History and chronological development of IPM.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\r\n\tNational Instruments’ LabVIEW can be considered as a reference point nowadays for Engineers and Scientists all around the world. Employed as a specific solution and normally coupled with NI-made or third-part hardware, or in conjunction with additional software, there is almost no laboratory or industry, which does not adopt LabVIEW as a standard.
\r\n\tLabVIEW is often erroneously considered as a simple tool to acquire, process and display data. On the contrary, it should be considered for what it really is: an extremely powerful and complete Programming Language. Despite its intuitive interface, LabVIEW needs to be carefully understood and its development techniques must be acquired and well known to develop professional applications, which are robust, readable, scalable and maintainable.
\r\n\tThe present book welcomes topics as: LabVIEW in the Industry, in Automotive and Motion, In Monitoring and Controls, In Modelling and in the Educational Domain. The use of LabVIEW in Automotive as for in the Motion domain in general, underwent a big growth during last years so it is worth to dedicate a special section to this topic. A particular section, furthermore, is devoted to the Monitoring and Control Applications, in which Real-time Applications and FPGA programming, or Applications using the Datalogging and Supervisory Control Module are considered.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-841-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-840-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-842-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44082cb927f5a6fd83b9b071b84d4619",bookSignature:"Prof. Riccardo de Asmundis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10397.jpg",keywords:"#LabVIEW Industry, #LabVIEW Automation, #LabVIEW Automotive, #LabVIEW Motion, #LabVIEW Monitoring, #LabVIEW Control, #LabVIEW Real-time, #LabVIEW Modeling, #LabVIEW Data Analysis, #LabVIEW Graphical Application, #LabVIEW Education, #LabVIEW University",numberOfDownloads:176,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 19th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 18th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 8th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. de Asmundis is a Certified LabVIEW Developer (CLD) and a Certified Professional Instructor (CPI) for the National Instruments Company (Austin, Texas). 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In the past, he taught Computer Architecture, Automatic Measurements and Data Acquisition systems at the Information Technology Department of the University 'Federico II”.\nHe has been a Certified LabVIEW Developer (CLD) and a Certified Professional Instructor (CPI) for the National Instruments Company (Austin, Texas) since 2004, and he is in charge of teaching LabVIEW and Data Acquisition at the National Instruments Italy as a freelancer.\n\nDr. de Asmundis is a member of International collaborations in high-energy physics, previously for the L3 Experiment and currently in the ATLAS Experiment at CERN. He spent several years at CERN, in designing, testing and implementing particle detectors, data acquisition, and monitoring systems. He has been also an expert and responsible for technical infrastructures for detectors and big experimental installations (such as power supply systems for low and high voltage, gas supply systems, even as designer engineer).\n\nHe is currently a member of the Km3NET collaboration, where he carried on research relative to innovative photon detectors of astroparticle physics.\n\nDr. de Asmundis is an author of more than 1060 publications on international reviews in the high-energy physics and technical reviews (Physics Letters B, IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Journal of Instrumentation, National Instruments conference proceedings, etc.). He has been an author of ten presentations in national and international Conferences. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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This large diversity has allowed them to compete with humans effectively since the introduction of agriculture over the last ten millennia [1]. Based on new methods of estimation, there are about 5.5 million species of insects on the earth planet with 1 million identified species, which represent only about 20% of the total estimated number. Previously, the global number of insects was estimated to be 30 million based on host specificity; however, this number seems to be not true [2]. Insects are by far the most successful group of animal on earth and are thus essential component of the ecosystem both economically and ecologically as they make up more than 75% of the world’s animal species. Entomology has tremendously developed in recent years and contributed much in the development of other fundamental biological sciences. Today, many insect species are being used as model organisms to study the genomic and proteomic of many organisms. Invasive insect species such as the red palm weevil (
Well before 2500 B.C., the Sumerians were using sulfur compounds to control insects and mites. By 1200 B.C., the Chinese developed plant-derived insecticides or what is called botanicals today for seed treatment and fumigation uses. They also used chalk and wood ash for prevention and control of both household and stored product pests. In late 1940s, DDT was discovered as a powerful insecticide announcing a new era of pest control [9]. The heavy use of chemical pesticides caused serious environmental problems without achieving final solutions to insect pest problems. These drawbacks of the unwise use of pesticides inspired entomologist to think of integrated pest management (IPM) in 1959 as a new paradigm of insect control [10].
The concept of IPM emerged about 60 years ago when entomologists from California, USA observed that the sole use of chemical pesticides could not be the solution to insect pests’ problem. Insect resistance to organosynthetic insecticides, resurgence of primary pests, upsurges of secondary pests, and environmental pollution initiated the notion of IPM [11]. It has been emphasized that chemical control should be employed to reduce a pest population only when natural controls are inadequate. Intervention to control pest should also be made when populations rise to levels that cause economic damage. Additionally, the cost of control must cover the amount lost due to the pest damage and negative effect on the ecosystem, due to the application of pesticide, and should be to the minimum [12]. The IPM concept has three basic elements:
maintaining insect populations below levels that cause economic damage;
using multiple tactics, in an integrated fashion, to manage insect populations; and
conserving environment quality.
As shown in Table 1, the publication of the book “silent spring” is considered one of the most important events that hastened the perception of IPM as a new paradigm of pest control. The adoption and support given to IPM by the FAO in 1967 is a major factor behind the development of IPM. Additionally, the establishment of Farmers Fields Schools (FFS) in 1989 for rice field in Asia, as extension methods, hastened the adoption and application of IPM at farmer level. Recently, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insect pests.
Date | Event | Reference |
---|---|---|
Late 1940s | The concept of supervised control | [13] |
1959 | The concept of integrated control | [10] |
1961 | The Australian ecologists proposed the term “ | [14] |
1962 | Publication of the book “ | [15] |
1966 | The term “Pest Management” received recognition in USA | [16] |
1967 | The term “Integrated Pest Management” was used by Smith and Van den Bosch | [17] |
1967 | FAO panel of experts accepted the term “Integrated Pest Control” as a synonym for Integrated Pest Management | [18] |
1969 | The US National Academy of Science formally accepted the term Integrated Pest Management | [16] |
1972 | Integrated pest management and its acronym IPM were incorporated into English literature and accepted by the scientific community | [11] |
1972 | The report | [19] |
1988 | Major IP success in rice systems in Indonesia | [8] |
1989 | Farmer Field School (FFS) became a preferred extension methodology for IPM | [20] |
1992 | IPM was recommended for pest management under Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development | [21] |
1993–2000 | IPM initiative of the Clinton Administration | [22] |
2011 | IPM programs are operational in more than 60 developing and developed countries | [23] |
2011 | IPM adopted as a policy within sustainable use of pesticides Directive 91/414/EEC in the form of regulation (EC Regulation 1107/2009), which came into force in June 2011 | [12] |
2014 | The EU Frame work Directive on sustainable use of pesticides (Directive 2009/128/EC) requires that all EU Member States develop a National Action Plan, which ensures that asset of eight general principles of IPM are implemented by all professional pesticide users starting from January 1, 2014 | [24] |
History and chronological development of IPM.
The integrated pest management is now the ideal system for protection of agricultural crops, domestic animals, stored products, public health, and the structure of human dwellings against the attack of arthropod pests, plant and animal diseases, and weeds [1, 11, 25].
Between 1959 and 2000, 67 definitions of IPM appeared in the literature, most of them included using natural or ecologically sound principles or techniques, preventing pests from reaching the economically damaging levels, and using multiple tactics such as cultural, biological, and chemical. The expression economics, environment, pest populations, and pest control appeared in these definitions of IPM with frequencies of 53.8, 48.1, 40.4, and 38.3%, respectively [25]. All IPM definitions include the following: (i) the appropriate selection of pest control methods and decision rules for selection, (ii) economic benefits to growers and society, (iii) the benefits to the environment, and (iv) considering the impact of pest complex [10, 11, 18, 24].
IPM has three main objectives: first, maintaining a balanced sustainable ecosystem and a healthy environment by reducing the use of pesticides and their negative impacts; second, saving money by reducing chemical pesticides inputs, crop losses due to insect damage and eventually by reducing the pest management cost; and third, protecting human and animal health by providing food and feed that is free of pesticide residues [26].
According to the EU Framework Directive 2009/128/EC, there are eight principles of IPM that should be strictly followed by all members of the European Union starting from January 2014 [15]. Barzman et al. [27] described these principles as follows:
The first line of defense in IPM is to prevent and suppress insect pest population through nonchemical methods such as cultural practices, use of resistant varieties, proper irrigation and fertilization, and natural enemies.
Continuous surveillance and monitoring of insect pests population is essential for assessment of damage and for determining the needs for actions to be taken.
Management decisions should be based on monitoring and population levels of insect pests, as well as reliable thresholds.
Sustainable biological, physical, and other nonchemical methods must be preferred to chemical methods if they provide satisfactory pest control.
Selective pesticides, which have minor negative impacts on human health and beneficial insects, shall be used only when needed.
Pesticide use should be kept to the minimum through reduction of doses and application frequency without encouraging resistance development in pest populations.
Pesticide resistance in insect should be managed carefully using strategies such as application of pesticides with different modes of action.
The success of control tactics must be measured using indicators based on monitoring of harmful organisms, beneficials, pesticide use, and impact on the environment.
The economic threshold and the economic injury level.
Identification of pest is essential to gather information about its biology, ecology, and behavior and monitoring population levels. Monitoring includes various activities and procedures that detect and document the presence, growth, and population development or populations levels of an organism. Monitoring is the key to a successful IPM program. Adequate monitoring tools should include trappings using pheromones and light traps, observations in the field as well as scientifically sound warning, forecasting, and early diagnosis systems [27]. Advantages of pest monitoring include early warnings, detection of presence and distribution of pests and their natural enemies, study the impact of weather and other environmental factor on pest/beneficial populations, provision of historical record of the farm, and evaluation of control programs [30]. Visual counts, sweep nets, drop sheets, and vacuum pumps are also useful tools in sampling of field insects.
El-Shafie and Faleiro [31] gave comprehensive accounts on the use of semiochemicals in monitoring and mass trapping of insects. Operational monitoring program is used in IPM to evaluate field situation and should be simple, quick, cost-effective, and adaptable to farmers [30]. There are four methods of sampling insect in the field: random sampling, point sampling, trap sampling, and sequential sampling. More details on sampling of insect pests are given by Flint and van den Bosch [30].
Pheromone-baited traps are commonly used for population monitoring and for mass trapping because they have the following advantages:
pheromones are species specific and are, thus, easy to use by untrained people;
they function at both small and large pest populations;
suitable for early detection and delimitation of infestation by invasive pests;
can be used in estimation of population size and determination of number of generations; and
provide efficient and cheap alternatives to the laborious field scouting.
All of the above make the pheromone-baited traps a useful tool in integrated pest management (IPM) decision-making [32].
In situation where the economic injury level for an insect species is above its equilibrium position (Figure 2), the insect is not considered a pest and no decision is needed to control it. However, when the economic injury level is well below the equilibrium position, the insect requires continuous management intervention [33].
Equilibrium point is well below the economic injury level. Control action is not needed (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [
Sometimes, the population of the insect pest may reach the economic injury level, even if the equilibrium is well below the economic injury level. In such case, the decision of intervention to control the pest is need to be taken (Figure 3). For mathematical calculations of ET and EIL, see Pedigo et al. [34].
Equilibrium is below EIL; however, the pest population may reach the ET, and intervention is needed to prevent it from reaching EIT (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [
The more that you know about a pest, the easier and more successful pest management becomes. Once you have identified a pest, you can access information about its life cycle and behavior, the factors that favor development, and the recommended control procedures. Following identification of an insect pest is monitoring to determine the pest status. If there is a need to control the pest, based on monitoring, then you develop a management program followed by implementation and evaluation as illustrated in Figure 4.
Components of IPM program.
IPM methods include both chemical and nonchemical means to prevent and control pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. These prevention and control tactics include biological, mechanical, cultural, physical, genetic, chemical, and regulatory methods. The method to be chosen for IPM depends on many factors, the important of which are nature of target pest, the environment, and economic aspect of the management. Selection of control method should be based on effectiveness and evaluation of any risk that might occur during application of the method.
Cultural control in cultivated crops include resistant plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, and trap crops. The aim of good cultural practices is to provide congenial environment for the crop while making it unfavorable for pests’ development. Thus, cultural control prevents the build-up and outbreaks of pests [28]. Additionally, cultural practices are useful in conservation of beneficial insects, and accordingly, they are essential and effective component of IPM. Tillage practices can destroy pests and their different developmental stages by mechanical injury, desiccation, and exposure to predators and environmental factors [33]. Phytosanitation through collection and removal of crop remains removes many diapausing larvae, eggs, and pathogens. Eradication of infested date palm is a good practice to reduce infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm plantation [3]. Host plant resistance is compatible with other IPM tactics and can provide reasonable degree of protection to plants without causing negative effects on the environment [8].
This strategy is based on intercropping, which fit well under cultural practices section. Simultaneously, it is also based on semiochemicals particularly allomones and kairomones [35]. The pests are repelled or deterred away from a plant (push) through allomones that can be repellents or deterrents and are simultaneously attracted (pull) by kairomones to trap crops where they can be killed or removed [35] (Figure 5).
Push-pull strategy.
Plants which are effective, so far, in the push-pull tactics include Napier grass (
Mechanical and physical controls prevent pests form accessing their resources by making the environment unsuitable for them. They also negatively affect important biological parameters of pests such as feeding, reproduction, dispersal, and survival. Physical control methods may include heat and steam sterilization of soil, which are commonly used in the management of greenhouse insect pests. Insect pests can be excluded from plants by using screens, barriers, fences, and nets, as well as light trapping (Figure 6). Mechanical and physical controls are carried out purposely for pest control, which differentiate them from cultural practices [28].
Solar-powered insect light trap.
Biological control is defined as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens on a host or prey population, which produces a lower general equilibrium, position than would prevail in the absence of these agents [10]. A good biological control agent should be characterized by the following traits: specialization on the host, compatible with other natural enemies, capable of rapid reproduction, adapted to the environment where the host exists, and efficient in finding prey at low densities. There are three major types of augmented biological control: classical, inoculative, and inundative. These are distinguished by the input needed to create a balance between the pest and natural enemy populations. These three categories are defined as follows:
Control of cottony cushion scale (
Manipulations of insect reproductive systems techniques such as sterilized insect technique (SIT) and incompatible insect technique (IIT) provide innovative and environmental-friendly methods for IPM. These techniques are considered as part of the biological control and thus are discussed in this section (Figure 7).
Techniques of manipulating sexual reproduction of insect pests for their management (modified after Harari et al. [
The SIT involves the mass release of sterilized males, which mate with wild females. Sterilization of males using ionizing radiation causes dominant lethal mutation in the sperm. The mating of sterile males with wild females results in zero offspring. The sterile insect technique (SIT) has been successfully used for the management of some major insect pests [5]. According to Barnes et al. [40], successful application of SIT depends on the following factors:
the target insect pest should be characterized by low population levels;
knowledge on the bionomics and genetic of target insect pest;
the availability of techniques for mass rearing, releasing, and monitoring of large numbers of viable sterile insects;
the release of sterile insects over a wide area to cover the whole population; and
the released sterile insects should not be harmful or harmless to humans and the environment.
Another radiation technique is partial male sterility technique (IS), which is used mainly for lepidopterans because full sterilization affects their performance under field conditions. The mating of partially sterilized males with wild females results in sterile male-biased offspring [41].
Both SIT and IIT can be combined together, and they are compatible with conventional biological control using parasitoid, predators, and pathogens. SIT allows both sexes to be released, while in case of IIT, only males should be released. The release of
Pesticides should only be used when necessary to keep pest populations below that cause economic damage. Selective pesticides, which have the least negative effects on the environment, should be used according to principles 5, 6, and 7 of IPM. Botanicals and microbial (biorational) pesticides should be given priority in selection. The efficacy of these biorational pesticides may be increased when applied together [27]. A variety of selected pesticides must be applied precisely in the field and at right doses to prevent the development of insects’ resistance [26].
The integration of a number of different control tactics into IPM systems can be done in ways that greatly facilitate the achievement of the goals either of field-by-field pest management, or of area-wide (AW) pest management, which is the management of the total pest population within a delimited area [1]. Knipling [45] used simple population models to demonstrate that small insect pest population left without management can compromise the efforts of containment of pest population in a large area. AW-IPM programs should be coordinated by organizations rather than by individual farmers to insure full participation in the program [46]. Pheromone-based control tactics including mass capturing of using pheromone traps (Figure 8) proved to be effective against a variety of insect pests in area-wide IPM programs. The pests’ behavior and ecology including their natural enemies should be considered when planning future AW-IPM programs [32].
Pheromone-baited trap for monitoring and mass trapping of red palm weevil.
Successful IPM depends mainly on basic research on ecosystem and the understanding of interactions among hosts, pests, and their natural enemies [11]. The following steps should be taken before implementing an IPM program:
identify the pest;
specify the goal of the program;
set up a monitoring program;
know the pest level that triggers control;
know what control methods are available; and
evaluate the benefits and risks of each method.
The socioeconomic factor is important in the implementation of IPM. For example, the decision to include a new variety resistant to insects may also depend on the market value of that variety. A suitable extension methodology such as Farmer Field School (FFS) can help disseminate the IPM among farmers. Preparation of guidelines that include the principles of IPM for different crops is essential during the implementation phase. Moreover, the continuous evaluation of IPM programs provides feedback for future adjustment and improvement [27].
It is extremely important to record and evaluate the results of your control efforts. Some control methods, especially nonchemical procedures, are slow to yield measurable results. Other methods may be ineffective or even damaging to the target crop, animal, treated surface, or natural predators and parasites. Pesticide use by volume, pesticide use by treatment frequency index, reduction in use of more toxic pesticides, and environmental impact quotient have been used as IPM impact evaluation indicators [22].
Since 1959, no major departures from the basic notion of IPM have occurred [11]. In the future, major advances in IPM are expected in decision-making techniques as well as tactical options for control methods. Combination of technologies and tools, simulation, modeling, BD, remote sensing data, Geographical Information System (GIS), Automatic Weather Stations (AWS), and internet of things (IoTs) can be used to promote the implementation of IPM. New generation of GPS, sensors-fitted farm equipment, e-tablets, and mobile applications (
Due to its importance, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insects and other pests. Manipulating reproduction of insect pests with pheromones, irradiations,
Since 1950 the world’s urban population has grown from 746 million to 3.9 billion in 2014 [1]. In the global South, most cities, particularly the metropolitan areas are rapidly expanding into large urban and suburban agglomerations, with so called “in-between cities,” where some of the rural characteristics are still mixed into the urban fabric. Cities attract people for many reasons, and most often unemployment and the prospect of a better life with improved and safer living conditions is the key driver to urban growth. Migration, particularly from rural to urban, but also different forms of population movement from other cities, regions and even from other countries are responsible for rapidly changing the urban population [2]. In some parts of the world natural population increase is still on the rise and coupled with higher average life expectancies, population sizes are still becoming bigger. This dynamic urban growth can generate significant stress on city administrations who need to provide the necessary basic infrastructure and public services to expanding neighborhoods and new settlements. As a result of the incapacity to provide these, part of the population lives in extreme poverty and under critically neglected living conditions, often causing sever health challenges to their families and surrounding community [3].
This chapter draws on many years of research and outreach experience with informal and organized waste pickers in different cities of the world. I have learned through participatory action research lenses and in community based research approaches focusing on everyday praxis in the city in the global South, with a particular eye on waste. This reseach practice uncovers post-colonial contexts of waste and value, including gender, class and race perspectives, urban transformation and infrastructure impacts or related challenges in the global South. I am informed by feminist theory, which uncovers power relations and embraces the concepts of equality and equity as crucial in the outcomes of urban development. The research seeks to empower vulnerable populations and value their knowledge grounded in everyday experiences and takes into consideration masculinist power and representation. I acknowledge that the local expertise and understanding cannot be fully realized from the outside [4]. Political Ecology is relevant to urban analysis, because it is inclusive of these multiple layers and actors that shape urban landscapes over time.
Section 1 of the chapter introduces the concept global South and the Urban Political Ecology (UPE) framework. Then, in Section 2 I provide a brief contextualization of waste management in urban agglomerations in the global South, in terms of characteristics of waste and prevailing forms of dealing with waste. I present some of the current social and environmental challenges linked to waste. Section 3 presents the idea of social grassroots innovations, coming from waste pickers. The UPE lens situated in the global South context looks at household waste and some of the grassroots actors, the processes and transformative practices they bring to waste management. There are concrete livelihood opportunities attached to collecting, separating, trading, adding value, and in performing environmental education and technical training in waste management. The final Section 4, highlights some of the insights gained from waste pickers and their organizations that contribute to a place-based understanding of working with waste, grounded in their concrete experiences. The key recommendation in this chapter underlines the important role of public policies in stimulating grassroots development and to address the serious challenges waste and disposal pose in urban agglomerations.
The global South is a spatial and historical concept used to facilitate the understanding of commonalities and differences between countries. However, as a category of places, there is the risk of presenting a rather dualist perspective on development, opposing the South with the North, or even interpreting the term as geographic location, which of course is not the objective. The term recognizes the shared characteristics related to the historical processes experienced under colonialism and imperialism, which have strongly shaped their economies and cultures. The term recognizes situated differences in the multi-scalar processes and transformative practices observed among countries, regions and places. Global South is a term that provides a telling difference from countries we call the global North. Yet, the lived experiences in these locations (both in the North and in the South) are multiple, temporal and place specific. Cities differ immensely from each other and cannot be put together under the same banner. Therefore, a dichotomous division between two worlds would not be tenable empirically and also not desirable politically. It is a contested term, but yet it helps us grasp common causes and consequences of unequal power relations, manifested in everyday urban politics with high levels of inequality and persistent poverty.
Conceptualizing the global South brings to life the specific historical social, economic and political processes unfolding, that find their epicenter in urban experiences in the global South. The bulk of urban growth is now happening in that part of the world and we see urban imaginations, based on processes that are primarily taking place in the global North shifting to patterns that evolve from the global South, as becoming more relevant [5, 6].
With urban growth consumption rates are also on the rise globally. Worldwide cities generate over 720 billion tons of wastes every year [3]. In cities people mostly rely on industrialized and heavily packaged food, significantly adding to the quantity of household waste generated every day. Waste is not yet perceived as a critical challenge, as a socio-ecological issue of highest priority to city administrators nor to the community, and waste is treated mostly with “end of pipe” measures, rather than pro-actively curbing generation and discard of waste, thus reducing the use of virgin resources and stimulating circular resources flows. Yet, in many cities waste is an obvious and visible problem, with uncollected waste amounting in public space, affecting the water quality and environmental health in the city. Waste collection services are often unequally provided within cities, with observable patterns of social and environmental injustices related to waste accumulation and availability of waste infrastructure and services. Those services that are provided usually focus primarily on collection and disposal [3].
UPE sees urbanization as a political process of socio-ecological change, which can also be studied as a process of socio-metabolic transformations [9]. The metaphor of
How is it, that certain values prevail, whereas others are undermined, and, how do these “value regimes” [12] operate in different ontological, cultural, material, and political settings? Urban metabolism analysis studies the entry, transformation and storage of materials and energy and the discharge of any kind of waste and unwanted products. Here, infrastructures and services play crucial roles in maintaining cities and providing for the residents. Cities surely are complex systems. With a dynamic and cyclical perspective applied to planning and development, this approach shows where cities are not livable, are unhealthy and unsustainable or are unjust and inequitable [13].
The UPE focus directs attention to social power relationships and how these produce historically specific social and physical natures. Related to waste management different actors, with more or less levels of inclusion and power can be mapped. The scope of those dealing with waste is wide, ranging from small to large and even multinational contractors, government officials, recycling businesses, middlemen (scrap dealers), organized recycling cooperatives and associations to informal waste pickers. In addition, there are the everyday experiences with waste of ordinary people, governmental and non-governmental actors, contractors, developers, and so on. What are the values embedded in the roles played by the diverse institutions and actors? Where do they locate and where do they position themselves, in the local and global processes of treating, sorting, trading, and recycling waste? There are apparent and hidden social justice issues related to control, ownership, and appropriation of waste management resources and technologies. As already hinted, there are uneven geographical processes at play, inherent to the production of urban environments. In the formal part of the city waste is regularly collected, while in the informal neighborhoods these services are neglected. Sometimes the infrastructure and service gap is filled by grassroots initiatives. The following section will describe some of the key challenges city dwellers in the global South are currently facing.
Waste constitutes a key developmental and environmental issue. It is an almost unavoidable consequence of human activity. Today humans generate more waste than ever before, not only because of dramatic population increase over the past centuries, but also because of the changed nature of consumption and the different composition of solid waste. A shift toward waste minimization and away from depositing it at landfills is important. Per capita consumption of packaged goods and consumer products has skyrocketed after World War II, with the rapidly expanding adoption of growth and consumption oriented economic development. This is when material consumption gained momentum on a global scale [14]. Waste in the city is a transversal theme; it affects water quality, causes flooding (e.g., urban storm waterlogging due to trapped waste in water drainages), generates public health issues by hosting disease vectors, affects the perception of public space (e.g., as a space of neglect and lack of citizenship) and furthers the sense of exclusion. But waste also has other social, economic and environmental facets, which will be discussed further on.
Post-consumer waste generation has more than doubled worldwide, between 1971 and 2002. In the global South, growth in municipal solid waste generation has become exponential from the 1980s onwards, and it continues to steadily grow in most of the global North, except for Central and Eastern European countries and the Former Soviet Union [15]. While Western Europe and North America on average already experienced municipal solid waste (MSW) rates between 1.4 and 1.8 kg/capita/day over the past decade, the population in many large cities in the global South is now also reaching values between 1 and 1.4 kg/capita/day [16]. The urban lifestyle contributes to higher waste generation not only in people’s homes but also outside. Particularly the food service industry thrives on disposables. Today, people consume more in the streets and their consumption leaves more disposable waste in public waste bins. In 2012, urban residents globally generated about 1.2 kg/capita/day of MSW, compared to 0.64 kg in 2002 [17]. In Brazil, the average daily quantity of MSW generated per person is currently about 1.1 kg. For major cities in Africa MSW generation is estimated to range from 0.3 to 1.4 kg/capita/day [18]. Differences in waste generation can be large, as demonstrated by data for Bamenda and Yaounde (the capital) in Cameroon, which generate 0.5 and 0.8 kg/capita/day, respectively [18]. Population size and growth rates are important factors that influence municipal solid waste management. There is a positive correlation between population size and both, the rate of waste produced and the percentage of households enjoying regular waste collection. Yet, it is clear that rapidly growing cities have a hard time in providing consistent waste collection services.
Under the current era, industrial production of consumer goods is characterized by a reduction in product life spans, growing product variety, material component diversity, and increased packaging. All these characteristics are drivers for increased use of natural resources and are responsible for generating waste and producing water, soil and air contaminants. The rise in solid waste is linked to increased levels of urbanization and wealth. Between 1997 and 2007, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in India has increased by 7%, while estimates indicate a rise in municipal solid waste over these 10 years by 45%, from a total of 48 million to 70 million tons [19]. The figures for Brazil demonstrate a similar correlation between wealth and solid waste generation. From 2009 to 2010, GDP rose by 7.5%, while MSW increased by 6.8%. In the following year, GDP slowed down with an increase of 2.7%, and MSW generation increased only by 1.8% [20].
Population growth comes with an increase in consumption and waste. More affluent segments of the population consume more and generally their consumption also produces a larger environmental impact. China, India and Brazil alone have added another 509 million new consumers between 1990 and 2000, with an average purchasing power of 839 billion US$ [21]. These “new consumers” are defined as
Waste composition reflects cultural and technological trends and varies greatly between different continents and regions over time. There are many technical aspects involved in creating more sustainable and equitable waste management services. While ashes from heating and cooking, e.g., were reported as large components of household waste in North America until the middle of the last century, plastic appears only since the 1970s as a separately recorded substance [23]. Urban waste in the global North currently contains more recyclable goods and electronics, while municipal waste in the global South still has a larger biodegradable fraction and less recyclable material content. Often these valuable materials have already been reclaimed by the household or by informal recyclers for reuse or trading.
In African cities, the organic content of household waste is still much higher and tops 70% [18]. The household waste composition in Brazil is still typical for the global South, with large fractions of organic (51.4%) and recyclable (31.9%) materials (metals, paper and cardboard, plastics, and glass), and a small proportion classified as other materials (16.7%) [24]. Yet, here the amount of electronic waste is quickly growing, increasing the demand for E-waste recycling.
Most municipal solid waste generated worldwide is still deposited at landfills and waste dumps (70%), while 19% is officially recycled or treated by mechanical or biological treatments and a small proportion is incinerated (11%) [25]. Landfill technologies differ from open dumping to sanitary landfills, with methane capturing. The burning of waste is common, particularly in and around informal settlements and in rural areas. Although worldwide many countries are upgrading their landfills to sanitary landfills, as has happened, for example, in South Africa, Uganda, Ghana and Egypt a decade ago, at the time raised the concern that most landfills in Africa are
Some cities in the global South also adopt expensive waste management models, e.g., mechanized separation systems for recycling or high tech
Informal collection of recyclable and reusable materials is widespread in the global South and significant amounts are recovered. At the same time formal recycling programs are still rare and are most often insignificant in terms of the percentage of recovered materials. There are environmental (and health) impacts as well as benefits of various degrees involved in the act of informally collecting, separating, redirecting and recycling materials contained in waste. Organized door-to-door selective collection of recyclable materials, in particular, embodies opportunities for environmental education in the community; helping shift attitudes and values away from current wasteful consumption patterns and habits, toward reuse and informed, educated consumption and disposal.
In the case of Brazil, 80% of the country’s household waste is regularly collected, and the primary final destination for it is sanitary landfills (58.1%) and controlled landfills (24.2%). The rest gets deposited at unprotected waste dumps (17.7%) [24]. In 2016, only 927 municipalities (17%) in Brazil had some sort of official selective waste collection in place [26]. As in most countries in the global South, selective waste collection happens primarily through informal waste collectors. They have historically been stigmatized and denied epistemic agency. It is crucial that research interrogates how shifts in the waste and recycling systems can change how society perceives waste pickers and also how waste pickers construct themselves and their praxis, in order to build up an efficient and inclusive waste management system.
Landfills are still necessary, but when uncontrolled they are a source for environmental impacts on soil, water and air. They are located close to urban agglomerations, sometimes competing with environmentally protected areas. Landfills and dumps generate significant greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily methane (5–10% of global methane is emitted by landfills) and carbon dioxide, as microbial communities decompose the organic matter contained in the waste [27]. Converting open dumping and burning to sanitary landfills implies
Mismanaged and uncollected waste is a public health hazard. Abandoned waste attracts disease vectors (including rats, mosquitoes) and if carried into waterways leads to storm waterlogging, causing inundations [28] and consequent public health hazards. When burned, a number of toxic substances are emitted, impacting local neighborhoods.
Waste incineration (including
Morris [31] argues that recycling mixed solid waste saves more energy than generated by
Another urban environmental issue relates to the fact that waste and recyclable materials often travel long distances. De-regulation and globalization re-shape the movements of these materials. Transportation uses energy and adds to air pollution, traffic and noise in large urban agglomerations. Worldwide, half of all plastics, paper and scrap metals are exported to South East Asia. China is leading dealing with recyclable material, with importing over 7.4 million tons of plastic waste, 28 million tons of waste paper and 5.8 million tons of steel scrap; mostly treated in backyard shops or small-scale industries [25]. More recently, particularly the transcontinental shipping of electrical and electronic equipment waste (WEEE) has become a serious challenge, especially as it is shipped to global South cities. 70% of the global WEEE ends up in Chinese cities [33]. While the rough dismantling of E-waste (recovering plastics, copper and other metals, etc.) happens in the global South, reclaiming the high value components (rare earths) happens in the global North, who is in possession of the specific recycling technology. Waste trafficking is often illegal and
The bulk of material recovery in the global South is informal, grassroots and involves a wide spectrum of domestic reuse of bottles, cans, plastics, paper, cardboard and many other discarded materials. Yet, its role is largely unrecognized in waste management and by city authorities. In Delhi, India 15–20% of the MSW (daily 1,275 to 1,700 tons) is collected by informal recyclers. The waste pickers also redirect 200 tons per day of separated organic material to a large-scale composting plant. They collect organic waste from households in the affluent neighborhoods, where they compost it in a series of community composting pits [35]. Often, the lack of local markets for recyclables is still a prevailing limitation for the recycling activity to further flourish [18].
A well-known example for informal grassroots recycling is the work of the
The study by GIZ/CWG has translated the environmental benefits associated with informal material recovery as reduced negative externality costs, expressed in Euros. According to their studies the informal recyclers generate 97.6% of these externality costs in the case of Lima, Peru and 83.4% in Cairo, Egypt [38], p. 21. There is evidence in most big cities that informal workers perform a service that saves city expenditures.
Innovations in waste management from the grassroots level bring many social and environmental benefits that tackle the UN sustainable development target # 11.6,
Several questions remain prominent for a paradigm shift in waste management. One of these questions is how we can get the true recognition for the creation of jobs and improvement of livelihoods from informal and organized recycling. Particularly organized waste pickers are a grassroots source of innovation.
Another question addresses how we can stimulate behavioral change toward prevention, reuse and recycling. Informal sector recycler are those individuals or enterprises that are involved in private sector recycling and waste management activities which are not sponsored, financed, recognized, supported, organized or acknowledged by the formal solid waste authorities, or which operate in violation of or in competition with formal authorities [40]. Waste pickers are carriers of grassroots innovations and have many lessons to share that can help improve municipal waste management systems. In many countries waste pickers have organized in cooperatives, associations, networks or social movements.
Amid the pressures of climate change, population growth, industrialization and urbanization, one of the major challenges faced in global communities is the sustainable and equitable access to infrastructures, services and resources. There is usually a complex network of actors in waste governance, including residents, waste pickers, waste managers, engineers, bureaucrats, consultants, businesses, but also activists, journalists and scientists. These actors often do not agree on how waste related problems are defined or get solved, nor do all of these actors unanimously recognize that different sources of knowledge are needed to solve these problems. There might even be divergence on what type of knowledge to use, how it is produced and communicated across different societal sectors and actors.
People’s relationships to waste and the meanings attributed to waste reveal about culture and society. In order to achieve a fundamental shift in how we see, generate and manage material waste we need to involve other stakeholders and their knowledge. Waste pickers contribute to developing, understanding and solving waste management problems. Innovative governance models can potentially emerge from a dialog with organized waste pickers creating collaborative relationships in providing waste services. Transdisciplinary understanding of waste encompasses this collective approach, bringing together the formal and non-formal actors for creation, communication and use of waste-related knowledge.
In this chapter, I have provided diverse examples for informal recycling activities, highlighted within different situated contexts.
Social aspects of waste management, or the socio-economic advantages of recycling, as highlighted by [44, 45, 46], are not yet widely recognized and comprehensive social indicators demonstrating the social contributions of organizing waste pickers are yet to be developed, in order to be able to clearly measure the benefits deriving from that work to society. From practice, we know that inclusive waste management generates positive contributions to democracy. During the negotiation process between recycling cooperative and local government for waste management service contacts, e.g., waste pickers as citizens affirm their rights to have a voice and to participate in these decisions, thus strengthening democracy. Waste governance decisions can also undermine democratic relations between citizens and the state and even further deepen inequality and poverty. In contrast, good waste governance embraces the following building blocks, as shown in Figure 1.
Major components of good waste governance.
Waste constitutes a major challenge to city administrators and urban populations at large. However, waste is not perceived as an “issue” yet. Waste is treated through the engineering lens rather than from an interdisciplinary perspective. We need to move beyond seeing waste as a merely technical issue and move towards a complex socio-environmental-technical understanding of waste. Learning from the praxis of a wider range of stakeholders (including waste pickers, elected officials, waste managers, private companies and middlemen or scrap dealers) is critical to either facilitating or hindering transformations in the waste and recycling systems.
Urban communities have a say in what happens to their waste and who has access to waste. They must have a say in the decision-making whether to invest in expensive waste management technology, without prioritizing job creation or whether to support labor intensive, inclusive forms of waste management and resource reclamation. Cities can promote a shift towards waste minimization and resource recovery. Waste governance decisions need to also be based on “good governance” principles, including democracy and consensus orientation, participation, accountability, transparency, responsiveness, equity and inclusiveness, be effective and efficient and following the rule of law [1]. These guiding principles should also be applied to waste governance and specifically applied in waste management.
When it comes to deciding over which waste management process and technology to favor and the design of specific policies, the following questions are relevant for local governments.
(1) Who should be involved in policy and decision-making (key stakeholder, e.g., waste picker organizations, local business associations, educational sector, NGOs, experts)?
Participation is not without challenge and stakeholders have to ask what is their mandate? What are the local political realities? What is the available budget? What are the priorities within the city? and so on.
(2) What technology is most appropriate in terms of:
environmental concerns (air pollution, water and soil contamination)
poverty reduction and employment generation
economic sustainability (cost – benefit, short to long term)
environmental sustainability (resource savings and reclamation, reduction in GHG emissions, etc.)
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), solid waste and its management are considered key contributors to climate change. Greenhouse gases are emitted or avoided in the upstream and downstream stages in the life cycle of municipal solid waste management systems [47]. Upstream emissions can be avoided when recycled resources replace virgin resources in the fabrication of metal, glass, plastic and paper products. In addition, landfill gas (CH4) and deforestation represent other upstream impacts that are reduced with recycling [48, 49, 50, 51]. Fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions are of course also associated with recycling operations, as energy and some virgin resources are consumed during the collection and transportation of materials, processing, and re-manufacturing [52]. With recycling, however, both methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are avoided through the diversion of resources from landfills, through resource recovery and recycling of paper, cardboards and other biodegradable material [47, 53], and through reducing the amount of waste to be deposited at landfills.
Research underlines the need to redefine clean development mechanisms (CDMs) to allow for the recognition of resource recovery for reuse and recycling as measures to reduce GHG emissions, save natural resources and energy [54]. Recycling has not yet been considered a CDM, while
There are challenges and limitations related to recycling (down-cycling, up-cycling) which governments should discuss and act on. There are often not enough down-cycling alternatives for many waste materials and waste flows. Here too, cities can become drivers for innovative forms of reuse and recycling. Not to forget is the fact that collection, transportation and processing of waste and recyclables also generate fossil-derived carbon dioxide and other pollutants from the fuel used in transportation, and therefore also needs to enter the equation.
Millions of informal waste pickers collect household waste daily in cities around the globe to earn a living. In doing so they contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of cities, recover resources, improve the environmental conditions and health in the city. The research discussed in this chapter points towards a radical economic and social shift away from growth centered urban development and
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\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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