Compositions of species-wise distribution of bioactive compounds in
Abstract
The genus Ocimum (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Ocimum species is a rich source of various phytochemicals including tannins, phenolic acids, anthocyanins, phytosterols, and policosanols. These phytochemicals have the potential to significantly impact human health. The economic importance of Ocimum is also evident; Ocimum oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. The important advantages of Ocimum plants in various treatments are their safety besides being less expensive, efficacy and availability throughout the world. This paper will focus on the biological effects of Ocimum essential oils, with particular attention on the molecular mechanism underlying their action.
Keywords
- Ocimum sp.
- essential oil
- composition
- biological activity
1. Introduction
Living plants produce a vast quantity of chemicals required for their performance and improvement. Some of these chemicals are primary metabolites, which consist of proteins (amino acids), carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, etc. but, besides these primary chemicals, the plants further provide just so-called secondary metabolites, which are specific to some taxonomic groups (families, genera). About 80% of the world’s population still depends on the traditional system of medicine for curing several health hazards [1]. Despite the vast scientific development in contemporary medicine, Ayurvedic system of medicine is widely practiced and accepted by people not only in India but also in many developed countries. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of patients in India still, rely on the practitioners of the traditional system of medicines. The therapeutic use of herbal crude medicines in different rural and urban communities is most of the time regulated by their traditional beliefs, and thus a majority of the herbal drugs are used as “folk” medicines and well practiced since long past. Furthermore, increasing dependency on medicinal plants in the industrialized communities have been found to the extraction and improvement of several remedies and chemotherapeutics from these plants and from traditionally established rural herbal remedies [2]. In these communities, herbal remedies become deeply engaged in the practice of minor conditions and again on the explanation of the increasing costs of specific health maintenance. Although synthetic drugs enhanced the demand against green remedies because of their rapid-acting implements, people have been turned up to understand the benefits correlated with essential remedies. Chemically prepared drugs may act at earlier, but they side effects which influence the human body separately in the long run, because medicinal plants work in an integrated or probiotic with limited or no negative effects on the body [3].
The genus
Nowadays, scientists are mainly focused on exploring the potential of plant antioxidants for curing several diseases. Antioxidants are compounds that can delay or inhibit the oxidation of lipids or other molecules by inhibiting the initiation or propagation of oxidative chain reactions [6]. Antioxidants counteract the harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals generated in the living organism during regular metabolism, especially under stress conditions. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have already proved the antioxidative property of beta-carotene, alfa-tocopherol, ascorbic acids, phenolics, flavonoids present in different plants [7].
Presently due to our regular stressful lifestyle, we are suffering from several types of diseases like aging, diabetes, degenerative disorders, etc., which mainly develop due to the development of ROS in our body. A dynamic balance is already operating in our body to reduce the harmful effects of generated ROS that is not adequate enough. Therefore, it is obvious to enrich our diet with antioxidants for developing protection. The purpose of this paper will focus on the recent research of the major nutrients and phytochemicals of
2. Health benefits of phytochemicals
“Phyto” in the word of phytochemicals is derived from the Greek word “phyto,” which means plant. Phytochemicals are a naturally occurring group of chemicals in plants and plant-derived foods, which may function in reducing the risk of chronic diseases [8]. Although it is estimated at least more than 5000 dietary phytochemicals have been discovered, it is believed that a high percentage of phytochemicals in foods still remain unknown [8]. Critical reviews of studies available in the literature support the concept that phytochemicals (polyphenols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid) has been associated with the maintenance of good health as well as prevention/treatment of many health conditions including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, stroke, metabolic syndrome, and other degenerative diseases. It is largely accepted that the additive effects of the combinations of various phytochemicals in whole plant-based foods are shown to have stronger protective actions than single, isolated phytochemical compounds [9].
3. Role of secondary metabolites
New drug model seeks to meet on bringing compounds active toward target proteins. Even though newly pharmaceutical companies and support organizations take influence in molecular design, combinatorial chemistry and synthetic chemistry, natural productions, and especially those of plant source, remain as a prerequisite cause of new remedies, current medicine leads and other new synthetic entities (NCEs) [10, 11].
Plants produce a diverse array of compounds that can broadly be categorized into primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the ones which are required for the normal growth and biological processes and are produced in the pathways that are crucial for plant survival. The other class of metabolites, though generally termed secondary, is also very crucial for plants from the ecological perspective.
These secondary metabolites are classified on the basis of their biosynthetic pathway and the following types are frequently observed-terpenes, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, saponins, and glucosinolates. The availability of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur along with energy from the primary metabolism governs the biosynthesis of these compounds [12].
4. Classification of secondary metabolites
Metabolites are the mediators and amounts of metabolism. The term metabolite is commonly confined to narrow fragments. Metabolites have specific functions, consisting of fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, and the catalytic activity of their holding (mostly as a cofactor to a stimulant), defense and interaction with distinct pathogens. Plant metabolites are categorized based on their biosynthetic pathways. The pathways of biosynthesis are responsible for the occurrence of both primary and secondary metabolites (Figure 1) [13, 14]. Plant secondary metabolites can be classified on the basis of chemical structure (for example, having rings, containing a sugar), composition (consisting of nitrogen or not), their solubility in numerous solvents, or the pathway by which they are synthesized (e.g., phenylpropanoid, which provides tannins).
5. Essential oil of Ocimum species
Since ancient times, essential oils are known for their medicinal use, and they are very much interesting and impressive natural plant commodities. They continue to be of paramount importance until the present day. Essential oils have been tested as perfumes, flavors for foods and beverages, or to provide both bodies and care for thousands of years [16].
Chemical diversification is of special significance if at the genus or species level both terpenes and phenylpropenes can be formed in the essential oil. Most Lamiaceae preferentially accumulate mono-(and sesqui-)terpenes in their erratic oils but some genera show oils too rich in phenylpropenes [17].
The action of essential oils begins by entering the human body via three possible different ways including direct absorption through inhalation, ingestion or diffusion through the skin tissue.
Table 1 presents published compositions of species-wise distribution of bioactive compounds in
Species | Class of compounds | Reference |
---|---|---|
α-Phellandrene, α-pinene, α-terpinene, α-terpinolene, α-myrcene, β-phellandrene, β-pinene, camphene, | [18, 19, 20, 23] | |
α-Citral, α-fenchyl acetate, α-terpineol, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphor, carvacrol, carvone, 1,8-cineole, | [18, 19, 21, 25] | |
β-acoradiene, β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene, β-cedrene, β-copaene, β-cubebene, β-elemene, β-guaiene, β-ocimene, β-selinene, cyclohexane, 2,4 diisopropenyl-1-methyl-1-vinyl, 1,4,7-cycloundecatriene,1,5,9,9-tetramethyl, α-acoradiene, α-amorphene, α-bulnesene, α-cadinene, α-cedrene, α-copaene, α-cubebene, α-guaiene, α-gurjunene, γ-gurjunene, α-7-epi-selinene, α-humulene, aromadendrene, α-(Z)-bergamotene, α-zingiberene, epsilon-muurolene, dehydroaromadendrene, germacrene-A, bicycloelemene, bicyclogermacrene, cadinene, cadina-3,5-diene, | [19, 26, 21, 22, 23, 24] | |
α-Cadinol, α-humulene oxide, alloaromadendrene, β-basibolol, β-basibolol isomer, β-eudesmol, cubenol, caryophyllene oxide, 1,10-di-epi-cubenol, dihydroactinidiolide, isospathulenol, muurolol, spathulenol, T-cadinol, viridiflorol, (Z)-nerolidol | [19, 21] | |
Alphitolic acid, betulin, betulinic acid, 3-epimaslinic acid, euscaphic acids, oleonolic acid, pomolic acid, ursolic acid, basilol, ocimol | [27] | |
4-Allylphenol, anethole, anisaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, cuminaldehyde, estragole, ethyl cinnamate, methyl benzoate, methyl cinnamate, methyl eugenol, methyl salicylate, | [21] | |
α-Phellandrene, α-pinene, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, β-pinene, camphene, limonene, d-limonene, β-ocimene, (E)-β-ocimene, myrcene, ρ-cymene, terpinolene, thujene, α-terpinolene, isosylvestrene, γ-himachalene | [28, 29, 34] | |
α-Citral, α-terpineol, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphor, linalool, citronellol, geraniol, myrtenol, 1,8-cineole, eugenol, terpinen-4-ol, | [29, 30, 31, 34] | |
α-Copaene, α-gurjunene, α-humulene, β-caryophyllene, β-copaene, β-cubebene, β-elemene, δ-cadinene, γ-muurolene, | [31, 32, 34] | |
Cubenol, caryophyllene oxide, spathulenol, α-cadinol, viridiflorol | [28, 32] | |
Vanillin | [33] | |
α-Pinene, | [35, 36, 37, 38, 39] | |
Camphor, eugenol, methyl eugenol, 1,8-cineole, trans-sabinene hydrate, linalool, δ-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, methyleugenol | [36, 39, 40, 41] | |
[33, 36, 40, 41] | ||
β-Caryophyllene epoxide | [36] | |
Methyl cinnamate | [36] | |
Cyclosativen | [42] | |
α-Thujene, α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, limonene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, sabinene, myrcene, α-terpinene, | [43, 45, 48] | |
Eugenol, linalool, 1,8-cineole, 5-isopropyl-2-methylbicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-2-ol, fenchone, | [43, 46, 48] | |
α-Copaene, β-elemene, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, β-bisabolene, E, E-α-farnesene, δ-cadinene, α-cadinene, | [45, 46, 49] | |
α-Cadinol, spathulenol, (Z)-nerolidol, caryophyllene oxide, β-eudesmol, viridiflorol | [42, 46] | |
Methyl eugenol, estragole, benzyl benzoate | [45, 47] | |
1-Octen-3-yl acetate | [44] | |
Naphthalene | [46] | |
α-Pinene, β-pinene, β-terpinene, d-limonene, camphene, sabinene, myrcene, | [50, 51, 52] | |
Linalool, menthol, methyl chavicol, α-citral, carvone, lavandulol, hotrienol, eugenol, 1,8-cineole, globulol, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphor, thymol, geranial, citronellol, E-linalool, β-citral, carvacrol, methyl chavicol, α-fenchyl acetate, myrtenol, terpinen-4-ol, | [52, 53, 54] | |
Caryophyllene, β-farnesene, germacrene-D, isoledene, β-selinen, β-cubebene, β-elemene, β-caryophyllene, β-bourbonene, α-humulene, γ-muurolene, bicyclogermacrene, δ-cadinene, α-copaene, | [50, 52, 53, 54] | |
α-Cadinol, alloaromadendrene, caryophyllene oxide, cubenol, t-cadinol, spathulenol, viridiflorol | [53, 54] | |
[51, 54] | ||
α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, limonene, (E)-β-ocimene, | [55, 56, 57] | |
Linalool, borneol, eugenol, methyl eugenol, 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, geraniol, | [56, 57, 58, 59] | |
β-Elemene, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, germacrene D, β-selinene, α-selinene, α-cubebene, δ-cadinene, elemol, bicyclogermacrene, α-cadinene, copaene, β-elemen, α-guaiene, γ-muurolene, δ-cadinene, amorphene, cubebene, α-bisabolene, cadinene, β-bisabolene, muurolene, germacrene, humulene, farnesene, sesquiphellandrene, bergamotene, guaiene, elemene, bourbonene, zingiberene | [55, 56, 57, 58, 59] | |
Spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, viridiflorol, β-eudesmol, γ-eudesmol | [60, 61] | |
Estragole | [55, 60] |
6. Biological activities of Ocimum species
The genus
6.1 Oxidant activity
Anti-oxidants play an important function in protecting the body against free radicals. They achieve this by stopping the formation of new free radicals species, converting older ones to free radicals, less toxic molecules that can be easily mopped up and preventing radical chain reaction [62]. The principal function of anti-oxidants is in suspending the oxidation of other molecules, by inhibiting the initiation or propagation of oxidizing chain reactions by free radicals and thereby reducing oxidative damage to the human body [63]. Two great mechanisms of procedure have been proposed for antioxidants [64]. The initial is a chain breaking method by which the initial antioxidant provides an electron to the free radical stage in the systems. The second technique involves the destruction of ROS/reactive nitrogen species initiators (secondary antioxidants) by cutting off chain starting catalysts (Figure 2). The potential role in the food industry and human health, antioxidants are getting acceptance all across the globe. Antioxidants are defined as a substance that easily in small amounts, can inhibit or prohibit the oxidation of readily oxidizable elements. The antioxidant is also defined as a substance qualified of inhibiting special oxidizing stimulants or a substance that serves with oxidizing agents prior to creating damage to other fragments or a substance that sequesters metal ions or even a substance efficient of the recovering system such as iron transporting protein [65].
Natural antioxidants have been studied intensively during the past years which are mainly phenolic compounds. Moreover, oxidation is a degenerative process in biological systems due to the endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemical properties originate in the body during metabolism that is overmuch reactive and may have one or expanded unpaired electrons. Oxidative stress, i.e., an inequality between ROS and antioxidant defenses have deleterious aftereffect, such as the peroxidation of membrane lipids and the aggression on biomolecules (proteins, membrane enzymes, carbohydrates and DNA) [66].
Various
Different test methods have been applied, and it becomes to be understood between the complete essential oil and individual components [70, 71, 72, 73]. A strong chelating effect on metals as iron or copper has been reported to diminish the presence of ROS obtained from reactions bar with these metals [74]. In addition, the antioxidant actions of
Particular attention has been focused on the scavenger ability to inhibit the process of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol oxidation since it represents a major prevention mechanism against atherosclerosis. Various experimental evidence, using in vitro and in vivo preclinical models, showed a strong action of
In many cases, the antioxidative activity (Figure 3) of essential oils cannot be attributed to the main compounds; minor compounds and synergistic effect may significantly contribute to the activity.
6.2 Antimicrobial
For thousands of years, folk medicine has used
The antibacterial and antifungal activities of
The essential oil and methanol extracts of five
Among the antifungal activities, the
6.3 Anticancer activity
For a long time, the polyphenols of the
Monga et al. [110] studied the antimelanoma and radioprotective activity of essential oils obtained by 50% alcoholic aqueous leaf extract from five species of
6.4 Cardiovascular protection
For decades, investigation on the health-promoting effects of Asian diet has been revealed that
Oxidation of LDL cholesterol is one of the key steps in the induction of atherosclerotic lesions by increasing damage to the arterial side through several processes, including growth factor and chemotactic protein expression, inflammation, and build up local macrophages [120, 121] have indicated that ethanolic leaf extract of
Although the contraction of plasmatic cholesterol and LDL is the primary technique regulating the antiatherogenic activity of
6.5 Anti-inflammatory
The inflammatory response involves long been compartmentalized into multiple attributes commonly termed redness, heat, pain, and edema. Inflammatory injuries lead to the discharge of a variety of fundamental mediators, cytokines, and chemokines that balance cellular infiltration that consequentially brings about resolving inflammatory response and restoration of tissue scrupulosity. However, immutable inflammatory stimuli or dysregulation of mechanisms of the resolution phase can lead to chronic inflammation [123, 124].
Złote et al. [134] studied the capacity of phenolic-rich fraction obtained from the elicited basil leaves to inhibit the activity of two enzymes of inflammatory process (LOX and COX). This research found that a higher LOX and COX inhibition efficiency was positively correlated with the increased contents of rosmarinic, benzoic and
6.6 Antidiabetic
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder caused by an absolute or relative lack of insulin and or reduced insulin activity which results in hyperglycemia and abnormalities in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism [139, 140]. The hypoglycemic effect of
In animal experimental designs of alloxan-induced diabetes, both antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects of
7. Future direction and conclusion
Despite the many appreciations of science and industry, present practice is filled with stress. Mobile devices and the web have vastly enhanced the pace of life so that many people feel that they are now going down in an endless-increasing ocean of data, while technical culture has overwhelmed us with growing vulnerability to unhealthy prepared and packed food and a profusion of pesticides, food container components, and many toxic modern chemicals. Urban citizens are nevertheless dealt with growing prosperity disparity, social segregation, excessive turbulence, air, water and soil pollution and disconnection from nature. Therefore, while industrialization experiences served to stronger lifespans and impressive expansions in human populations, it is now agreed that the extremest causes of death and disease on the globe are preventable lifestyle-related chronic diseases [150].
The biodiversity of essential oils containing the small molecular terpenoids remains an enchanted field of investigation, and the continuous usage of this reward in a broad field of studies suggested these demands in the consequent [151]. Screening, identifying, and dealing with this vast biodiversity will require a progressing progress of precise, rich-throughput experimental methods including new driving procedures.
The beneficial health effects of
In inference, the tendency of the last moments in the treatment of herbal productions have indicated that nature prospects and trust in pure and healthful products including medicines, cosmetics, household products, since easily as foodstuffs of plant and animal origin have belonged to a vital issue. So, indeed a well-balanced risk-benefit assessment of bioactive essential oils is one of the major challenges and policymakers must be convinced that review on natural products as the volatile terpenoids in essential oils is a huge task to ensure the ultimate human and animal welfare [151].
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