Dietary intervention and performance of
1. Introduction
Heterocyclic metabolites of the genera
Aflatoxins have been known to be toxic and reported to cause immune suppression in birds [11]. These immune suppression effects of aflatoxins predispose the animal to many secondary infections due to other fungi bacteria and viruses [12]. Earlier reports [6] opined that contamination of broiler ration with aflatoxin resulted in a drastic reduction in performance both from a growth and a feed-efficiency standpoint. The aflatoxin-producing fungus,
In broilers, a dose of 1.5 ppm of aflatoxin has been shown to impair bile salt availability, which causes a decrease in the absorption of fat soluble vitamins. In poultry, aflatoxicosis is characterized by restlessness, anorexia with decreased growth rate, poor nutrient utilization, decreased weight gain, decreased egg weight and production, increased susceptibility to environment and microbial stresses, and increased mortality. Post-mortem signs include yellowish caseous and hard nodular deposits in the infected air sacs. Sometimes the air sac lesions are similar to those produced by sinusitic or CRD infections. In some birds, colonies of mould growth can be seen on the air sac membrane (Figure 1).
Providing a diet containing high fat and high protein levels and augmenting the ration with vitamin supplements may be of value in mitigating the effects of
RE | = 1 mg all-trans retinol |
= 6 mg all-trans b-carotene | |
= 12 mg other biologically active carotenoids | |
= 3.33 IU retinol | |
= 10.0 IU carotene |
Vitamin A in food is found as retinol or as carotenes. Retinol is found exclusively in animal foods including eggs, milk, and milk products [18]. With the exception of fowl, meat products, including beef and pork, do not contain significant quantities of preformed vitamin A.
Carotenoids are found primarily in plant foods, whereas meats, fats, and dairy products are reportedly low in carotenoid content [18]. The richest known sources of provitamin A are palm oils. Red palm oil, a common cooking product in West Africa, is usually cited as having the highest concentration of provitamin A activity [19]. Vitamin A in the form of retinoic acid (tretinoin) has been reported to prevent acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL) through the induction of terminal differentiation (anti-cancer), in which the leukaemic promyelocytes lose their ability to proliferate. It has also been reported to stabilize lysosomes, increase ribonucleic acid polymerase activity, increase prostaglandin F2 CAMP, and CGMP levels, and increase the incorporation of thymidine into DNA [18].
In poultry, deficiency of vitamin A is manifested as impaired vision due to hyperkeratinization of the epithelial cells of the eye, drying of the cornea (xerosis) and irreversible drying of the cornea as a result of corneal hyperkeratinization and degeneration leading to blindness (keratomalacia). The impact of vitamin A deficiency on poultry productivity is linked to the use of sight for food seeking and consequently voluntary feed intake, as earlier itemized. Other deficiency symptoms are follicular keratosis observed in ruffled feathers, calcification of kidney lining, decreased bone growth, and central nervous syndrome (CNS) observed as paresis, unstable gait, etc. Deficiency of vitamin A also impacts negatively on poultry immunity by depressing cell-mediated immunity (CMI). In laying hens, early signs of deficiency are noticeable on epithelial tissues. Other consequences include eye conditions (xeropththalmia), predisposition to disease conditions, pale bird syndrome (PBS), renal dysfunction, ocular and nasal discharges, and reduction in egg production. In chicks, symptoms of vitamin A deficiency include post-hatch mortality, ataxia, poor growth and feathering. Vitamin A deficiency in neonate chicks may increase early embryonic mortality and failure to develop a neonate circulatory system [20].
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin, which is needed by the body to form collagen in bones, cartilage, muscle, and blood vessels, and which aids in the absorption of iron. Dietary sources of vitamin C include fruits and vegetables, particularly citrus fruits such as oranges. Epidemiologic evidence suggests a role for vitamin C in hindering the development of cancer and heart disease, as well as a number of other diseases. Studies on CVD risk factors indicate that vitamin C may moderately decrease total serum cholesterol levels, increase HDL levels, and exert a hypotensive effect [21,22]. Chronic latent vitamin C deficiency leads to hypercholesterolaemia and the accumulation of cholesterol in certain tissues. Ascorbic acid supplementation of the diet of hypercholesterolaemic humans and animals generally results in a significant reduction in plasma cholesterol concentration [23]. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy. Although rare, scurvy includes potentially severe consequences and can cause sudden death.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) has been reported as a non-essential nutrient for poultry, since birds are capable of synthesizing enough of the vitamin endogenously. This synthesis is attributed to the endogenous enzyme gulonolactone oxidase [24]. Studies have shown that exogenous ascorbic acid given in feed or drinking water or by injection improved performance of chickens during heat stress [25,26].
In
Feed refusal has also been reported to be a rapid and direct response to the presence of aflatoxin [29]. In an earlier report, contamination of broiler rations with aflatoxin resulted in a drastic reduction in performance both from a growth and a feed-efficiency standpoint [28]. Unfortunately, there is no treatment for aspergillosis once established in the flock. The common practice is to administer antibiotics to prevent secondary infections, while nutrient supplements are given
Bark infusions of shea butter have medicinal and antimicrobial properties, e.g., against dysentery. They are applied in trado-medical practice as eyewash to counteract spitting-cobra venom. Shea butter is a suitable base for many medicines: its application relieves rheumatic and joint pains, and heals wounds, swellings, dermatitis, bruises and other skin problems. It is used traditionally to relieve inflammation of the nostrils. It is also administered to horses for the treatment of sores and galls. Extracts of the bark of
Gallic acid (trihydroxybenzoic acid or 3, 4, 5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) is a biologically active phenolic compound. It has been reported to show antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. It exists as free molecules or as part of tannin. Gallic acid is a trihydroxybenzoic acid, a type of organic acid. It is a colourless, crystalline organic powder. It is found in almost all plants. The chemical formula is C6H2(OH) 3COOH or C7H6O5 and the molecular weight is 170.12. Salts and esters of gallic acid are termed “Galletes”. Despite its name, it does not contain gallium. Gallic acid is commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry. It is used in the synthesis of the psychedelic alkaloid mescaline as a starting material. It is used as a standard for determining the phenolic content of various analytes in the Folin-Ciocalteau assay; results are reported in gallic acid equivalents. It seems to have anti-fungal and anti-viral properties. Gallic acid acts as an antioxidant and it helps to protect human cells against oxidative damage. Gallic acid extracted from grape may also benefit diabetes patients by triggering the release of insulin by the pancreatic cells. It exists in plant material in the form of free acids, esters, catechin derivatives and hydrolysable tannins. This ubiquitous chemical is one of the most biologically active phenolic compounds of plant origin. Antioxidant activity of gallic acid and its derivatives has been reported in several studies. Gallic acid has been shown to possess antimicrobial activity against human pathogens (
The poultry population of Nigeria is estimated at 140 million, the largest in Africa. The poultry industry is a major contributor to the economy. Production intensified steadily at a growth rate of 306.6% between 1999 and 2004 [34]. However, production within this sector is still below resource capacity. It is common to observe that, whereas broilers normally reach market weight at about six weeks in the West, in Nigeria market weights are rarely achieved before 10 weeks in intensive production. Mortality rates on a typical farm may also range between 10-15%, which further reduces farm profits [35]. Myriad factors have contributed to this under-utilization of capacity in this sector, e.g., disease, lack of technological know-how, etc.
Currently, the most common methods of suppressing pathogens in animals have been treatment with antibiotics as a therapeutic agent and use of growth promoters, because these are readily available. However, the use of antibiotics in the treatment of animal disease is currently a subject of public health concern, as the development of resistant strains (superbugs) is a potential danger to humans. Furthermore, some of these antibiotics have recently been found to exhibit neurotoxic effects, while some others cause severe liver damage and bone marrow depression. Antibiotics are used mainly to protect poultry from pathogenic organisms and to enhance their growth and health. However, the emergence of antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria has led to international reconsideration of the use of antibiotics in livestock [36]. Recommendations to ban sub-therapeutic use of antibiotics in animal feeds have been documented. Antibiotic resistance has been displayed by
The use of plants for medicinal purposes predates the introduction of antibiotics and other modern drugs, and there has been renewed interest in natural products from higher plants which contain active ingredients of medicinal value. Scarcity and sale of fake and adulterated pharmaceutical drugs, which has been on the increase especially in the developing world, has made ethnoveterinary approaches even more attractive. The studies presented here present some alternative strategies to manage aspergillosis in poultry.
2. Study 1
2.1. Vitamins and amino acids
Broiler chicks were challenged with
2.2. Materials and methods
Commercial broilers of 120 days of age were used in this study. The chicks were weighed and randomly allotted to five treatment groups with three replicates of 24 chicks each. Birds were housed in an electrically heated metabolic battery cage. Routine management and vaccination procedures were followed. Feed and water were administered
Daily feed intake and feed conversion efficiency were influenced by the treatments (Table 1). The highest feed intake was observed for
The results of this study suggest that dietary vitamins A and C together with an increase in lysine and methionine can enhance the feed intake weight gain and feed conversion efficiency of broiler chickens infected with
|
|
|
|
||
|
42.48a | 20.14a | 2.11b | 63.30a | 73.5a |
|
38.67b | 12.48c | 3.09a | 51.4b | 63.9c |
|
40.97b | 15.88b | 2.58b | 60.6a | 68.9b |
|
39.08b | 15.14b | 2.58b | 53.9b | 66.6b |
|
|||||
|
42.81a | 18.37a | 2.33b | 61.1a | 72.0a |
3. Study 2
3.1. Vitellaria paradoxa
The spore was established by growing a plate of
3.2. Materials and methods
3.2.1. Plant collection
The bark of the shea butter tree (
3.2.2. Source of A. flavus
3.3. Management of birds
Mixed-sex Hubbard broilers of 100 days of age were purchased from a commercial hatchery in Ilorin, Nigeria. The birds were brooded in an electrically heated metabolic cage and thereafter allotted randomly to five different treatments (Table 2). Each treatment was replicated in four pens containing five birds per replicate. The birds were given a basal diet (Table 1) and water
|
|
Maize | 37.0 |
Corn bran | 6.0 |
Groundnut cake | 24.0 |
Soyabean meal | 24.0 |
Fishmeal | 2.6 |
Bone meal | 2.5 |
Oyster shell | 1.5 |
Salt | 0.2 |
*Vitamin/mineral premix | 0.2 |
Total | 100.0 |
|
|
|
|
|
1 | - | - | - | Positive control |
2 | + | - | - | Negative control |
3 | + | - | + | Antifungal |
4 | + | + | - | 5 mg/ml |
5 | + | + | - | 10 mg/ml |
3.4. Inoculation of chick feed with A. flavus spores
At the second week, bird feeds (except the positive control) were inoculated with the spores of
3.5. Data collection
The experiment was conducted over six weeks. Body weights of broilers were determined weekly. Feed consumption and weight gain were recorded and feed conversion ratio (feed intake/weight gain) was calculated. Mortality was recorded daily. During the third week of the eight-week study, protein and fat nutrient retention were carried out for 72 hours.
Nutrient retention was calculated as follows:
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
Av. Body weight gain (g/bird) | 216.10 a | 200.50 b | 154.90c | 198.40b | 200.70b |
Feed intake (g/bird) | 504.40 a | 473.00b | 321.80c | 463.80b | 473.90b |
Feed:gain ratio | 2.3 a | 2.3 a | 2.0b | 2.3 a | 2.3a |
The production parameters average body weight gain, feed intake and feed:gain ratio were enhanced at the various levels of
4. Study 3
4.1. Chloroform and butanol extracts of Vinis vitifera peel
The peeled rinds of
4.2. Materials and methods
4.2.1. Source of Vine Grape
The vine grape used for the experiment is found growing naturally around the Tanke area in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. The fruits were picked carefully, selecting grapes free of physical damage and microbial attack.
4.2.2. Preparation of crude extract of gallic acid
The fruits were peeled to remove the rind from the juicy part. The peels were ground manually using mortar and pestle. About 700 g of the ground peels was weighed into a 5 l container using an electronic balance. Two and half litres of methanol were added to the ground peel and left for 72 h to ferment. The sample was decanted into a flat-bottomed flask and distilled after the third day of fermentation using a water bath. Anti-bombing agent was added to the mixture during distillation to prevent bombing. The concentrate obtained was weighed.
For butanol extraction, a quantity of the concentrate obtained above (about 200 g) was mixed with 250 ml of butanol in a 500 ml conical flask. The mixture was shaken thoroughly manually for one hour and later allowed to settle in a separating funnel. The two liquids’ layers were separated by gently running them off from the separating funnel. The butanol was distilled using a heater. This procedure was repeated for the chloroform extract but distillation was carried out using a water bath as the heating source. Phytochemical screening was carried out on the extracts to determine the presence of tannins, flavonoids and gallic acid.
4.2.3. Test of anti-fungal property of the extracts
The fungal culture used (
4.2.4. Reconstitution of the extract
The crude extracts were diluted with 12 ml of butanol and chloroform to obtain varying concentrations of 50 mg/ml, 100 mg/ml, 150 mg/ml, 200 mg/ml, and 250 mg/ml. These were refrigerated until required for use.
4.2.5. Preparation of PDA and its amendment with the extracts
Thirty-nine [39] grams of PDA powder was dissolved in 1000 ml of sterile distilled water in a conical flask. The suspension was heated to homogenize it and the flask was plugged with cotton wool, wrapped with aluminium foil and autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes. The medium was amended with the extracts at the designated concentrations, i.e., 50 mg/ml, 100 mg/ml, 150 mg/ml, 200 mg/ml and 250 mg/ml. The control treatment was PDA only, without the extract.
4.2.6. Determination of the growth of the test fungus
The test fungus was aseptically introduced into the growth medium in petri dishes (9 cm diameter). The dishes were incubated at ambient temperature for seven days, after which growth was determined by measuring the diameter of the fungus following two perpendicular lines passing through the centre of the dish.
4.2.7. Results
The chloroform extract of
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
Butanol | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 100 |
Chloroform | 10.75 | 8.26 | 6.84 | 16.43 | 14.07 | 8.01 | 26 |
5. Conclusion
Herbs and spices are known to exert antimicrobial actions
The antimicrobial mode of action is considered to arise mainly from the potential of the hydrophobic essential oils to intrude into the bacterial cell membrane, disintegrate membrane structures, and cause ion leakage. High antibacterial activities are reported also from a variety of non-phenolic substances, for example, limonene and compounds from
With the current emphasis on the use of alternatives to chemicals and antibiotics in the treatment of livestock diseases, potent materials of natural origin are becoming attractive. The strategies documented in this paper lend credence to the fact that livestock diseases can be managed in a more robust manner than with non-biodegradable chemicals that are potentially a danger to public health. Generally, vitamins A and C combined with lysine and methionine act as an immune modulator, which can be adapted as an alternative to on-farm use of vaccines in poultry in the management of aspergillosis. Botanicals such as extracts of
References
- 1.
http://www.doctorfungus.org/thefungi/aspergillus_spp.php. Accessed 04/07/2013. - 2.
http://www.aspergillus.org.uk. Accessed 06/08/2013. - 3.
Ananth, SB, Faryd, W. Importance of aflatoxins in human and livestock health’s international crop research institute for the semi-arid Tropics 2000. http: //www. aflatoxin. info /health. Accessed 2/1/2013. - 4.
Msucares.com. Fungal Diseases in Poultry production in Mississippi 2009. http://msucares.com/index.htm. Accessed 25/08/09. - 5.
Ortatatli, M, Oguz, H. Ameliorative effects of dietary clinoptilolite on pathological changes in broiler chickens during aflatoxicosis. Research in Veterinary Science 2001; 71: 59–66. - 6.
Sur, E, Celik, I. Effects of aflatoxin B1 on the development of the bursa of fabricus and blood lymphocyte acid phosphatase of the chicken. Broiler Poultry Science 2001; 44: 558–566. - 7.
Bilgic, HN, Yesildere, T. Renal lesions on experimental aflatoxicosis in chickens. I.U. Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi 1992; 18: 102–108. - 8.
Ortatatli, M, Ciftci, MK, Tuzcu, M, Kaya, A. The effects of aflatoxin on the reproductive system of roosters. Research in Veterinary Science 2002; 72: 29–36. - 9.
Oguz, H, Hadimli, HH, Kurtoglu, V, Erganis, O. Evaluation of humoral immunity of broilers during chronic aflatoxin (50 and 100 ppb) and clinoptilolite exposure. Revue de Medicine Veterinaire 2003; 154: 483–486. - 10.
Celik, I, Oguz, H, Demet, O, Dommez, HH, Boydak, M, Sur, E. Efficacy of polyvinylpolypyrrolydone in reducing the immunotoxicity of aflatoxin in growing broilers. Broiler Poultry Science 2000; 41: 430–439. - 11.
Pardue, SL, Thaxton, JP, Brake, J. Influence of supplemental ascorbic acid on broiler performance following exposure to high environmental temperature. Poultry Science 1985; 64(7): 1334–8. - 12.
Javed, TD, Ombrink-Kurtzman, MA, Richard, JL, Bennet, GA, Cote, LM, Buck, W B. Serohematologic alterations in broiler chicks on feed amended with Fusarium proliferatum culture material or fumonisin B1 and moniliformin. Journal of Veterinary Diagnosis Investigation 2005; 7: 520–526. - 13.
Harris, TM, Stone, MP, Gopalakrishnan, S, Baertschi, SW, Raney, KD, Byrd, S. Aflatoxin B1 epoxides, the ultimate carcinogenic form of Aflatoxin B1: synthesis and reaction with DNA. Toxin Reviews 1989; 8: 111–120. - 14.
Bolu, SA, Olatunde, OA, Ojo, V. Effect of dietary intervention on the performance and biochemical indices of chicken broilers challenged with Aspergillus flavus . Research Opinions in Animal and Veterinary Sciences 2011; 1(5): 292–296. http://www.roavs.com/pdf-files/vol_5_2011/292-296.pdf. Accessed 04/04/2012. - 15.
Reed, JD, Kasali, OB. Hazards to livestock of consuming aflatoxin contaminated meal in Africa. Proceedings of international workshop on aflatoxin contamination in ground nuts, ICRSAT 6–9 Oct. 1987. Pg 7 - 16.
http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.393012.html - 17.
Heinonen, M. Food groups as the source of retinoids, carotenoids and vitamin A in Finland. International Journal of Vitamin Nutrition Research 1991; 61: 3–9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1856042. Retrieved 27/08/2013 - 18.
Cottrell RC. Introduction: nutritional aspects of palm oil. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991; 53: 989S–1009S. - 19.
Bolu, SA. Response of Broilers to Natural vitamin Premix. PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Animal Production, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, 2001. - 20.
Sauberlich HE. Pharmacology of vitamin C. Annual Review of Nutrition 1994; 14: 371–91. - 21.
Lynch SM, Gaziano JM, Frei B. Ascorbic acid and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Subcell. Biochem. 1996; 25: 331–67. - 22.
Turley SD, West CE, Horton BJ. The role of ascorbic acid in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism and in the pathogenesis of artherosclerosis. Artherosclerosis 1976; 24(1-2): 1–18. - 23.
National Research Council (NRC). Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 9th Revised Edition. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press,1994. - 24.
Pardue, SL, Thaxton, JP. Ascorbic acid in poultry: A review. World Poultry Science 1986; 42: 107–123. - 25.
Bolu, SA, Olatunde, OA. Response of broilers to different sources of vitamins. Journal of Agricultural Research and Development 2005; 2: 7–13 - 26.
Mercier, Y, Lebras-Quere, MA, Paugam, M, Geraert, PA. Liquid methionine hydroxyl analog HMTBA as anti fungal activity in in vitro tests. Abstract of Papers 2008; 347: 110–111. - 27.
Mills, JS, Bailery, CA, Huff, WE, Kubena LF, Harvey, RB. The expression of aflatoxicosis in broiler chickens with respect to supplemental dietary lysine and methionine levels. Presented at Poultry Science Meetings, Madison, Wisconsin, July 1989. - 28.
Jewers, K, Coker, RD, Blunden, JG, Mary, J, Angela, J. Problems involved in the determination of aflatoxin levels in bulk commodities. International Bio-deterioration 1986; 22: 83–88. - 29.
www.Poultrysite.com. Accessed 07/04/2013. - 30.
Ahmed RN, Sani, A, Igunnugbemi, OO. Antifungal profiles of extracts of Vitellaria paradoxa (shea butter) bark. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 2009; 13: 679–88 - 31.
Magdalena Karamaæ, Agnieszka Kosiñska, Ronald B. Pegg. Content of gallic acid in selected plant extracts. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences 2006, 55/56 (1): 55–58 - 32.
Daramola KB. Agriculture thesis. Dept. of Animal Production, University of Ilorin, Nigeria (unpublished), 2012. - 33.
GLIPHA. Global Livestock Production and Health Atlas 2007. www.fao.org/ag/glipha/index.jsp. Accessed 29/10/2007. - 34.
Bolu SA, Balogun OO. Effects of improved (addition of antimicrobial and antioxidant) locally produced natural vitamin premix on the performance, nutrient retention and carcass measurements of broilers. Centrepoint 2004; 10: 83–92. - 35.
Bywater, RJ. Identification and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance dissemination in animal production. Poultry Science 2005; 84: 644–648. - 36.
Gustafson, RH, Bowen, RE. Antibiotic use in animal agriculture. Journal of Applied Microbiology 1997; 83: 531–541 - 37.
Casewell M, Phillips I, Friis C. The European ban on growth-promoting antibiotics and emerging consequences for human and animal health, 2007. www.thepoultrysite.com. Feed and nutrition feature articles. Accessed 27/08/07. - 38.
Elbarkouky, EM, Mohammed, FR, Atta, AM, Abu Taleb, El Menawey, MA, Hatab, MH. Effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin C supplementation on performance of broilers subjected to Ochratoxin A contamination. Egyptian Poultry Science, 2010; 30(1): 89–113. - 39.
MVM, Merck Vet Manual, 6th ed. Merck and Co., WC Rehway NJ USA, 1986; 1–9. - 40.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of the AOAC, 13th ed. Assoc. Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, D.C.; 1980. - 41.
Maxwell MH, W. Robertson, S. Spencer and CC Maclorquodale. Comparison of haematological parameters in restricted and ad libitum fed domestic fowls. British Poultry Science 1990; 31: 407–413. - 42.
Steel, RGD. and Torrie, JH. Principles and procedures of statistics: A biometrical approach. 2nd Edition. McGraw Hill Book Co., N.Y., 1980; 27–54. - 43.
Duncan DB. Multiple Range and F-test. Biometrics 1955; 11: 1–42. - 44.
World Climate (2013). http://www.climate-charts.com/Locations/n/NI65101.php. Accessed 10/09/2013. - 45.
Banso A, Ayodele OP. Activities of extracts of Garcina kola againstEscherichia coli andAspergillus niger . Journal of Applied Science and Management 2001; 5: 58–65. - 46.
Ozer NK, Boscoboinik D, Azzi A. New roles of low density lipoprotein and vitamin E in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 1995; 35: 117–24. - 47.
Bedford M. Removal of antibiotic growth promoters from poultry diets: Implications and strategies to minimise subsequent problems. World’s Poultry Science Journal 2000; 56: 347–365. - 48.
Jamroz, D, Werlecki, TJ, Wiliczkiewicz, A and Skorupinska, J. Influence of phytogenetic extracts on gut microbial status in chickens. 14th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition 2003: conference proceedings, August 18-22, 2003, Lillehammer, Norway; p. 176.