (storage capacity), which occurs at 5 A g−1 for the Li-ion batteries [6]. A first-standard calculation has proposed that the unrivaled anode execution of the N-doped permeable carbon is intently identified with the bending of the carbon layers (graphenes) and the pyrrolic/pyridinic N-doping in the carbon. FCC structure has been obtained when agglomeration happens in the C60 molecules, which turns C60 into different carbons (permeable carbon) in KOH activation. While in path B, ammonia stream has been act to apply during the tempering, resulting in porous carbon which is highly N-doped. Meanwhile, scientists have proved that nanopores have been prepared in KOH activation, while quantum dots (of carbon) were fabricated without KOH activation [6, 8, 9]. It is believed that enhanced handling time (while keeping proportion of KOH and C60 lower) led to higher interfacial interactions and amends into a progressive structure at certain phase of activation. Likewise, it was discovered that the N-content expanded with activation temperature in the range 500–700°C; yet a further temperature increment to 800°C prompted an extremely low yield of N-aC60 tests. Further, systematic fabrication of nitrogen-doped carbon through activation of C60 molecules (route A indicates normal activation in argon flow, while route B indicates N doping in NH3 flow) is as shown in Figure 1 [6].
Systematic fabrication of nitrogen-doped carbon through activation of C60 molecules (route A indicates normal activation in argon flow, while route B indicates N doping in NH3 flow) [
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of C60, aC60, and N7.5%-aC60 revealed important information regarding structures, which further demonstrates that the C60 molecules have been totally rebuilt by KOH actuation which gave porous carbon [6]. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) has been utilized to reveal significant constituents present in final product. FTIR results show that C▬OH and C▬O bonds are seen in both aC60 and N7.5%-aC60. Estimations utilizing the XPS information show that oxygen content increments from 1.3 at.% in C60 to 4.2 at.% in aC60 and to 9.5 at.% in N7.5%-aC60 samples, respectively. To additionally comprehend Li-ion battery’s capacity, scientists explored the adsorption capacity of Li particles on graphene and C60 sections with and without nitrogen doping through atomic demonstrating. Two potential impacts, i.e., a curvature impact and an N-doping impact, have been thought to be important. For the former one, it has the adsorption capacity of a Li storage on a large portion of a C60 atom with edges immersed by H, i.e., C30H10, and a level graphene piece containing the equivalent number of carbon particles, i.e., C30H14, respectively [6, 10].
In synopsis, KOH activation has been utilized to totally convert C60 atoms to a 3D permeable carbon. In the porous carbon, the doping (of nitrogen) may additionally bring deformities and a large number of pores. The activation process may increase the doping level that depends upon activation conditions, resulting in a suitable storage capacity for Li-ion batteries [6]. KOH activation gave the bended layer structure also; further, N-doping, particularly pyrrolic nitrogen, has added to the high Li-ion stockpiling limit in the carbon.
There has been progressive demand for the electrochemical energy storage devices with high energy density and remarkable rate performance. Electrical double layer capacitors (EDLCs), additionally known as supercapacitors (SCs), have attracted a worldwide attention because of their long cycle lifespan and really high power density, but comparatively lower energy density has considerably limited the applications of the carbon-based supercapacitors [11, 12]. Graphene has enormous energy applications relating to distinctive physical properties of chemical stability, flexibility, and remarkable electrical conduction. Scientists have found that during wet chemical techniques, graphene platelets may tend to agglomerate, thus resulting in lower surface areas than the theoretical worth of 2630 m2g−1. Strategies are developed to assemble graphene-based platelets to 3D structures so as to stop the restacking of platelets for high surface areas while maintaining the intrinsic conduction of platelets [13]. For instance, scientists have demonstrated a graphene film which is 3D having macropores, within which PMMA functions as the main template. Scientists have prepared TiO2-rGO sheets employing PU sponge (which is porous) as a model for the photoelectrochemical reaction of ethanol. A recent study reported that compressible all-solid-state SCs supported polyaniline-SWCNTs-sponge electrodes, in which sponge provides squeezability and polyaniline offers pseudo capacitance. As an economical model, sponge is ready to act as a wonderful support for the assembly of nanostructures for SC electrodes. It is found that graphene structures obtained using sponge templating may have lower surface area, which leads to lower interfacial interactions and limited SC performance. It is experimentally proved that graphene-based capacitors are of lower cathode thickness even if they possess higher surface areas, which led to lower performance of ultimate devices. Scientists have regenerated graphene colloidal gel films with a high packing density up to 1.33 gcm−3 what’s more at the same time noticeable capacitive exhibitions (209 Fg−1) and 261 Fcm−3 in organic electrolytes. The layer like stacking of graphene platelets may deteriorate the surface because of particle channels within the direction perpendicular to the layers [11, 14].
Chemical activation is an efficient methodology to make pores, e.g., within the preparation of activated carbons (ACs). Among various chemical activation strategies, KOH activation has been considered as an accustomed method. Recently, scientists have fabricated a porous carbon through chemical activation of GO; it is found that the selected capacitance of 166 Fg−1 has been demonstrated. Transforming low-thickness carbons to templates to get valuable thickness but yet with a moderately high porosity and high electrical conductivity is required for high-performance SCs [11, 13, 14].
Scientists have developed a carbon which was obtained using sponge templating followed by chemical activation (KOH activation) of GO. It is demonstrated that the GO platelets gather around the sponge’s backbone. Meanwhile, KOH activation goes within the PU sponge which helps to create pores using temperature treatments, which may result in a conductive carbon. Using fabricated carbon for energy storage in two-electrode and three-electrode configurations, it has shown nearly perfect energy storage behavior, which may lead to acceptable superior power density [11, 15].
Preparation of the 3D carbon (aPG-10) is shortly illustrated within the Figure 2 as shown [11].
Preparation of 3D carbon through sponge KOH activation via GO loading [
After chemical activation of PU/GO mixture, the dried PU/GO/KOH mixture was toughened at 9000°C for 2 hours in inert gas flow, and hence subjected to drying, resulting in a final sample named as aPG-10 (final product) [11, 14].
The exhibition of the aPG-10 as an anode material for supercapacitors was evaluated using cycle voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) curves, respectively. In a three-electrode configuration, the execution of aPG-10 anode coated on a shiny carbon has been designed with 1.0 MH2SO4 as electrolyte. The particular capacitance determined from the charge/discharge curves at a current thickness of 5 Ag−1 is 401 Fg−1, which stays 349 Fg−1 at a current density of 100 Ag−1. Once aPG-10 was tried in two-electrode configuration, a particular capacitance of 227 Fg−1 at 5 Ag−1 was acquired [11].
In summary, a graded porous carbon was obtained through sponge KOH activation via GO loading [11, 14, 15]. The sponge has filled in as a proficient layout to pull KOH into its backbone, which helps to create large number of pores, in order to give highly porous carbon. Meanwhile, low sheet obstruction, high BET surface region, and much acceptable conductor density are accomplished based on the carbon activation through KOH which introduces sort of nitrogen which covers defects from graphitic lattice. Every one of these benefits leads to the great electrochemical execution of carbon terminals [11, 13, 15].
Frozen tofu is a source of carbon and nitrogen [16]. By using one-step carbonization activation method, it can be converted into oxygen-doped carbon and nitrogen-doped carbon, respectively. By one-step carbonization, sponge-like carbon (co-doped) has a maximum surface area of 3134 m2g−1. High volumes of mesopores (1.11 cm3 g−1) and micropores (0.71 cm3 g−1) are present in this hierarchical (graded) porous carbon [16, 17]. Scientists have discovered that this acquired carbon is used to make supercapacitors which acts as electrodes, in 1 M aqueous electrolyte sulfuric acid; it has a remarkable capacitance of 243 Fg−1 (evaluated at 0.1 Ag−1); after 10,000 cycles, it has a capacitance retentiveness of 93% at 10 Ag−1. In BMIMBF4 (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetra fluoroborate) liquid ion electrolyte, the said carbon shows a precise capacity of 170 Fg−1 (assessed in 1 Ag−1) along with a valuable effectiveness (135 F g−1 at 20 Ag−1) ensuring the power density of 72 W h kg−1 (at 889 W kg−1). A carbon supercapacitor (derived from frozen tofu) can comfortably drive 25 light-transmitting diodes in excess of 2 minutes [16]. The fabrication flow chart for porous carbon through one-step carbonization is as shown in Figure 3 [16].
The fabrication flow chart for porous carbon through one-step carbonization [
Further, systematic steps involved to get porous carbon through carbonization are freeze drying, KOH activation, temperature treatment, and carbonization, respectively, as are shown in flow chart diagram (Figure 3). Many energy storage devices are available worldwide but because of potential applications, electrochemical appliances such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and supercapacitors have an appreciable fascination [16, 17]. On the one hand, supercapacitors have active charging/discharge performance and also a fine power density greater than 10 k W kg−1; on the other hand, LIBs have a great energy density (usually 100–200 W h kg−1), yet it has a longer charging time. Two mechanisms mainly used by supercapacitors in order to store energy are as follows [17, 18]:
Pseudocapacitive electrodes store ions established at the electrode-electrolyte interface for immediate Faradaic reactions.
Dual layer electrodes with capacitive electricity preserve energy through the desorption and adsorption of ions on a large field of spongy (porous) materials.
The lithium ions in LIBs are moved between anode and cathode, which results in lithium ions storage or discharge through distinct means according to the materials of the electrode. Because of many properties such as chemical stability, pattern porosity, and high electrical conductivity, for both commercial LIBs (e.g., graphite) and supercapacitors (e.g., activated carbon), carbon materials were selected as effective materials [16, 19]. It has been determined that macropores act as ion-buffering storage in porous carbon materials in supercapacitors and mesopores contribute channels for the transport of ions to micropores, where they were ultimately deposited. In the LIB (graphite) anodes, the intercalated LiC compound is the result of the complete intercalation of lithium ions that limits the reversible Li-ion storage potential for graphite (approximately 372 mA hg−1) [16]. In addition, permeable carbon was too employed in the form of an electromagnetic scaffold or including the electrode in the LIBs, since the spongy (porous) arrangement is known to increase the contact areas of the electrode-electrolyte and decrease the length of the path for ions/electrons transport, which leads to an improvement in the transit kinetics and accordingly the energy density [16, 20].
Power density of industrial supercapacitors is usually lower than 6 W h kg−1 and that is beyond from long-term electronic equipment requirements [20]. However, the efficiency and performance of the LIB anodes must also be further enhanced. With regard to the two applications, spongy carbon of great electrical drivability and a customized 3D design is required. In the previous couple of centuries, by using different strategies like self-assembly, activation, and templating, several porous carbon materials have been researched [16, 18, 20]. Among available methods, an efficient method is activation, to increase the surface area of carbon by making several micropores. In supercapacitors, activated carbon is commercially employed due to its great specific surface area (greater than 2000 m2g−1). Activation will make effective manufacturing possible through treating of precursors of nanostructured carbon in order to get novel carbon compounds [21]. For instance, platelets of graphene may be entirely transformed to a three-dimensional porous (spongy) carbon with a SSA of up to 3100 m2 g−1 and distribution of pore size is 0.6–5 nm by microwave-exfoliated graphite oxide activation of KOH [16, 21]. By KOH activation of C micro tubes, scientists have documented a porous (sponge-like) carbon made up of macropores (numerous microns in size) and micropores (0.47 nm in size). The conductivity and wettability of carbon compounds can be enhanced by adequate heteroatom doping. Additionally, nitrogen is a donor molecule of electrons, as well as in a graphite matrix, they have the ability to promote conductivity of the n-type. As the LIB anode, carbon N-doping has proved itself to support the Li injection because of the hybridization of the long pair of nitrogen electrons with carbon π electrons. In recent times, by activation of C with KOH in an ammonia environment, scientists have achieved porous N-doped carbon (7.5 wt %); the carbon was found to have a reversible power of 1900 mA h g−1 at 0.1 Ag−1; furthermore, after 800 cycles (at 2 Ag−1), the capacity is 600 mA hg−1, respectively.
Porous carbon content obtained from renewables can be more environmentally sustainable relative to porous carbon products acquired from wood, polymer blends, tar, and other resources. Researchers have demonstrated that porous carbons can be obtained from various biomass sources such as rice husks, fungi, water bamboo, and rice straw for energy storage applications. For instance, researchers have informed that the willow catkin could be transformed into a cross-linked polymer carbon laminate co-doped with sulfur (S) and N by one-step pyrolysis-activation synthesis. In 1 M Na2SO4, the carbon demonstrated a remarkable electrochemical efficiency with a specific capacitance of 298 F g−1 at 0.5 A g−1 and magnificent cycling endurance at 5 A g−1 after 10,000 cycles with only 2% capacitance loss. Tofu consists of moisture, carbohydrates, proteins, and trace concentration of minerals; it is an available resource and is considered as a renewable fuel for nitrogen and carbon [16, 22]. Not long ago, scientists have stated the molten salt synthesis of strongly (N-doped) porous carbon which may be obtained from tofu, in which LiCl/KCl (45/55 in weight) is a eutectic mixture (which functioned as the activator) was used as the solvent to dilute LiNO3. The collected carbon (N-content: 4.72 wt%, density: 0.84 g cm−3, SSA: 1202 m2 g−1) in a 1 M Na2SO4 symmetric supercapacitor, showed 73.2 F g−1 capacitance (at 0.2 A g−1). The porous carbon (obtained from frozen tofu) is known to be suitable anode specimens for LIBs, because of their bigger surface areas, porous hierarchical structures, and heteroatom doping. In short, we can easily obtain doped N porous hierarchical carbon from frozen tofu, using single-step carbonization activation. Frozen tofu is environment-friendly, cheap, and extendable biomaterial precursor. It has showed significant SSA of 3134 m2 g−1 and significant pore diameter of 1.82 m3 g−1 on the activation conditions, and this is better than traditional biomass-originated active carbon products. In 1 M H2SO4, supercapacitors based on porous carbon (from frozen tofu) revealed 243 F g−1 specific capacitance, and in BMIMBF4/AN, it showed an extraordinary power density of about 72 W h kg−1 at an ordinary 889 W kg−1 energy density. Such carbonization procedure offers a potentially helpful strategy from abundant supportable resources to design carbon electrode materials with supreme execution for supercapacitors and LIBs, respectively [6, 11, 16, 22].
In synopsis, this chapter has explained how KOH activation has been utilized to convert C60 molecules to a 3D carbon, while at the same time, doping with pyridinic and pyrrolic nitrogen has huge impact in energy storage capacity. Meanwhile, a graded porous carbon was obtained through sponge KOH activation via GO loading. Further, physical properties such as low sheet obstruction, high BET surface, and higher conductivities are accomplished based on the carbon activation through KOH, which introduces sort of nitrogen which covers defects from graphitic lattice eventually. Every one of these benefits leads to the great electrochemical execution of carbon terminals. Further, carbonization procedure offers a potentially helpful strategy from abundant supportable resources to design carbon electrode materials with supreme storage for supercapacitors and LIBs, respectively.
The authors have declared no “conflict of interest.”
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',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. 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