Values of energy
\r\n\tFrederick Law Olmsted, who is considered the father of American landscape architecture, often commented that landscape architecture is a profession that creates natural design approaches in human interaction with the environment.
\r\n\tLandscape design answers the people's need for parks and gardens in urban areas.
\r\n\tIt is a necessary design tool to understand to make more livable places in our living environment. Landscape Planning gives an option to protect our natural resources and natural environment. It draws a balance between the use and protection of natural areas. Urban Design is one of the important issues for landscape architecture. It is a common point of architecture, planning, and the landscape architecture profession. It helps to create sustainable, healthy spaces in urban development. Rural planning and development is the core issue of landscape architecture that makes a balance between natural and human interactions.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book project welcomes research papers related to all Landscape Architecture topics. We hope to provide an opportunity for Landscape Architecture researchers to distribute information to the academic community.
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It is well known that the solution hardening depends on dislocation motion hindered by the atomic defects around impurities in crystals and is namely influenced by the dislocation-point defects interaction, which has been widely investigated by various methods. For instance, measurements of yield stress (e.g., [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) and proof stress (e.g., [8, 9]), micro-hardness tests (e.g., [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]), direct observations of dislocation (e.g., [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]), internal friction measurements (e.g., [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]), or stress relaxation tests (e.g., [28, 29]) have been carried out so far. Nevertheless, it is difficult to obtain such information on the motion of the dislocation which moves by overcoming the forest dislocations and the weak obstacles such as impurities during plastic deformation of bulk. A large number of investigations have been conducted by the separation of the flow stress into effective and internal stresses on the basis of the temperature dependence of yield stress, the strain rate dependence of flow stress, and the stress relaxation. Yield stress depends on dislocation velocity, dislocation density, and multiplication of dislocations [30]. On the other hand, the effect of heat treatment on the micro-hardness is almost insensitive to the change of atomic order of point defects in a specimen. As for direct observations, electron microscopy provides the information on dislocation motion for a thin specimen but not for bulk, and also light scattering method is useful only for a transparent specimen. X-ray topography is the lack of resolution in the photograph, so that the specimen is limited to the low dislocation density below 104 cm−2. Internal friction measurements concern the motion of the dislocation which breaks away from the weak obstacles between two forest dislocations by vibration [31]. Stress relaxation tests are generally assumed that internal structure of crystals does not change, i.e., dislocation density and internal stress are constant. Above-mentioned methods cannot provide the information on dislocation-obstacles interaction in bulk during plastic deformation.
In this chapter, the study on interaction between a dislocation and dopant ions is made by the strain-rate cycling tests during the Blaha effect measurement. The original method (strain-rate cycling tests associated with the Blaha effect measurement) is different from above-mentioned ones and would be possible to clear up it. The Blaha effect is the phenomenon that static flow stress decreases when an ultrasonic oscillatory stress is superimposed during plastic deformation [32]. Ohgaku and Takeuchi [33, 34] reported that the strain-rate cycling under the application of oscillation can separate the contributions arising from the interaction between a dislocation and dopant ions and from the dislocations themselves during plastic deformation at room temperature. Using ionic single crystals of KCl doped with Br− (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mol%) or I− (0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 mol%) [35] and of NaCl doped with Br− (0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 mol%) [36], they discussed temperature dependence of the effective stress due to monovalent dopants (i.e., Br− or I−) and found that the measurement of strain-rate sensitivity under the ultrasonic oscillatory stress provides useful information on a mobile dislocation-the dopant ions interaction [35, 36]. The information on the dislocation motion breaking-away from dopant ions [37, 38, 39, 40] and also X-irradiation induced defects [41] with the ultrasonic oscillatory stress has been successively provided by the original method, which seemed to separate the contributions arising from the dislocation-the point defects interaction and from dislocations themselves during plastic deformation of crystals.
The Blaha effect was found by Blaha and Langenecker when the ultrasonic oscillatory stress of 800 kHz was superimposed during plastic deformation of Zn single crystals. The same phenomenon as Zn crystals has been also observed in many metals (e.g., [42, 43, 44]). Since this phenomenon has a significance as an industrial purpose, it has been widely made to apply to the plastic working technique: wire drawing, deep drawing, rolling, and another metal forming techniques (e.g., [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]).
The strain-rate cycling tests associated with ultrasonic oscillation were carried out here for NaCl single crystals doped with various monovalent ions separately. The monovalent ion is considered to have isotropic strain in the alkali halide crystal because its size is different from the substituted ion of the host crystal. Dopant ions are expected to cause the hardening due to the dislocation motion hindered by the defects around them at low temperature. Its force-distance profile between a dislocation and an atomic defect is expressed by Cottrell and Bilby [54]. This chapter refers to the energy supplied by the thermal fluctuations, when the dopant ions are overcome by a dislocation with the help of thermal activation during plastic deformation of crystals. This is estimated from the dependence of the effective stress due to impurities on activation volume, which reveals the force-distance profile, given by the measurement of the stress decrement due to application of ultrasonic oscillatory stress and strain-rate sensitivity of flow stress under superimposition of ultrasonic oscillation. And further, it is presented that the difference in size of isotropic strain around the various dopants different from host ion has an influential factor of the energy for overcoming the dopant ion by a dislocation in several kinds of alkali-halide single crystals.
Specimens used in this work were seven kinds of single crystals: NaCl doped with Li+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, F−, Br− or I− ions separately. Each concentration of the dopants was 0.5 mol% in the melt. The specimens were prepared by cleaving the single crystalline ingots, which were grown by the Kyropoulos method [55] in air, to the size of 5 × 5 × 15 mm3. Furthermore, they were kept immediately below the melting point for 24 h and were gradually cooled to room temperature at a rate of 40 K h−1. This heat treatment was carried out for the purpose of reducing dislocation density as much as possible.
The schematic illustration of apparatus is shown in Figure 1. A resonator composed of a vibrator and a horn was attached to the testing machine, INSTRON Type 4465. The specimens were lightly fixed on a piezoelectric transducer and then cooled down to a test temperature. Each specimen was held at the test temperature for 30 min prior to the following test. The specimens were deformed by compression along the <100> axis at 77 K up to the room temperature, and the ultrasonic oscillatory stress was intermittently superimposed for 1 or 2 min by the resonator in the same direction as the compression. The temperature measurements of specimens were conducted by heater controlled using thermocouples of Ni-55%Cu vs. Cu. As for the tests at 77 K, the specimen was immersed in the liquid nitrogen. The stability of temperature during the test was kept within 2 K. The resonant frequency was 20 kHz from a multifunction synthesizer and the amplitude of the oscillatory stress was monitored by the output voltage from the piezoelectric transducer set between a specimen and the support rod, which was observed by an a.c. voltmeter or an oscilloscope. Since the wavelength, which is 226 mm on the basis of calculating from the data of ref. [56], is 15 times as long as the length of specimen, the strain of specimen is supposed to be homogeneous.
Schematic block diagram of apparatus system.
Strain-rate cycling tests made between the crosshead speeds of 10 and 50 μm min−1 were performed within the temperatures. The strain-rate cycling test associated with the ultrasonic oscillation is illustrated in Figure 2. Superposition of oscillatory stress (
Explanatory diagram of a change in applied shear stress,
Figure 3 shows the influence of temperature on Δ
Relation between the stress decrement (Δ
The relation between Δ
A dislocation will encounter a stress field illustrated schematically in Figure 4 as it moves through on the slip plane containing many weak obstacles and a few strong ones. In the figure, the positive stress concerning axis of the ordinate opposes the flow stress (applied stress
Stress fields encountered by a dislocation moving through the crystal lattice [
The representation of Figure 5 is concerned with a common type of thermal activation barrier. The free energy (
The process for thermal activated overcoming of the short-range obstacle by a dislocation. Variation in (a) the Gibbs free energy of activation and (b) the force acted on the dislocation with the distance for a dislocation motion [
When the dislocation breaks-away from the defects on a slip plane with the aid of thermal activation during plastic deformation, observations of
Figure 6 shows the relation between
Relation between
where
This dependence (
Specimen | |
---|---|
NaCl:Li+ (0.5 mol%) | 0.55 |
NaCl:K+ (0.5 mol%) | 0.60 |
NaCl:Rb+ (0.5 mol%) | 0.61 |
NaCl:Cs+ (0.5 mol%) | 0.82 |
NaCl:F− (0.5 mol%) | 0.69 |
NaCl:Br− (0.5 mol%) | 0.47 |
NaCl:I− (0.5 mol%) | 0.53 |
Values of energy
Figure 7 shows the obtained energies
Variation of the interaction energy (
The following conclusions were derived from the data analyzed in terms of the Δ
The relation between Δ
The Gibbs free energy
Dr. T. Ohgaku, as well as S. Yamaguchi, M. Azuma, H. Teraji, E. Ogawa and Y. Yamanaka are acknowledged for his collaboration in the analysis on Δ
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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