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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\r\n\r\n\tThis book will thus aim to include information on AMPs and their targets and mechanisms of action.
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Van Dam, Luc Y. Dirix, Steven J. van Laere and Wiebren A. A. Tjalma",authors:[{id:"67020",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Van Laere",fullName:"Steven Van Laere",slug:"steven-van-laere"},{id:"71026",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Van Dam",fullName:"Peter Van Dam",slug:"peter-van-dam"},{id:"78385",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuan Bich",middleName:null,surname:"Trinh",fullName:"Xuan Bich Trinh",slug:"xuan-bich-trinh"},{id:"78387",title:"Prof.",name:"Wiebren",middleName:null,surname:"Tjalma",fullName:"Wiebren Tjalma",slug:"wiebren-tjalma"},{id:"78389",title:"Dr.",name:"Luc",middleName:null,surname:"Dirix",fullName:"Luc Dirix",slug:"luc-dirix"}]},{id:"28399",title:"Dysregulated TGFB Signaling in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"dysregulated-tgfb-signaling-in-ovarian-cancer",signatures:"Kyle Bauckman, Christie Campla and Meera Nanjundan",authors:[{id:"70267",title:"Dr.",name:"Meera",middleName:null,surname:"Nanjundan",fullName:"Meera Nanjundan",slug:"meera-nanjundan"},{id:"81979",title:"Mr.",name:"Kyle",middleName:null,surname:"Bauckman",fullName:"Kyle Bauckman",slug:"kyle-bauckman"},{id:"120547",title:"Ms.",name:"Christie",middleName:"Kay",surname:"Campla",fullName:"Christie Campla",slug:"christie-campla"}]},{id:"28400",title:"New Tumor Biomarkers in Ovarian Cancer and Its Prognostic and Clinical Relevance",slug:"new-tumor-biomarkers-in-ovarian-cancer-and-its-prognostic-and-clinical-relevance",signatures:"Malgorzata Banys, Natalia Krawczyk and Tanja Fehm",authors:[{id:"70373",title:"Prof.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Fehm",fullName:"Tanja Fehm",slug:"tanja-fehm"},{id:"121106",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",middleName:null,surname:"Banys",fullName:"Maggie Banys",slug:"maggie-banys"}]},{id:"28401",title:"Sensitive Detection of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Biomarkers Using Tag-Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy",slug:"sensitive-detection-of-epithelial-ovarian-cancer-biomarkers-using-tag-laser-induced-breakdown-spectr",signatures:"Yuri Markushin and Noureddine Melikechi",authors:[{id:"23190",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Markushin",fullName:"Yuri Markushin",slug:"yuri-markushin"},{id:"23191",title:"Dr.",name:"Noureddine",middleName:null,surname:"Melikechi",fullName:"Noureddine Melikechi",slug:"noureddine-melikechi"}]},{id:"28402",title:"Homeobox Genes and Their Functional Significance in Ovarian Tumorigenesis",slug:"homeobox-genes-and-their-functional-significance-in-ovarian-tumorigenesis",signatures:"Bon Quy Trinh and Honami Naora",authors:[{id:"70573",title:"Dr.",name:"Honami",middleName:null,surname:"Naora",fullName:"Honami Naora",slug:"honami-naora"},{id:"77938",title:"Dr.",name:"Bon",middleName:"Quy",surname:"Trinh",fullName:"Bon Trinh",slug:"bon-trinh"}]},{id:"28403",title:"Transcriptomic Analysis of Human Ovarian Cancer Cells: Changes Mediated by Luteinizing Hormone Receptor Activation",slug:"transcriptomic-analysis-of-human-ovarian-cancer-cells-changes-mediated-by-luteinizing-hormone-recept",signatures:"Juan Cui, Ying Xu and David Puett",authors:[{id:"73069",title:"Prof.",name:"J. David",middleName:null,surname:"Puett",fullName:"J. David Puett",slug:"j.-david-puett"}]},{id:"28404",title:"Potential Tumor Biomarkers for Ovarian Cancer",slug:"potential-tumor-biomarkers-for-ovarian-cancer",signatures:"Ryan Serio and Blase Billack",authors:[{id:"73747",title:"Dr.",name:"Blase",middleName:null,surname:"Billack",fullName:"Blase Billack",slug:"blase-billack"},{id:"79214",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Serio",fullName:"Ryan Serio",slug:"ryan-serio"}]},{id:"28405",title:"Ectoenzymes in Epithelial Ovarian Carcinoma: Potential Diagnostic Markers and Therapeutic Targets",slug:"ectoenzymes-in-epithelial-ovarian-carcinoma-potential-diagnostic-markers-and-therapeutic-targets",signatures:"Nicola Lo Buono, Simona Morone, Rossella Parrotta, Alice Giacomino, Erika Ortolan and Ada Funaro",authors:[{id:"73865",title:"Prof.",name:"Ada",middleName:null,surname:"Funaro",fullName:"Ada Funaro",slug:"ada-funaro"},{id:"80286",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Lo Buono",fullName:"Nicola Lo Buono",slug:"nicola-lo-buono"},{id:"80287",title:"MSc.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Morone",fullName:"Simona Morone",slug:"simona-morone"},{id:"80289",title:"MSc.",name:"Rossella",middleName:null,surname:"Parrotta",fullName:"Rossella Parrotta",slug:"rossella-parrotta"},{id:"80290",title:"MSc.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Giacomino",fullName:"Alice Giacomino",slug:"alice-giacomino"},{id:"80292",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika",middleName:null,surname:"Ortolan",fullName:"Erika Ortolan",slug:"erika-ortolan"}]},{id:"28406",title:"P53 Network in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"p53-network-in-ovarian-cancer",signatures:"Fabiola Moretti and Francesca Mancini",authors:[{id:"75285",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiola",middleName:null,surname:"Moretti",fullName:"Fabiola Moretti",slug:"fabiola-moretti"},{id:"79048",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Mancini",fullName:"Francesca Mancini",slug:"francesca-mancini"}]},{id:"28407",title:"Gene Amplification in Ovarian Carcinomas: Lessons from Selected Amplified Gene Families",slug:"gene-amplification-in-ovarian-carcinomas-lessons-from-selected-amplified-gene-families",signatures:"Stéphanie Gaillard",authors:[{id:"77976",title:"Dr.",name:"Tian-Li",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Tian-Li Wang",slug:"tian-li-wang"},{id:"125879",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephanie",middleName:null,surname:"Gaillard",fullName:"Stephanie Gaillard",slug:"stephanie-gaillard"}]},{id:"28408",title:"Nitric Oxide/Protein Kinase G-Iα Promotes c-Src Activation, Proliferation and Chemoresistance in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"nitric-oxide-protein-kinase-g-i-promotes-c-src-activation-proliferation-and-chemoresistance-in-ovari",signatures:"Ronald R. Fiscus, Elaine L. Leung, Janica C. Wong and Mary G. Johlfs",authors:[{id:"124786",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine L.",middleName:null,surname:"Leung",fullName:"Elaine L. Leung",slug:"elaine-l.-leung"},{id:"124788",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Janica",middleName:"C.",surname:"Wong",fullName:"Janica Wong",slug:"janica-wong"},{id:"124789",title:"MSc.",name:"Mary G.",middleName:null,surname:"Johlfs",fullName:"Mary G. Johlfs",slug:"mary-g.-johlfs"},{id:"162990",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronald",middleName:null,surname:"Fiscus",fullName:"Ronald Fiscus",slug:"ronald-fiscus"}]},{id:"28409",title:"VEGF Targeting Agents in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"vegf-targeting-agents-in-ovarian-cancer",signatures:"Seiji Mabuchi, Atsuko Wakabayashi and Tadashi Kimura",authors:[{id:"73265",title:"Prof.",name:"Seiji",middleName:null,surname:"Mabuchi",fullName:"Seiji Mabuchi",slug:"seiji-mabuchi"}]},{id:"28410",title:"Autotaxin – A Target for the Treatment of Drug-Resistant Ovarian Cancer?",slug:"autotaxin-a-target-for-the-treatment-of-drug-resistant-ovarian-cancer-",signatures:"John King-Underwood, Steven M. Allin, Charles W. Redman and Alan Richardson",authors:[{id:"69882",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Richardson",fullName:"Alan Richardson",slug:"alan-richardson"}]},{id:"28411",title:"Potential Monoclonal Antibody Therapy for the Treatment of Ovarian Cancer",slug:"potential-monoclonal-antibody-therapy-for-the-treatment-of-ovarian-cancer",signatures:"Gregory Lee, Mingang Zhu and Bixia Ge",authors:[{id:"70284",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Gregory Lee",slug:"gregory-lee"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74587",title:"A Combination of Finite Difference and Finite Element Methods for Temperature and Stress Predictions of Early-Age Concrete Members",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95331",slug:"a-combination-of-finite-difference-and-finite-element-methods-for-temperature-and-stress-predictions",body:'Thermal cracking is one of the biggest concerns regarding early-age concrete. Hydration of a large amount of cement results in higher peak temperatures as well as larger temperature differences between the concrete surface and the core. Such large temperature differentials can cause substantial tensile stresses that might increase the likelihood of early-age cracking in the concrete [1].
In order to control the temperature in early-age concrete structures, thus mitigating the risk of thermal cracking, temperature and stress analyses should be performed beforehand. Different methods have been used for predicting the temperatures and thermal stresses concrete structures at an early age. Among them, the Schmidt’s method is a simple approach but has been widely used for computing the temperatures for single nodes in the concrete [1]. The finite difference (FD) method was also employed in spreadsheet programs [2, 3] or in computer programs [4, 5] for calculating temperature–time histories in concrete elements. A two-dimensional model for thermal analysis based on the finite volume method (FVM) was introduced by Yikici and Chen [6]. The finite element (FE) method has been commonly utilized for both thermal and stress analyses of early-age concrete structures [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
This chapter presents a two-dimensional FD scheme for thermal analysis of a concrete element. An FE analysis was then used to calculate the temperature-induced stresses in the concrete. The analysis results were compared with measurements of actual concrete elements. The combined approach can be a simple and useful tool for analyzing temperatures and thermal stresses in early-age concrete elements.
The heat evolution and temperature in a concrete element can be known by solving the governing differential equation as described in Eq. (1):
where
The finite difference formulation for any node in the system can be written as [14]:
where
During the actual construction stage of concrete structures, the concrete is usually covered by formwork and/or insulation materials. Heat generated from cement hydration is conducted through the formwork and/or insulation layer before being dissipated to the surroundings by surface convection (Figure 1).
FD mesh for heat conduction of concrete covered with insulation layer.
Considering a formwork/insulation layer covering the concrete, and assuming a unit square mesh for the concrete (Δ
FE plane triangular element.
where
Using Eq. (2), the FD equations for each of the four outer corner nodes of the insulation can be derived. For instance, the quarter size volume element of the insulation layer (
where
The insulation volume element at the surface node (2,N) adjacent to the top left outer corner node is subjected to convection at the top and conduction at the left, right, and bottom surfaces. An energy balance on this element gives:
where
Similarly, the insulation volume element of half size at a surface node is subjected to convection at the top and conduction at the left, right, and bottom surfaces. An energy balance on this element gives:
where
The “mixed” volume element at the concrete’s corner node (2,N-1) is subjected to conduction at the four sides. An energy balance on this element gives:
where
The “mixed” volume element at a concrete’s top surface node is also subjected to conduction at the four sides. An energy balance on this element gives:
where
It is noted that the stability criterion of the explicit method requires all primary coefficients to be positive or zero for all nodes:
The maximum time step used to solve the problem must satisfy Eq. (15) above.
If an insulation layer is not used, the new corner temperature
and the next time step temperature of a top surface node will be simplified to:
The maximum time step in this case is as follows:
The rate of heat liberated from cement hydration depends on the temperature of the concrete element itself. The heat rate can be experimentally determined using isothermal [10, 15], adiabatic [16, 17], or semi-adiabatic calorimetry [4]. The experimental adiabatic temperature rise (ATR) can be converted into a maturity-based heat rate as presented by Ballim and Graham [18], in which the total heat (
where
The “maturity heat rate” (
where
where
The activation energy (
where pFA = % fly ash in the cementing blend; pFA-CaO = % CaO in fly ash; pslag = % slag in the cementing blend; pSF = percentage of silica fume in the cementitious materials; Blaine = cement fineness (m2/kg); pi = percentage of
The actual heat rate, which will be used in a numerical model, can be reconstructed from the maturity heat rate using the following equation:
The maturity-based heat rate curve
There are several models to mathematically characterize the heat generation from the cement hydration. The 3-parameter exponential degree of hydration model show in Eq. (25) [21] has been widely used for predicting temperature development in concrete since it includes the temperature effect through the equivalent age:
where
The total cumulative heat
where
The hydration parameters (
Since a common concrete structure has one dimension larger than the other two, the middle cross section should be analyzed; hence, a FE plane strain problem is selected for the stress computation. A triangular element is chosen with nodes
where
in which
The stress vector in the element can be calculated as:
where
and the thermal strain is derived as [22]:
in which
where
The nodal forces due to thermal strain is computed as follows:
in which
Computational Procedure
FD thermal analysis:
Define geometry of the structure (including the nodal grid), initial material properties, initial temperature and boundary conditions, and time interval.
Compute the nodal degree of hydration and the rate of heat evolution.
Compute the new temperature at each node.
Iterate (2) & (3) and record the temperatures.
FE stress analysis:
Divide the nodal grid into triangular elements (the vertices coincide with the FD grid nodes).
At
Let
Compute element stiffness matrix, global stiffness matrix, and equivalent nodal forces; solve for nodal displacements and element stresses.
Let
Let
A bridge pier footing constructed in Orlando, Florida was monitored for temperature development within 7 days after casting (Figure 3). The concrete footing had dimensions of 6.71-m × 3.05-m × 1.75-m and was insulated with 25.4-mm thick polystyrene foam boards at its bottom, top, and sides during 7 days.
Bridge footing for monitoring in Orlando, Florida.
The cementitious materials of Mix #1 was experimentally measured for the heat of hydration using an isothermal calorimeter. The hydration parameters and calculated activation energy (
Mix | τ (h) | β | αu | Qc (J/m3) | Ea (J/mol) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
#1 | 16.73 | 0.8764 | 8.314 | 1.26 × 108 | 35,451 |
#2 | 14.0 | 0.94 | 0.703 | 1.67 × 108 | 41,800 |
Hydration parameters and activation energy.
The concrete had a density of 2238 kg/m3, specific heat of 1045 J/kg-K, and thermal conductivity of 1.87 W/m-K. The footing was insulated with Styrofoam that has density, thermal conductivity, and specific heat of 16 kg/m3, 0.04 W/m-K, and 1200 J/kg-K, respectively [14]. The boundary conditions consist of the initial temperature and the external ambient temperature over time. The air convection coefficient at the insulation surfaces was assumed to be 13.9 W/m2-K [5, 23].
Two temperature sensors were installed at the center and at the center top surface of the footing to record temperatures within 7 days after placement. The measured temperatures at the center and top, and the ambient temperature are shown in Figure 4. A peak measured temperature of 74°C occurred in the middle 42 hours after concrete casting. Figure 5 shows the temperature distribution in the footing at 40 h calculated by the FD model. The predicted FD temperatures at the center and the top of the footing are also plotted in Figure 4. It is clear that the temperature histories computed using the FD model show very close agreement with those collected in the field.
Predicted and measured temperature profiles in the footing.
FD temperature contour in the footing at 40 h (°C).
A bridge concrete cap beam (pier cap) was analyzed for temperatures and thermal stresses due to the heat of cement hydration. The cross section of the pier cap was 1.6-m by 2.1-m. The concrete used in the cap beam is Mix #2 with the hydration parameters and activation energy listed in Table 1. The concrete coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of 8.5 × 10−6/°C, density of 2287 kg/m3, the specific heat of 1028 J/kg-K, and thermal conductivity of 1.87 W/m-K were assumed in the analysis.
Figure 6 shows the calculated temperature profiles at the core, corner and side of the section. The center temperature peaked at 70.7°C approximately 28 hours after casting. The temperature contours are also depicted in Figure 7.
Temperature profiles at different points in the cap beam.
Temperature distribution of the section at 30 h.
The thermal analysis was followed by a stress calculation using the FE model with the element mesh shown in Figure 8a. The 1st principal stress and stress component
FE mesh and stress distributions (MPa) in pier cap at 21 h.
The calculated stresses over time at different locations of the pier cap are plotted in Figure 9. Clearly, the maximum stress is
Calculated stresses in the pier cap.
To assess the model’s accuracy, the computed stress-time histories are compared with those obtained from the 3-D ABAQUS FE model developed by Lin and Chen [12]. It is worth noting that the ABAQUS model was validated using measurements on 2 concrete blocks. Figure 9b shows that the 2-D FE results reasonably match with those of the 3-D ABAQUS model.
The 3-D ABAQUS results reveal that the maximum stress is the component
In this study, FD and FE formulations were created for solving the transient heat transfer equation and thermal stresses in a concrete element. The results of this study show that the approach that combines the FD and FE methods can be a useful and effective tool for predicting temperature evolution and thermally induced stresses in early-age concrete members with simple geometries. The FD model can analyze thermal behavior of a concrete placement covered with formwork or an insulation layer, thus it can help engineers/contractors control concrete temperature during construction.
This work is financially supported by the Ministry of Transport of Vietnam. Special thanks are given to Prof. H. L. Chen and Mr. G. Leon at West Virginia University (WVU) for their contributions to this study.
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\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
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\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
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\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
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\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
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\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
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\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
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\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
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