The average noise level generated by different types of vehicles (International Union of Railways (UIC)).
\r\n\t
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There are approximately 15 million bone fractures per year worldwide and about 10% of those will experience no tissue regeneration, potentially leading to complications such as infections and pain [1]. Technological advances and increase in life expectancy of the global population have sparked interest in and use of alternative strategies in regenerative medicine.
Tissue bioengineering is an interdisciplinary field where engineering and biological science strategies are applied jointly in order to develop biological substitutes to restore, maintain, and/or increase the function of damaged tissues [2, 3].
In concern to bone tissue engineering different medical areas as well as dentistry areas have developed bone tissue engineering strategies (stem cells (SCs), biomaterials, and growth factors) to rehabilitate congenital malformations and craniofacial syndromes associated with bioengineering [3, 4]. Therefore, the main goal of bioengineering is to overcome limitations imposed by current conventional treatments, which are based on reconstructive surgery or organ transplant. Above all, it aims at being able to produce substitutes for organs and tissues with immune tolerance, so that transplantation can be achieved without the risk of rejection by the organism [5].
Three elements are necessary for bone tissue bioengineering: osteoconduction, osteoinduction, and osteogenesis; together, these three elements form the basis for obtaining a new, functional bone tissue [6, 7]. Given the increase in regenerative medicine studies and the need to find a biological source to promote tissue formation, that is, osteogenesis, stem cells appear to be a potentially unlimited biological source [8].
Stem cells (SCs) can be defined as cells that are capable of: (1) proliferation and self-renewal and (2) answering to external stimuli and giving rise to different specialized cell lines. Consequently, they are considered important for regenerative medicine [8]. Stem cells are classified based on their source and plasticity; hence, they can be divided into three different groups: embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and adult stem cells.
Embryonic stem cells are those derived from the inner mass of a blastocyst (4 or 5 days after the egg has been fertilized), that are capable of differentiating in the three germ layers (endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm). They are known as being pluripotent. However, the therapeutic use of these cells has been questioned by several studies due to teratoma formation after transplantation in animals, potential immune rejection by the host, and strong association with ethical issues [9].
An increasing number of studies have been published about induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). iPSCs are somatic cells—able to differentiate into the same cell type—but genetically altered, with four genes being inserted into their genome: OCT-4, SOX2, c-Myc, and KLF4. This increases their ability to differentiate and decreases their plasticity, changing them from somatic to pluripotent cells [9].
Another type of stem cell is the multipotent stem cell, which includes adult stem cells. They have lower plasticity than pluripotent cells and, although they can differentiate into some types of cells of adult tissues, they are unable to differentiate into germ layers. Adult stem cells are found in the body and are responsible for tissue maintenance and repair [5].
The first adult SCs described in the literature were those found in bone marrow, which have been used in the treatment of several diseases affecting the hematopoietic SCs since the 1950s. Hematopoietic SCs found in bone marrow can give rise to all types of blood cells (lymphocytes, red blood cells, platelets, etc.). In addition, studies about bone marrow transplant have led to the discovery of another important cell type—larger and adherent—that support regeneration of other tissues: the mesenchymal stem cells. Since then, several studies have begun using particularly these stem cells [10, 11].
Even after birth and growth, we can still find stem cell niches in different tissues—bone marrow, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, dental pulp, placenta and umbilical cord, and fallopian tube—usually involved in tissue maintenance and repair [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Those are known as adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Their own characteristics are preserved, that is, they remain multipotent and undifferentiated, capable of self-renewal and differentiation into multiple cell lines—under specific in vitro conditions—including osteogenic, chondrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic lineages [18].
The first three sources are considered key differentiation lineages in determining MSCs’ multipotentiality [19]. In 1976, Friedenstein et al. isolated cells with morphological features that were described as colony-forming unit-fibroblasts (CFU-Fs). Bone marrow stromal cells were first described as bone progenitor cells present in its stromal fraction [12]. In 1991, Caplan named those stromal cells as mesenchymal stem cells with potential for cell expansion while remaining undifferentiated, the cells being a great option in cell therapy for tissue regeneration [11]. Subsequent studies have shown that these cells are able to remain undifferentiated when cultured for prolonged periods of time. Moreover, they have the ability to differentiate into mesodermal cell lineages, including chondrocytes, osteoblasts, adipocytes, and myoblasts [5].
Currently, the definition of MSCs includes several morphological and immunophenotypic factors as well as functional features. According to the International Society for Cellular Therapy (ISCT), MSCs: (i) are plastic-adherent when maintained in in vitro conditions; (ii) show positive expression of the CD13, CD29, CD44, CD54, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD166, and Stro-1 cell surface markers and negative expression of the CD14, CD19, CD34, CD45, and HLA-DR markers; and (iii) are a group of clonogenic cells, capable of differentiating into several mesodermal cell lineages [19].
A range of studies have shown that multipotent MSCs can also differentiate into unrelated germline cells in a process known as transdifferentiation. Thus, in addition to differentiating into mesodermal cells—such as bone, fat, and cartilage—MSCs also have the potential for endodermal and neuroectodermal differentiation [20]. Even though adult MSCs are generally considered to originate from mesoderm, some authors describe embryonic MSCs derived from neuroepithelium and the neural crest, such as MSCs from deciduous dental pulp [20, 21].
Adult MSCs can be isolated from several tissues, with similar membrane receptor functions and expressions. However, none of those membrane receptors is considered a MSC-specific cell surface marker; rather, MSCs show a profile of cell surface markers, with positive and negative expression, varying according to source and cell heterogeneity [22, 23].
Furthermore, important features of MSCs for clinical use are their non-immunogenicity, as described in the literature, and immunomodulatory properties, which can be observed from two different perspectives, namely: (i) immunosuppressive effects of allogeneic MSCs, inducing immune tolerance; and (ii) effect of inflammatory cytokines in MSCs’ activity and differentiation, in cell-to-cell interactions [8, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Bone marrow is considered one of the main sources of MSCs, both in experimental studies and clinical use [26]. Yet, bone marrow MSCs are obtained through a painful surgical incision that produces a low number of harvested cells [28], with only about 0.001–0.01% of the total population of nucleated cells being identified as MSCs [5, 29].
Therefore, due to the aforementioned difficulties, alternative sources of MSCs—such as lipoaspirated adipose tissue, dental pulp, umbilical cord tissue, and skeletal muscle among others—have been studied, as they are often discarded and can be easily procured and manipulated in order to obtain MSCs [16, 22, 30, 31]. Cells obtained from sources other than the bone marrow contribute greatly to the development of cell therapies and consequently to the choice of the best cellular source for clinical uses and better response to target tissue regeneration [6, 16, 17, 25].
The possibility to use a non-invasive source of MSCs in bone tissue engineering has been increased by researches, because of the ease of obtaining the tissue, since they are discarded and do not involve ethical controversy. Since the year 2000, described by Gronthos, mesenchymal stem cells derived from dental pulp (DPSCs) have been studied by other researchers, and the use of DPSCs in vitro and in vivo has generated a great expectation for the translational use in tissue bioengineering, especially for bone neoformation [8, 30, 31, 32]. The profile of DPSCs when compared to stem cells derived from human adipose tissue (hASCs), the DPSCs present an increase in the extracellular matrix formation capacity and presented expression profile for osteogenic genes (RUNX2, BGLAP and ALP) [33]. These comparative results between alternative sources for translational use may help us find the best source of stem cells for each type of tissue to being repaired.
Recently re-emerged as an attractive source of osteogenic progenitor cells (OCPs), the periosteum can be isolated from several locations in the body, such as the anterior tibia, and the spinous process [34]. Periosteal OCPs were involved in bone repair and may also differentiate in response to paracrine signals from mechanically stimulated osteocytes. However, the interconnection of load stimulation with the molecular mechanisms is still unclear. On the other hand, another group of researchers recently described the presence of an immature cell with clonal multipotency and self-renewal characteristics in the long bones and calvarium of mice denominated with periosteal stem cells (PSCs) that are also involved in the support of the bone tissue repair [35]. With the advancement of technology, a new cellular and molecular markers can be innovative therapeutic target to open the best possibilities for promising therapies.
A basic premise for a cell to be characterized as MSC is its ability to differentiate into a range of mesenchymal tissues—as mentioned above. Thus, stimulus for osteogenic differentiation must be efficient, resulting in viable and functional cells that produce bone extracellular matrix. This functionality is highly important for cellular characterization and applications in regenerative medicine [36].
In accordance with the basic requirements for carrying out tissue bioengineering, selection and strategy of signs of differentiation (osteoinduction) are other key aspects that should be explored. These are external inducers that promote cell proliferation and differentiation to regenerate the new tissue [36, 37, 38].
The biomaterial is not only involved as a structural support but can also be used as an inducer of osteogenic factors depending on its composition. The biomaterial classes most cited in the literature are the active ceramics, biodegradable polymers, and biodegradable metals. The mechanisms of the interaction between the cell and the biomaterial as well as of the osteogenic stimuli have not been clarified yet [39].
Another growing trend in bioengineering is the use of three-dimensional (3D) culture system, this possibility of cell culture is innovative and being explored by researchers, one of the factors that draws attention to this technique is the release of bioincomparable or non-absorbable compounds and the possible customization of the area to be regenerated [40].
Osteogenic induction and differentiation are often achieved via growth factors, which—through molecular mechanisms involving pathways, such as Wnt, BMP, FGF, and PTH, and genes that are essential for osteogenesis [41], such as RUNX 2, COL, ALP, OCN, OP, BGLAP, and SSP1—play a key role in osteogenesis and osteogenic differentiation, as shown in Figure 1 [42, 43, 44]. In this context, identifying those factors is crucial for successful tissue regeneration.
Representative illustration of osteogenic signaling pathways. These pathways can activate several transcription factors, among them, RUNT (Runx 2), osterix (OSX), nuclear factor of activated T-cells 1 (NFATc1), and transcription factors of the Wnt pathway. Continuous arrows indicate interactions and signaling; dashed arrows indicate the actions described in boxes; and t-bar indicates block.
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are cytokines from the beta family and are used in clinical applications to stimulate bone regeneration [45]. These proteins are involved in the development of the embryo and in skeletal formation. Manochantr et al. showed that after in vitro stimulation of bone marrow-derived MSCs with 100 ng/ml BMP-2, there was upregulation of the level of expression of genes associated with osteogenic differentiation (RUNX2 and OCN) and increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) production [46].
During a regular bone remodeling process, typical of an organism maintaining physiological stability, both BMPs and their antagonists are needed since BMPs induce osteo-precursor cells to proliferate and differentiate, thereby leading to formation of bone tissue. Members of the BMP family have different functions and are primarily related to the formation of bone and cartilage [47].
Upon BMP-receptor activation, receptor-regulated SMADs (R-SMADs) are translocated to the nucleus, where they regulate gene transcription by binding to DNA and interacting with DNA-binding proteins. Additionally, SMADs interact with transcription factors, transcriptional coactivators, and corepressors. The transcription factor associated with Runt-Runx is one of the most studied transcription factors for BMP signaling, responsible for regulating processes such as bone formation and hematopoiesis [46, 47].
Runx2 transcription factors cooperatively regulate gene transcription that lead to differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells into osteoblasts [48]. Hence, it is widely regarded as a marker for cells committed to the osteochondral lineage and osteoblast differentiation. Runx2 expression is low in mesenchymal cells and is induced by BMP signaling [49].
Osterix (OSX) is another example of a transcription factor mediated by BMP/SMAD signaling and likely by MAPK signaling and other pathways [50]. Taken together, Runx2 and Osterix are the most studied transcription factors for BMP signaling involved in the differentiation of MSCs into osteoblasts.
Moreover, recombinant BMP-2 (rhBMP-2) has been used for bone induction in humans being treated for long bone fractures and spinal arthrodesis [45]. A clinical study showed improved bone density and quantity formed when compared to the gold standard surgery (anterior iliac crest bone graft), used in maxilla reconstruction in cleft lip and palate patients.
Insulin-like growth factor type I (IGF-1) is yet another factor currently being studied as an osteoinducer. IGF-1 is the most abundant growth factor found in the bone matrix and it plays an important role in development and maintenance of skeletal tissue [51]. It has been shown, under in vitro conditions, that IGF-1 is a stimulant for osteogenic differentiation through the increase in expression of ALP, Runx2, and OCN genes in MSCs from molar dental pulp [51].
Previous studies have demonstrated that the stimulant effect of IGF-1 on bone matrix synthesis in cell cultures derived from rat calvaria is a result of at least two distinct regulatory signals: first, the effect on cellular differentiation—osteoprogenitor cells and pre-osteoblasts—in osteoblasts (increased production of bone collagen); and second, the stimulation of osteoprogenitor cells’ proliferation, thereby resulting in an increase in the number of functional osteoblasts. Despite working together to increase production of extracellular matrix, those signals differ in origin and can act synergistically with other factors, such as, for example, BMP-9 [37] and OSX, to promote osteogenic differentiation [50].
Insulin-like growth factors are known for mediating skeletal growth and bone formation [37, 52, 53]. Different studies have shown that IGF-1, in particular, promotes differentiation of bone cells in autocrine and paracrine pathways [52, 53]. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies have used IGF-1 to promote osteogenesis while treating dental pulp-derived osteoblastic cells [53, 54] and in an aged rat model, respectively. On the other hand, studies using rat fracture models show that the use of IGF-1 or PDGF alone does not stimulate OCN expression [55]. Nevertheless, using IGF-1 along with MSCs can cause expression of both factors to increase, as well as a significant upregulation of OCN by ODM in comparison to ODM alone.
The use of those factors for cell proliferation and differentiation is still being tested and is correlated with high treatment costs. On the other hand, low-level laser therapy (LLLT) could be a new alternative adjunct therapy for bone regeneration.
In the last 30 years, low-level laser therapy (LLLT) has been used mainly for the treatment of wounds; however, its applicability in pathological conditions such as tissue regeneration, pain relief, and inflammation has increased in different branches of regenerative medicine and dentistry [56, 57].
LLLT consists of exposing cells or tissues to low-level red and infrared lasers at wavelengths of 600–1100 nm and energy output of 1–500 mW and is called “low-level” due to its use of low-density light when compared to other forms of laser therapy. This type of irradiation may be a continuous or pulsed wave comprised of a constant, low-density energy beam (0.04–50 J/cm2). The laser is directed at the target tissue or a monolayer of cells, with power in milliwatts (mW) [36, 58]. LLLT transmits energy at low levels; hence, there is no heat or sound emission nor vibrations. There are no thermal reactions because there is no immediate increase in temperature in the tissue being irradiated by laser. Experiments after low-level laser have shown negligible, immediate heat increase in tissue (±1°C) [36, 59].
Studies with LLLT have proven effective in biostimulation, increasing the rate of cell proliferation, migration, and adhesion. Several different lasers with varying sources of light—including helium-neon (HeNe), ruby, and gallium-aluminum-arsenide (GaAIA)—have been used in a range of LLLT treatments and protocols [36, 60, 61, 62, 63].
As mentioned above, LLLT can promote a range of biological processes, including cell proliferation [59, 64, 65] and differentiation [36, 66]. The effects of LLLT on cell proliferation have been studied in vitro in several types of cells, namely: fibroblasts, endothelium, keratinocytes, myoblasts, and mesenchymal stem cells, among others [36, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71]. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism associated with the stimulatory effects remains unclear.
One possible theory is the ability of LLLT to influence photoreceptors in cells. This mechanism is called photobiology or biostimulation. It has been stated that biostimulation occurs through the electron transport chain in mitochondrial enzymes, inducing high levels of cell respiration by endogenous porphyrin or cytochrome c during tissue stress (lesioned) [62], which increases cell metabolism and function [66]. The response to LLLT’s biostimulation effects is an increase in microcirculation, leading to higher ATP production and subsequent increase in DNA and RNA synthesis, thereby improving cellular oxygenation, nutrition, and regeneration [59, 65].
Similar to any drug treatment, LLLT has its own “active ingredient,” that is, its irradiation parameters, such as wavelength, power, power density, and energy density. Regarding interaction of the laser with matter, the effects of LLLT have been described by Karu [72] as: primary, acting as modulators of cell function, and secondary, relieving pain or inducing healing. Indeed, those effects depend on appropriate irradiation parameters [72].
Several mechanisms that aim at explaining the mitogenic effects of low-level laser therapy have been proposed, including: light absorption by mitochondrial enzymes; photon absorption by flavins and cytochromes in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, affecting electron transfer; singlet oxygen production through photoexcitation of endogenous porphyrins; and photoactivation of calcium channels, resulting in higher intracellular calcium concentrations and cell proliferation [73, 74].
Furthermore, laser therapy alters cell membrane permeability, causing subsequent physiological changes in the target cells. The magnitude of the biostimulation effect will depend on the wavelength used as well as the physiology of cell at the time [69].
It has been suggested that porphyrins and cytochromes, which are part of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, are the first photoreceptors in the visible wavelength range. When energy (photons) is absorbed by the photoreceptors’ cell membrane, a cascade of cellular response occurs, provoking production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), ATP synthesis, changes in cell membrane permeability, and release of nitric oxide. Those effects in turn lead to an increase in cell proliferation; changes in extracellular matrix synthesis; and local effects in components of the immune, vascular, and nervous system. Besides, intracellular pH levels are altered—a change associated with activation of ATPase. Changes in oxidation-reduction status cause higher levels of intracellular Ca2 and stimulate cell metabolism. High levels of intracellular Ca2 promote several biological processes, such as RNA and DNA synthesis, cell mitosis, and secretion of proteins. It has been observed that Ca uptake by mammal cells can be induced by monochromatic red light (laser), depending on the dosage applied. Most cellular responses to LLLT derive from changes in mitochondrial and membrane activity, including mitochondrial membrane potential, as shown in Figure 2. Despite the positive results that argue for this type of treatment, the underlying action mechanism is yet to be understood [75].
The cellular effect of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) on cellular metabolism. LLLT is proposed to act via mitochondria (cytochrome c oxidase) displacing nitric oxide (NO) from the respiratory chain and increasing levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). These changes act via intermediaries cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-activated transcription factors AP-1. The interaction of the ROS and IkB further transcription factor NF-κB. The LLLT can be photoactive of calcium channels, resulting in higher intracellular calcium concentrations. All stimuli resulting in changes in gene expression and subsequent downstream production of chemical messengers implicated in the cellular changes increase cell proliferation, cell differentiation, cell motility, and growth factors production.
In addition, studies show that ATP can activate P13K signaling pathway (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) through the ERK1/ERK2 genes, a pathway that regulates proliferation of certain types of cells [76]. Studies have also shown that LLLT promotes wound healing, collagen synthesis, nerve regeneration, bone remodeling and repair, and pain relief [57, 59, 77, 78, 79, 80].
There are several studies in the literature that state the relationship between osteogenic differentiation, mesenchymal stem cells and LLLT, showing stimulation of matrix production, DNA synthesis, and formation of bone nodules in cultures of osteoblast-lineage cells after LLLT [36, 81, 82]. In 2005, Abramovitch-Gottlieb and colleagues used bone marrow MSCs cultured in 3D coralline (Porites lutea) biomaterial and He-Ne red laser irradiation (wavelength of 632.8 nm) to promote osteogenic differentiation [66]. Samples of biomaterial containing irradiated bone marrow MSCs showed an increase in neoformed bone tissue when compared to non-irradiated samples. This suggests that tissue bioengineering (biomaterial containing mesenchymal stem cell) together with LLLT have biostimulation effects on osteogenic induction.
Osteogenic differentiation in MSCs has also been reinforced by another study using red laser at 647 nm. MSCs were irradiated with LLLT at differing periods of time and energy levels. Non-irradiated cells (control) were kept under the same conditions as irradiated cells. Samples of cells receiving LLLT showed a significant increase in production of extracellular matrix after 4–5 days compared to non-irradiated cells, indicating that red laser promotes osteoblast differentiation. This increase in extracellular production was maintained with daily irradiation (5, 10, and 20 J) for 21 days, which corresponds to the period of differentiation and maturation of MSCs in osteoblasts [36].
Moreover, in a study using a blue laser, MSCs were irradiated (wavelength of 405 nm) for 180 s through a fiber connected to the bottom of the culture plate. The results showed that irradiation with blue laser can promote extracellular calcification produced by MSCs differentiated into osteoblasts, in addition to inducing translocation of CRY1 protein (cryptochrome 1) from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. CRY1 is a regulator for circadian rhythm and extracellular calcification in MSCs [70]. Based on hypotheses described in previous studies, LLLT can act as adjunct treatment in tissue bioengineering, representing a new strategy in bone rehabilitation.
The creation of biobanks of mesenchymal stem cells due to the possibility of isolating and manipulating MSCs from a range of tissues as well as storing them in ultralow temperatures for future use as a bioengineering strategy for bone or other tissues’ rehabilitation is of great economic and scientific interest. Yet, strategies and quality management of these biocomponents must still be developed.
The ability of MSCs for osteogenic differentiation has been well established in the literature; however, the analysis of the potential for differentiation between in vitro and in vivo sources of MSCs may direct their use in future therapies.
Nowadays noise pollution is the focus of various studies and research due to its proven significant impact on human health and work efficiency. Research shows that traffic noise in urban areas has tremendously increased since the beginning of the century, primarily due to increased transportation of people and goods. It can be concluded that in urban areas the largest source of noise is traffic-induced noise, which accounts for 80% of all communal noise sources. Traffic noise caused by road traffic is the most common type of noise in urban areas and as such poses a serious problem. Figure 1 shows the distribution of human noise annoyance according to the type of noise source [1].
\nDistribution of human noise annoyance according to the type of noise source [1].
According to Table 1, provided by the International Union of Railways (UIC), all types of trains produce less noise than trucks, cars, airplanes, and other means of transport. Railway is the most favorable form of transport, in terms of noise as an influential factor for environmental degradation and human health. Therefore, it can be determined that the railway has the lowest share of noise in urban areas among other means of transport.
\nType of vehicle | \nAverage noise level [dBA] | \n
---|---|
Car (700–1300 cm3) | \n82 | \n
Motorcycle | \n90 | \n
Heavy cargo truck | \n103 | \n
Turbojet airplane | \n150 | \n
Fast passenger train | \n65 | \n
Cargo train (speed up to 120 km/h) | \n60 | \n
Local train | \n70 | \n
The average noise level generated by different types of vehicles (International Union of Railways (UIC)).
Road traffic noise depends on the following three factors:
Type of road vehicles.
Friction between the vehicle wheels and the road surface.
Driving style and driver behavior.
When considering vehicles that have an internal combustion engine (ICE) as the noise source, most of the noise comes from the sources or systems shown in Figure 2. The aforementioned sources and systems are explained in detail in the following paragraph.
\nNoise sources in a vehicle.
Engine noise is created during the process of compression and expansion in the engine, which creates engine vibrations which then emit noise. The engine noise depends on the engine volume, speed, and capacity. The suction system noise is caused by the opening and closing of the suction valves, and furthermore the intensity of such noise depends on the mode of operation of the engine, the speed of the engine itself, and the type of air filter. Noise from the exhaust system is created by the sudden release of gas into the exhaust system itself in order to open the exhaust valve. The fan noise is generated due to the operation of the fans in the vehicle, and the fans generally produce a broadband noise. Tire noise occurs when the tires and road surfaces come into contact. This type of noise depends on the type of road surface, the tire construction, and finally the speed and driving style [2].
\nIn terms of noise pollution, electric vehicles represent the future, especially when compared to vehicles with an internal combustion engine (see Figure 3). However, at low speeds, electric vehicles produce very small levels of noise, i.e., in current acoustic urban environments, they are practically inaudible. For example, the noise level difference between an electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle can be greater than 6 dB (A) at 10 km/h. Unfortunately, much later at higher speeds, both types of car become equally loud, mainly due to tire noise.
\nElectric vehicle.
When considering how traffic flow affects the subjective perception of noise levels, it can be concluded that it depends on the number of vehicles, their speed, and structure as described in the following paragraph.
\nA traffic flow of 2000 vehicles per hour produces twice the perceived noise level than 200 vehicles per hour. If the traffic speed is 105 km/h, it produces twice the perceived noise level than the 50 km/h traffic flow. One heavy weight vehicle (HV > 3.5 tons) with a speed of 70 km/h creates a perceived noise level of 28 lightweight vehicles (LV <3.5 tons).
\nThe main sources of railway traffic noise are noise generated from:
Vehicles traveling the railway.
Maneuvers.
Wagons.
Electromotor trains.
Motor trains.
Warning signals.
There are several other significant sources of noise, apart from the main sources mentioned above, which are:
Propulsion systems for railway and railway vehicles.
Interaction of wagon wheels, locomotives, and trains with rails.
Braking process.
Additional equipment such as ventilation, sirens, air-conditioning, and heating.
Aerodynamic noise, especially in the case of high-speed trains.
On the propulsion system, noise is mainly generated by the operation of the traction engine (suction and exhaust process in the case of the diesel engine which is also the noisiest type of engine), the engine cooling system, the transmission system, and the ventilation system.
\nWheel-rail interaction generates dominant noise in railway vehicles and depends directly on the speed of movement and the geometric configuration of the railway track. When moving on straight railway sections, the noise is mainly generated as a result of the roughness of the wheel and rail surfaces, i.e., from their friction. When driving through the railway curves, the wheels make more noise, not only due to rolling but also due to slipping of the metal wheels, which can be observed as creaking along the railway track. The cause of this phenomenon is the constructive nature of the wagons themselves, in which the wheels are fixed with parallel axles, which is why the outer wheels, when crossing a longer path than the inner ones, must glide, thus generating noise.
\nThe noise generated by the braking process, in addition to the roughness of the wheels and track contact surfaces, depends significantly on the type and form of used brakes.
\nNoise from additional equipment is mostly generated by fans and their engines. Furthermore, it is important to mention the noise generated by the warning and notification signals.
\nAerodynamic noise is caused by the passage of the train through the airspace. The noise level generated by air turbulence at or near the train surface in motion is logarithmically proportional to the train speed; therefore aerodynamic noise is significant only at higher speeds [3].
\n\nFigure 4 shows the noise sources of a high-speed train, apart from ground vibrations resulting from its passage and the conversion of structural sound to airborne sound in buildings.
\nSignificant noise sources in the case of the high-speed train.
Aircraft traffic also causes several environmental problems or in other words an increase of noise. Nowadays, when observing the rapid development of all types of traffic, especially aircraft traffic, it can be concluded that there has been a significant increase in noise levels. In particular, the population living near airports is affected by the negative effects of noise exposure.
\nAircraft noise can be divided into groups, which are shown in Figure 5:
Noise caused by different types of engines.
Noise caused by aircraft structure.
Significant aircraft noise sources.
The noise sources generated by the engine groups are:
Turbojet engine.
Turbofan engine.
Propeller propulsion (classic or turbine engine).
The noise produced by a turbojet engine can be divided into following groups:
Compressor noise.
Vibration-induced noise.
Output jet noise.
Turbojet engine noise presented a big problem in the 1960s, especially the intake noise of this type of engine. The noise source of such intake noise is the compressor blades. During time as technology has evolved, aircrafts have become quieter, and therefore noise reduction in that sense continues even today.
\nThe turbofan engine was designed to reduce aviation noise levels. In the case of the first turbofan engines, the largest noise source was the compressor, turbine, and jet exhaust. Newer turbofan engine models have succeeded to reduce the aforementioned noise levels. Turbofan engine consists of blades and a turbojet engine. This type of engine is often used in commercial aircraft industry.
\nAircraft structure noise is defined as the sound which is produced from the movement of air between a solid body and air. The largest “manufacturers” of aircraft structure noise are landing gear, aircraft wings, and the flaps which are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The noise generated by these aircraft parts depends on different aircraft configurations.
\nAircraft structure noise sources.
Wing with extended flaps.
The noise level of an aircraft takeoff can be compared to the noise level produced by the engine group, while the landing aircraft engine group noise level is almost insignificant.
\nThe noise produced by the flaps is created by the outer edges of the flaps. The main cause of flap noise is the emersion of air vortex which is created by flap extension. This vortex is the main cause of noise at the end of the wings.
\nAnother significant source of aircraft structural noise is landing gear. Landing gear noise is generated during takeoff and landing of an aircraft. During takeoff and landing, the landing gear is lowered; thus high air resistance occurs, which produces the landing gear noise [4].
\nOther noise sources include industrial noise, noise caused by various construction work, and noise produced by different music and sports events.
\nIndustrial noise (shown in Figure 8) is the amount of acoustic energy received by the human hearing system while working at the industrial hall. Occupational noise or industrial noise is a common term used when it comes to occupational safety, since prolonged exposure to this type of noise can cause various health problems (e.g., annoyance, loss of concentration, sleep disorders, headaches, etc.). The worst consequence of prolonged exposure to this type of noise is permanent hearing impairment. Bearing in mind all the above, it can be concluded that this kind of noise certainly affects work efficiency.
\nAn example of industrial site which produces industrial noise.
When considering noise caused by different construction sites which are shown in Figure 9, this type of noise can have extremely high noise levels. Furthermore, such noise levels are very variable given that the construction process has many different phases. Thus, depending on the type and phase of construction, this category of noise can have indoor and outdoor noise sources and sometimes both at the same time. Activities on construction sites include the use of hammers, off-road trucks, cement mixers, cement cutters, electric saws, welding machines, as well as noise generated by hand tools such as a drill. Therefore, such noise represents a challenge for the workers and in addition for the population located near the construction site. This type of noise may have health consequences identical to those described in the previous section for the case of industrial noise.
\nAn example of construction site and some typical noise sources.
Musical events are very dynamic (see Figure 10). In this case, the sound engineer plays a key role in ensuring that the audience gets the full experience of a music event by mixing the music. The order of the songs is usually strategically set in a way that higher levels of tempo or dynamics and energy remain until the end of the night, which represents a certain kind of “peak” of the concert. Naturally, the sound engineer will want to raise the sound levels as much as possible, so it can be expected that the noise levels will increase as the night passes. In addition, stage orientation plays a significant role in sound propagation. If the concert takes place outdoors, the reality is of course that people who are not actually present at the concert site, however live near, will hear the music. In that case it has to be noted that the music impact will be minimal at a distance of more than a mile or two from the concert site, so this type of noise could be annoying or unpleasant (especially if one does not prefer the music performed by an artist). The concert will certainly not be suspended due to a complaint from only one person living relatively near the concert site. Licensing of open-air concerts by the competent authority is a well-established process. Therefore, one can expect only a few concerts a year from a particular outdoor site. Concert organizers can in addition send notices to homeowners near the concert site reminding them of concert details, curfew time, and their right to complain if noise levels become significant and therefore annoying.
\nAn example of open-air musical event.
Sport events (shown in Figure 11) present a very similar situation as music events. Although most people enjoy them, those who are disturbed by the noise levels produced can be protected in some way by using different types of ear protection (e.g., noise-cancelling headphones or popularly called earbuds). For people who are particularly sensitive to noise, there still remains the option of simply physically moving away for a while from the site where a particular sporting or musical event will take place.
\nAn example of sport event.
The previous sections of this chapter have described the most common traffic sources in urban areas. The aim of this paragraph is to propose and describe measures to reduce such noise which are shown in Figure 12 [5].
\nTen ways to reduce noise pollution based on [5].
Ten ways to reduce noise in urban areas proposed in [5] are:
Urban planning.
Designing living spaces.
Sound insulation of living spaces.
Smart traffic management.
Implementation of quiet road surfaces.
Development of train brake blocks.
Electric cars.
Changing driving styles.
Noise barriers.
Application of soundscape concept.
It is important to emphasize that these solutions are not the only solutions and that there are still different opportunities and prospects for progress and development of both existing and new methods.
\nIn the following sections, a more detailed explanation on how electric vehicles affect the reduction of noise levels will be provided, especially in urban areas. On the other hand, problems which occur with electric cars will be discussed. In addition, the effect of smart traffic management system, traffic behavior changes, and quiet road surfaces in terms of noise reduction will be examined.
\nElectric vehicles (shown in Figure 13) present the future in terms of reducing noise pollution in urban areas. Electric vehicles are quieter especially when compared to vehicles with an internal combustion engine.
\nElectric vehicles: the future.\n
Electric vehicles at low speeds produce very low levels of noise, i.e., in current urban environments, these vehicles are practically silent and unnoticeable. For example, the difference in noise level between an electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine vehicle can be greater than 6 dBA at 10 km/h [6]. At higher speeds, both types of vehicles become equally loud, mainly due to the tire noise. In urban areas, for pedestrians (especially for vulnerable groups: children and visually impaired people), it becomes much more difficult to detect electric vehicles due to their aforementioned lower noise levels [6]. Therefore, it is necessary to find a solution in the form of an audible signal that electric vehicles will emit in different driving modes.
\nSince 2009, the Japanese government, the United States Congress, and the European Commission have been studying the legislation to determine the minimum level of emitted sound signal for plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles when operating in electric mode. This level of audible signal must be such that visually impaired people, other pedestrians, and cyclists can hear the electric vehicles in motion and detect from which direction they are coming from. Several tests and studies have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode below 32 km/h are almost inaudible for pedestrians [7].
\nIn 2011, the European Commission composed guidelines for Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS). The aim of the guidelines was to present recommendations to manufacturers for a system to be installed in this type of vehicles that would emit an audible signal to pedestrians and other vulnerable groups in traffic. The guidelines recommend that AVAS automatically generate a continuous sound in the minimum range of vehicle speeds from standing at a place (0 km/h) and starting to drive (up to approximately 20 km/h) and when driving backwards, if applicable to that category of vehicle. Furthermore, the guidelines suggest which types of sounds are not suitable for this purpose [8]. In February 2013, the European Parliament decided that the law draft should combine series of tests, norms, and measures that first must be developed in order to make AVAS mandatory in the future. The approved amendment stipulates that “the sound generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound of the vehicle in operation providing information to pedestrians and vulnerable traffic users. The sound should clearly demonstrate the behavior of the vehicle and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine” [9]. In April 2014, a law (Regulation (EU) No 540/2014) was approved by the European Parliament requiring AVAS to be mandatory for all new electric and hybrid vehicles. The new guidance proposes a transitional period of 5 years after the announcement of the final approval of the April 2014 proposal [10].
\nFor example, a case study was carried out in Zagreb in 2019 [11], which involved 201 participants who had the task to fulfill a specially designed questionnaire. This case study addresses the issue of electric cars in everyday traffic. The research was focused on assigning a desirable (both for pedestrians and drivers) and, at the same time, detectable warning sound to an electrical vehicle in the daily traffic. The case study showed that the majority of participants (especially the ones with a driving license) would prefer that their electric vehicle sounds like an internal combustion engine car. The “nondrivers” were more open to the solution that an electric vehicle has a different sound than a “regular” car. According to the study, they were more opened to a solution of adding a sound of an electric motor to the electric vehicle as a warning sound which would distinguish the electric cars from cars with internal combustion engine in everyday traffic. However, an important question concerning the overall quality of life remains: “Which one of these two sounds would increase more the noise levels in urban environments?”
\nFinally, it can be concluded that electric vehicles will play a significant role in reducing noise levels especially in urban areas while adequately addressing the problem of emitting a certain warning sound when parking, moving forward, and stopping. It is important to note that the unique warning sound has not yet been implemented, i.e., various car manufacturers are still “experimenting” regarding this issue.
\nSmart traffic management is a system in which centrally controlled traffic signals and sensors regulate the flow of traffic through the city in compliance with the current state on the roads in the city (see Figure 14).
\nSmart traffic management system.
Upgrading and integrating all the signals on major roads in the city will have multiple benefits such as:
Significant reduction of daily traffic congestion, equalization of traffic flows, and prioritization of traffic in response to real-time demand.
Pollution reduction in the city: stop-start driving is inefficient and polluting.
Providing priority for busses approaching intersections and phase-coordinating traffic lights enabling a “green wave” through the city.
Enabling a much more efficient response to traffic accidents, especially on motorways, for example, the system can be pre-programmed for a sudden increase in traffic.
Enabling inbound traffic flow control.
In addition to the multiple benefits listed above, the system would also provide the perfect opportunity to install tracking equipment and collect a much more detailed traffic and travel data. Each set of traffic lights would have communication equipment that can be used to transmit (anonymously) vehicle data, either from automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR) cameras or Bluetooth detectors and closed-circuit television (CCTV) transmission (if suitable). There are three components in smart traffic management: traffic lights, queue detectors (in terms of traffic congestion) embedded in the road, and cameras and a central control system. Queue detectors define the traffic flow control system on all major roads in the city. The system controls the traffic lights to maintain the free flow of traffic within the city. Every 2 seconds, the system uses a real condition model to decide whether one will have the priority of changing the phase of any of the traffic lights. A system software considered as an “asset” can be defined as, for example, obeying the bus timetable, less pollution at a particular location, or fewer vehicles waiting at a highway toll booth.
\nIf inbound traffic flow control is used, the most remote sets of traffic lights on arterial or radial roads serve as a special function and are technically known as “doors” or “control points.” They regulate the flow of vehicles entering the city.
\nOne example of software with the purpose of smart traffic management is split cycle and offset optimization technique (SCOOT) which is used in hundreds of European cities for decades. It is used in Cambridge for coordinating traffic signals, where it usually favors busses. In Zurich, Braunschweig, and Potsdam, the system is used to control all traffic in the city [12]. The software is deployed with “knowledge” of the road network and is trained to respond appropriately to a wide range of scenarios (e.g., major traffic “disruptions” such as an accident on the arterial roads). It is important to note that the system also has the option to manually manage and make changes if there is a need for it.
\nTraffic behavior psychology is defined as the study of the behavior and psychological processes of different traffic participants. Its aim is to attempt to identify specific behavior patterns of users of different types of traffic with the ultimate goal of developing effective anti-accident measures [13]. There are two basic approaches that can help psychologists develop and implement measures against traffic accidents. First, traffic psychology can act as an “assistant” of science with a dominant field of traffic engineering. Road safety engineering solutions aim to optimize internal road safety. A safe road can be defined as a road that is designed, operated, or modified in such a way that it [14]:
Warns the driver of any unusual or odd features.
Informs the driver of road conditions.
Guides the driver through atypical parts.
Controls the passage of drivers through problematic points and roads (“black” traffic points).
Has the ability to tolerate a driver’s impolite or inappropriate behavior.
Engineering is powerful for a significant number of traffic problems. However, it would be wrong to assume that it is exclusively an engineering solution. Engineering must also consider sociopsychological solutions that include the implementation, education, and other activities in order to change the behavior of road users. In a significant number of traffic situations, psychological measures can support engineering measures in such a way that the performance of expected safety works even more effectively by informing or motivating traffic participants to change their behavior in the desired direction.
\nRegarding the specific application of this topic to the issue of noise, changes in the traffic participants’ behavior would mean a complete “openness” to newly developed traffic monitoring systems, participation in them, and raising awareness of the most vulnerable groups in traffic (visually impaired people and children). Figure 15 shows worrying data which is a direct consequence of the current behavior of road users.
\nReview of irresponsible and inappropriate traffic participants’ behavior [15].
In previous paragraphs, it has already been established that the dominant noise source when driving a car at higher speeds is tire noise which is caused by friction between the wheels and the road surface. In the case of light vehicles, tire noise becomes the main noise source already at a speed of 30 km/h, while in the case of heavy vehicles at speeds higher than 60 km/h tire noise becomes the main noise source, which is shown in Figure 16 [16]. Figure 17 shows noise levels for different types of vehicles depending on their speed [17].
\nThe correlation of noise levels and vehicle’s speed (lightweight vehicles marked with full lines and heavy weight vehicles with dashed lines) [16].
Noise levels for different types of vehicles, depending on their speed [17].
Tire noise depends on the following road surface properties:
Surface texture.
Acoustic absorption.
Aerodynamic processes.
Improving road surface properties in a way that effectively reduces noise generation and amplification will result in lower noise levels. There are several types of quiet road surfaces, and their application is mainly determined by the noise reduction proportion, the permitted speed in traffic, the composition of the traffic flow, and the possible adhesion of tires to the surface during parking. In urban areas, three types of bases are most commonly used:
Thin surface layers.
Two-layer porous asphalt.
Cast asphalt.
Thin surface layers are often referred as thin asphalt layers of or thin asphalt bases for noise level reduction (see Figure 18) [1]. These layers are usually up to 3 centimeters thick. There are a significant number of different types of thin surface layers on the market, for example, in the Netherlands more than 40, including porous and dense types. They usually reduce noise by 2–4 decibels at 50 km/h for cars when compared to the average dense asphalt concrete. Porous asphalt types are in average about 1 decibel quieter than dense ones; however they have a shorter duration than dense asphalt. The typical duration of a thin surface layer is 7–9 years. Thin surface layers are suitable and increasingly popular on low- and medium-speed roads; however they are not appropriate for places exposed to strong stress forces, such as roundabouts, steep slopes, bends, truck exits, etc.
\nTwo-layer porous asphalt (on the left) and a thin surface layer of asphalt (on the right) [1].
The two-layer porous asphalt consists of a top layer (2.5 centimeters thick) and a lower layer (4.5 centimeters thick) which is shown in Figure 18. The total thickness of the 7 centimeter porous layer absorbs more noise or more precisely at the beginning of its implementation from 5 to 7 decibels. Two-layer porous asphalt is relatively expensive and suitable for high-speed roads that require extreme noise reduction. Cast asphalt has a thin (3 centimeters) surface layer with a specific molding design. It contains more stone than thin surface layers, and since it is not porous, it does not absorb as much noise; however it is more robust than other asphalts. A test of this type of cast asphalt conducted in Berlin resulted in an initial noise reduction of 1.5 decibels. In addition to installing quiet road surfaces, another method of reducing tire noise is the production of quiet car tires. There are several manufacturers that have developed such tires and successfully placed them on the market. In general, the comfort concept of tires is directly related to their loudness. One of the tire functions is to absorb impacts and dampen vibrations, which means that the tire is an element of the vehicle that ensures the travel comfort. Smaller wheels produce less noise. Basically, a smaller tire represents a smaller surface that adheres to the road and thus produces less noise. In addition to the size, the material from which the tire is made is also significant. There are softer types of rubber that also make less noise. Of course, one of the most important factors is the speed of driving. If one plans to drive at higher speeds, it makes sense to have tires with such performance. However, such tires are thicker and larger, thus creating more noise. Furthermore, weather conditions also play a key role in choosing tires. Tires selected for severe weather will create more noise due to certain safety aspects, i.e., the need to better adhere to the road surface. Tires selected for extreme weather conditions will make the highest noise level. According to their design, tires selected for city driving can make less noise. All of this logically implies that winter tires will make more noise than do summer tires.
\nTire manufacturers can produce tires that make less noise. There are already various models, especially the quietest summer tires, which are 4–6 dB(A) below the limit, and many of the newer winter models are also approaching the limit of 2 dB(A). These restrictions are determined by Regulation No. 117 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)—Uniform requirements concerning the approval of tires regarding the emission of rolling sound and/or traction on rainy surfaces. The sound pressure levels generated by each tire size are shown in Table 2 (for reinforced tires (XL), the limits are higher by 1 dB(A)) [18].
\nTire size [inches] | \nSound pressure level [dB(A)] | \n
---|---|
<145 | \n72 | \n
145–165 | \n73 | \n
165–185 | \n74 | \n
185–215 | \n75 | \n
>215 | \n76 | \n
Table of decibels [18].
It can be concluded that noise can be limited by using modern quiet road surfaces which reduce its level from 3 to a maximum of 7 decibels. Unfortunately, such materials are usually 2.5 times more expensive than ordinary materials. Furthermore, noise can be reduced by using quieter tires by an additional 3–4 decibels; however the choice of tires depends on the preferences and habits of the driver. In the majority of cases, noise is reduced by speed limits on local roads and highways located near resident areas, and these restrictions are often even more restraining at night.
\nNoise pollution is a serious problem that affects the overall quality of life. This problem is especially noticeable in urban areas where a significant amount of noise pollution is produced by traffic. In this chapter the main traffic sources are described and analyzed. In addition to road, railway, and aircraft noise sources, other typical noise sources common for urban areas are also discussed. Bearing in mind the serious consequences of long-term exposure to noise, it is necessary to implement at least some measure to reduce noise levels. Today there are many initiatives and plans how to tackle this issue; however this chapter has focused on measures directly connected to traffic noise levels. In that sense, this type of noise reduction measures has been described and discussed in detail.
\nFurthermore, it can be concluded that education and some form of encouragement are needed to get the people more involved in the “fight” against noise and its negative impact. In this way, a kind of pressure would be created to set up the necessary city infrastructure (sensor networks), and finally the citizens would obtain a much-needed improvement of the quality of life in the environments in which they live.
\nAll publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
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\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
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\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
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\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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