Average number of bernes per animal according to sex and distribution in their respective quadrants
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-206-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-205-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-207-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"555c180ed3eefc77d38259cc57bd8dfe",bookSignature:"Dr. Svetlana P. Chapoval",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10324.jpg",keywords:"Th2 Response, Th2 Cytokines, Asthma Classification, Differences in Diagnostics, FDA-Approved Treatments, Occupational Asthma, Exercise-Provoked Asthma, Medication-Induced Asthma, Th2-Independent Asthma, Asthma and COPD, Future Perspectives, Asthma Research",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 17th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Assistant Professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, well-recognized for her work on HLA Class II-restricted allergen T cell epitopes, VEGF-induced lung DC modifications, and her recent discoveries on neuroimmune semaphorins 4A and 4D contributions to allergic airway inflammation and to Treg cell phenotype and function. She has served and continues to serve as a reviewer for over 20 peer-reviewed scientific journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"70021",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana P.",middleName:null,surname:"Chapoval",slug:"svetlana-p.-chapoval",fullName:"Svetlana P. Chapoval",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/70021/images/system/70021.png",biography:"Dr. Svetlana Chapoval completed her medical training in 1985 at Russian State Medical University and PhD training in 1994 at Gamaleya Scientific Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology. She then completed her postdoctoral fellowship in Immunology at Mayo Clinic in 2002. From 2002 to 2005 Dr. Chapoval was an Associate Research Scientists in the Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine at Yale University. She joined the Center for Vascular and Inflammatory Diseases and the Program in Oncology of the University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center at University of Maryland School of Medicine in 2006 as an Assistant Professor. Dr. Chapoval’s research is focused on cellular and molecular mechanisms of lung chronic inflammatory diseases, asthma in particular, and novel molecules for disease immunotherapy. She is well-recognized for her work on HLA Class II-restricted allergen T cell epitopes, VEGF-induced lung DC modifications, and her recent discoveries on neuroimmune semaphorins 4A and 4D contributions to allergic airway inflammation and to Treg cell phenotype and function. Dr. Chapoval has served and continue to serve as a reviewer for 20+ peer-reviewed scientific journals. In 2015, she completed a 4-year term as an Associate Editor for a renowned journal.",institutionString:"University of Maryland",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7248",title:"Dendritic Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ce3caba88847e8b12beb992e7a63e1dc",slug:"dendritic-cells",bookSignature:"Svetlana P. Chapoval",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7248.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70021",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana P.",surname:"Chapoval",slug:"svetlana-p.-chapoval",fullName:"Svetlana P. Chapoval"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49832",title:"Abundance and Risk Factors for Dermatobiosis in Dairy Cattle of an Organic Farm in the Tropical Region",doi:"10.5772/62150",slug:"abundance-and-risk-factors-for-dermatobiosis-in-dairy-cattle-of-an-organic-farm-in-the-tropical-regi",body:'Dermatobia hominis (Linneus Jr., 1781) (Diptera: Cuterebridae), commonly known in Brazil as “mosca do berne” (warble fly), has high incidence in cattle bred in many regions of the country. It infests a considerably large number of hosts, cattle being the most affected. This fly’s larva once on the skin of those animals causes furuncular myiasis, also known as dermatobiosis, which is characterized by the formation of nodules in the host.
The study of seasonal variations of this fly allows us to know the periods of higher parasitic intensity, and also to correlate the facts operating in the growth of its population. Several authors are engaged in studying the seasonal variation of fly’s larva and its relation to climate elements: temperature, precipitation, and humidity, showing that the presence of the warble is associated with regions that have moderately high temperatures during the day and relatively cold overnights, median and abundant rainfall, dense vegetation, and a considerable number of animals. Also, the rainy season is the period of highest occurrence. Even with all these characteristics, the index of parasitism by D. hominis can vary according to environmental conditions, regional differences. It also depends on the location of the parasite in the host.
In conventional livestock, the larva population on the cattle is controlled with the use of chemical larvicide. On the other hand, organic rural properties must meet the standards contained in the 60th Article of Normative Instruction No. 46, 2011, Ministry of Agriculture and Supply, which regulates organic production in Brazil, restricting the use of allopathic medicines [1].
Several studies about seasonality and D. hominis larvae’s control have already been described, but no data were found related to this infestation in dairy cattle raised under organic systems. The goal of this study was to provide subsides about this parasitic skin disease in organic breeding; to verify the location and distribution of the larvae on the body surface of the cattle; to determine the intensity of infestation related to gender, age, and coat color; and the influence of the climatic factors in infestation rates. This study also provides basis to the creation of a dermatobiosis control program in organic dairy production systems.
The parasitism rate of D. hominis may have some variations due to climate conditions. In addition, there may be differences in the location of the parasite in the host.
According to [2], flies of the species D. hominis are diurnal and are found in tropical forests. According to [3], flies of D. hominis were never found in stables and houses, being more abundant on the edges of woods, forests, and eucalyptus plantations. As [4] says, this fly is well adapted in Brazil, mainly concentrated in regions of hot and humid climate, with abundant vegetation and in altitudes lower than 1000 meters. According to [5], the life cycle of D. hominis has two well-defined stages. The nonparasitic stage corresponds to the soil pupation and adult flies in forest, and the parasitic stage corresponds to the entire development of larvae in the subcutaneous tissue of the host. The flies copulate in the first 24 hours after their emergence. Few hours after fertilization, the females begin to frequent the vicinity of cattle corrals, meeting several species of fly vectors. The deposition of their eggs is made during the flight in the lateral–ventral region of the vector after its capture and immobilization. The incubation period of eggs in the vector is of approximately eight days, and when this vector meets the host, the larvae break the eggs and penetrate through the hair follicles into the skin causing nodular myiasis. The larval period can go from 25 to 60 days. It is at night or early in the morning that mature larvae leave the host and go to the ground to pupate, avoiding the sun.
In Colombia, [6] observed higher prevalence of D. hominis in rainy season. [7] reported the occurrence of dermatobiosis throughout the year in Argentina, with infection peaks in rainy season, with warmer temperatures and higher humidity. [8] observed a higher incidence of infestation by larvae of D. hominis in the months of November and March, in São Paulo, Brazil, with decreased incidence until June. Larger infestations by warble were verified in March and April, in the state of Paraná (Brazil), with lower incidence in August and September, according to [9]. The authors linked the higher incidence of this parasitosis with rainy season. As [10] says, the highest prevalence of D. hominis during the rainy season is due to the better development conditions for the parasite, where a greater number of larvae can reach the pupal stage.
[11] described that the warble is distributed in approximately 20 states in Brazil, with higher abundance in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, Distrito Federal, and Goiás. The author mentions that the parasite does not occur in the states of Amapá, Rondônia, Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe. According to the author, the soil conditions in these places do not offer conditions for the parasite to complete its life cycle. According to [4], D. hominis life cycle is complete in 80–150 days.
Observations related to seasonal variations in D. hominis in the city of Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, made by [12] revealed that there is a positive correlation between parasitism by larvae D. hominis, relative air humidity and rainfall. However, no relationship was observed between ambient temperature and parasitism rates. Seasonality studies of the warble in cattle from the city of Guaíba, RS, mentioned by [13] have shown that in the warmer seasons of the year, that is, during the spring and summer, infestations happen with higher intensity. [14] in surveys conducted in Campo Grande – MS observed higher rates of warble infestation in periods of higher rainfall and higher relative humidity, with no positive correlation between ambience temperature and infestations in animals and also reported the presence of larvae throughout the study period with maximum amounts in March and May.
By studying the seasonal fluctuation of D. hominis in bovine skins coming from slaughterhouses, [15] observed that the highest percentages of infestation occurred when the months before had recorded increases in average temperature and rainfall. These factors may favor the penetration of larvae in the soil decreasing the pupation time of D. homins larvae. In addition, such climatic conditions also benefit its vectors’ pupation.
In southeastern Brazil, the months of spring and summer, which correspond to the rainy season, are the most favorable period of year for the occurrence of dermatobiosis in cattle. Smaller infestations happen during the dry season in the months of autumn and winter according to [16] and [17].
According to [18], in Brazil, losses caused by of D. hominis larvae reach 250 million dollars per year.
A study on variations related to infestations of cattle by D. hominis larvae was held in Viamão – RS by [19], when the author observed higher incidence of warble in the anterior left part of cattle. [13] observed that, in cattle, 73% of subcutaneous nodules caused by D. hominis larvae were distributed in the anterior parts. The most infected parts were the ribs (31.9% of the observed nodules), scapula (21.5% of the observed nodules), forelegs (17.8% of the observed nodules), and neck (8.8%).
[20] verified the parasite dynamics of warble, noting its incidence in relation to decubitus in cattle of the Canchin race, in São Carlos – SP. The incidence of parasitism was higher on the left side (14.2 nodules on average) compared to the right side (10.5 nodules). According to the author, the higher incidence of parasitism on the left side can be explained due to the fact that this region was more exposed to the vectors of D. hominis’ eggs. In his observations it was possible to say that most of the animals during their rest leaned on their right side, that is, 2.360 animals observed, 1.183 had the habit of lying on their left side, while 1.447 were lying on their right side. In another study, [21] found that the regions of the forelimbs and the left blades were more parasitized. According to the author, low parasitism in posterior regions was due to the tail, which acts as a broom protecting such areas up to approximately the seventh rib. The data showed that, although protected posterior regions are equivalent to 41.06 % of the body surface of the animal, only 16.20 % were infested by warble. In another study by [22], in the city of Seropédica in the state of Rio de Janeiro, it was observed that the body region with the highest number of nodules was the blade, followed by the ribs and the forelimbs. It was also observed that, in cattle antimeres, the left side had 50.46 % of the nodules, and the right side 49.54 %. But this difference was not statistically significant. [23] conducted a study regarding the seasonal fluctuation of larvae D. hominis on cattle skins from slaughterhouses, observed a higher incidence of nodules caused by the larvae of D. hominis in the anterior region, with a 97.8 % rate.
[24] observed a significantly higher frequency of D. hominis nodules in females (16.7%) than in males (14.7 %). The presence of larvae in adult animals (15.4 %) is also more significant than in younger animals (12.1 %) and when it comes to the coat, the highest frequency of larvae was observed in the dark ones (black). Considering the body part, the one that was the most parasitized was the left anterior quadrant.
In conventional livestock, the larva population on the cattle is controlled with the use of chemical larvicide; on the other hand, organic rural must meet the standards contained in the 60th Article of Normative Instruction No. 46, 2011, Ministry of Agriculture and Supply, which regulates organic production in Brazil, restricting the use of allopathic medicines [1]. The term “organic” refers to animal and vegetable food that are produced without the use of fertilizers; pesticides; insecticides; antimicrobials; antiparasitic, transgenic, or any other drug that may contain harmful residues to human health, including agricultural products to conventional dairy farms [25].
Milk production in organic systems does not reach 0.1% of national production, which is about 25 million liters per year, due to several factors, such as: rural extension work enabling the process to small producers; the lack of scientific research adapting livestock production in organic system to the tropical reality; as well as food pasture fertilizers, racial patterns, and health care with the herd, such as endo- and ectoparasites control and mastitis [26].
The study was conducted from September 2009 to August 2010 in an area that belongs to the Sistema Integrado de Produção Agroecológica (Integrated Agroecological Production System) – SIPA (Fazendinha Agroecológica Km 47), technical cooperation project between Embrapa Agrobiologia, Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (Agriculture Research Corporation of Rio de Janeiro State) (PESAGRO – Rio /Seropédica), and Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (Rural Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) [27]. SIPA is located in the city of Seropédica, metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro state, currently occupying 70 hectares and incorporating, in addition to vegetable production area and fruits, a fragment of forest, a forest garden, and areas of agroforestry and ornamental species. Pastures subdivided into paddocks total 30 hectares.
The meteorological data used were temperature (T) of the air, relative humidity (RH), and precipitation (PP) obtained from the Agrometeorological station situated in SIPA’s area.
The climate is hot and humid with little pronounced winter. The average temperature of the coldest month is higher than 20 ° C (68°F) and the maximum temperature in the summer can exceed 40 ° C (104° F). The rainfall is characterized by the existence of a rainy season in summer and dry in winter. The annual rainfall is around 1.300 mm, although it is mostly rainy in spring and summer, the occurrence of prolonged drought is common in the months of January and February [27].
The herd consisted of 40 crossbred dairy animals Zebu x European (Gir x Holstein), divided into lots of young and adult animals. The young ones were divided into two further lots: suckler calves (birth to 6 months) and weaned calves (from 7 months to 18 months or 330 kg), and a lot of adult animals consisting of dry cows, in lactation, and a bull. The determination of the coat of animals followed the Girolando characterization [28]. (Figures 1 A, B, C, and D).
Colors of the coat: (A) brown; (B) black on white; (C) red typical shades; (D) white on black (E) black.
The management system was semi-intensive: the animals remained in the corral during the day, where accumulation of manure could take place, and returned to the grass in the late afternoon. A physical model for organic milk production is implemented. Throughout the management, animal welfare, including avoidance of psychological stress in the herd, is prioritized. All the pickets have access to clean drinking fountains with good-quality water and shaded areas with afforestation. Containment fences are electrified and made with flat wire, in order not to represent a risk of injury to the animals.
The pastures are used in a rotation system. To supply the smaller forage production that happens in the dry period (period of lower growth of pastures), a cultivated area is managed to offer a forage supply in the trough. It is estimated that the period of lowest forage production in the region begins in mid-June and goes on until late October; that is, 135 days (or nine Fortnights) of drought and lower temperatures at night. A dairy Gir bull is used to ensure the reproduction of cows as well as the welfare of animals.
The health management system established was developed for the SIPA project “Fazendinha Agroecológica Km 47.” It is based on the folowing: animal welfare, strategic control of parasites, and homeopathic therapy, always stressing prevention as the most important aspect with regard to treatment. The specific objective was the reestablishment and maintenance of herd health in that organic system, and the general goal was to facilitate the structuring of an experimental organic dairy cattle system.
Homeopathic medicines have been prepared by the Pharmacy School from Instituto Hahnemanniano do Brasil. Drugs are in accordance with the rules of the Brazilian Pharmacy in the form of liquid presentation, and packaged in appropriate amber glass containers. The ways of administration are oral, nasal, or vaginal.
As already mentioned, throughout the management, the priority is the animal’s welfare, including avoiding of psychological stress in the herd. “Good management practices in dairy cattle with emphasis on preventive health” established for this breeding system follow the definitions of the 60th Article of Normative Instruction No. 46, 2011, Ministry of Agriculture and Supply.
The basic requirements under Article 60 of MAPA IN No. 46 [1] are as follows: (1) follow the principles of animal welfare at all stages of the production process; (2) keep hygiene and health throughout the breeding process, consistent with current health legislation and the use of products that are authorized in organic production; (3) provide preventive health techniques; (4) offer nutritious healthy food, with quality and in correct amounts according to the nutritional requirements of each species; (5) offer good-quality water and in appropriated quantities, free of chemical and biological agents that may compromise their health and vigor, quality product and natural resources, according to the parameters specified by law; (6) the use sanitary facilities that are functional and comfortable; and (7) dispose in an environmentally appropriate way, the production wastes.
Vaccinations against FMD, brucellosis, clostridial diseases, salmonellosis, and rabies follow the current schedule in health-surveillance Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Supply. Homeopathy is the adopted therapy for treatment and prevention of major diseases of dairy cattle, with a Homeopathic protocol developed for this creation system.
A supplement freely provided to the entire herd was formulated according to this system, composed of salt, sulfur (for animal feeding), and dicalcium phosphate.
Inspection was performed biweekly (mapping the presence of larvae), totaling 915 inspections. The animals were inspected by anatomical demarcation, and their body divided into antimeres: anterior upper right (RADS), anterior lower right (RADI), posterior upper right region (RPDS), lower right posterior region (RPDI), anterior upper left (RAES), left anterior inferior (RAEI), posterior upper left region (RPES), and posterior lower left region (RPEI). The presence of the larvae (Figure 2) was observed in the different regions, and the data recorded in documents, according to the methodology of [29], with modifications (Figure 3).
Presence of D. hominis larvae in subcutaneous tissue of cattle.
Field spreadsheet to map the dermatobiosis in cattle, according to the methodology of [29] with modifications.
The berne description of the amounts into categories of each attribute were studied, and performed some exploratory data analysis through bar charts, box plots and calculating the average number of warble per studied animal. To compare the berne counts among the quadrants defined by anatomical demarcation, we used nonparametric Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis test [30], due to the presence of nonnormal data [31]. To verify the association between the inherent variables to the animals and climate we used the generalized linear bivariate model of Poisson [32]. The dependent variable was the larva counted in each animal, the independent variables or explanatory variables were related to the animal profile (gender, age, and coat) and climatic factors (average temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity). As the dates of collection were different between adults and young animals (suckling calves and weaned calves), a stratified analysis was made taking into consideration the age of the animals involved in the study. The relative risk indicator is a measure of association, where two or more variables are correlated, being one of the ways used to the assessment in epidemiological statistics to answer the correlations between two outcome and exposure variables, where RR = 1 lack of association occurred; 0 <RR <1 protection factor, and RR> 1 risk factor.
In the period of study, 915 berne counts in cattle were made (inspections), in which 391 were in adult cattle, 356 in weaned calves, and 168 in suckling calves. Of the total, 784 females and 131 males were counted. Of the 915 counts, 354 were made in cattle coat with red color in typical shades, 180 in fur animals with white on black, 87 in cattle with black color coat, 198 counts in animal with light brown and dark coat, and 96 counts in animal with black on white coat.
To adjust the climate data to the study database, the average was calculated for each of them (Average temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity) taking into consideration a fifteen-day delay period preceding the collecting day.
All statistical analyses were performed using statistical package R [33].
The results of monitoring of the herd dermatobiosis indicated that there was a significant predominance of parasitism in the females (total average 21.98 bernes per female against total average rating of 8.37 bernes per male), as shown in Figure 4 (A), where the average number of nodules per sex in each animal is observed. Also, greater variability in females than in males was observed, as shown in Figure 4 (B). Also in relation to gender, males showed a higher number of nodes on the right side (total of 4.46 against 3.90 on the left), where the RPDs (Posterior Right Upper Region) was the most infested (2.16). In females, the highest number of nodules were concentrated on the left side (total of 11.17 against 10.70 on the right) and RADS (Anterior Right Upper Region) was the most affected (6.98). Table 1 shows the average number of nodules per animal according to sex. It was found that there was significant difference (p-value <0.001) regarding the amount of bernes between males (8.37) and females (21.98).
Distribution of parasitism in cattle according to gender (A). Degree of infestation variability between sexes in the herd (B).
\n\t\t\t\tAverage number of warbles per animal\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tGender\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tWilcoxon P-value\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\tMale\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFemale\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tAnimal Total | \n\t\t\t8.3 7 | \n\t\t\t21.98 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001*\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Left quadrant | \n\t\t\tLower Anterior | \n\t\t\t0.59 | \n\t\t\t1.55 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.004*\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Upper Posterior | \n\t\t\t1.44 | \n\t\t\t2.58 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.017*\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Upper Anterior | \n\t\t\t1.75 | \n\t\t\t6.46 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001*\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Lower Posterior | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.60 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001*\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Total | \n\t\t\t3.90 | \n\t\t\t11.17 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Right quadrant | \n\t\t\tLower Anterior | \n\t\t\t0.29 | \n\t\t\t1.51 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Upper Posterior | \n\t\t\t2.16 | \n\t\t\t1.88 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.362\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Upper Anterior | \n\t\t\t1.89 | \n\t\t\t6.98 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Lower Posterior | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.55 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.0111 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Total | \n\t\t\t4,46 | \n\t\t\t10,75 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0,001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Average number of bernes per animal according to sex and distribution in their respective quadrants
* Significant values assuming a significance level of 5%
A significant prevalence of parasitism in females agrees with the results found by [24]. Regarding the most infected body region, there was divergence of results in other studies since all author studies cited here [19, 13, 21, 22, and 23] indicate a predominance of infestation in the anterior region, unlike the results found in males in this study, where the most affected body region was the posterior upper right region (RPDS) with an average of 2.16 bernes per animal. Also, in relation to the group of males in the herd, the prevalence of nodules on the right (total of 4.46 against 3.90 on the left) contradicts the results found by [19] in the study of Viamão – RS; as well as [20], who observed that the incidence on the left side is related to prevalence of the right lateral-sternal decubitus at rest time. [21] also found prevalence of parasitism on the left and [22] in a study conducted in Seropédica – RJ found no statistically significant difference between the number of nodules on the right and left sides of cattle.
Considering the age of the animals, it was found that the number of adult animals that were affected by berne (total of 31.55) was significantly higher (p <0,001) than younger animals of the herd (total of 8.0 in suckling calves and 12.21 in weaned calves); the variability in this group was also higher than the variability in the younger group. In the group of young animals, the most affected ones by the parasitosis were weaned calves and (total of 12.21 per animal), therefore, the group of suckler calves was the least infested by the larvae of D. hominis (total of 8.01 per animal) as shown in Figure 4 (A), where the average number of bernes per animal according to the age is observed. Figure 4 (B) shows the variability of the total number of bernes, considering the age of cattle. Based on age, in both groups of young animals, the most infested side was the left one (total of 4.04 and 6.47 per animal), and the most affected body part in the group of suckling calves was the RADS (Anterior Right Upper Region), averaging 1.69 berne per animal, while in the group of weaned calves it was the RAES (Left Anterior Upper Region), averaging 3.53 bernes per animal. In the group of adults, the more infested side was the left (total of 15.71 nodules per animal) and the most affected region was the RADS (Anterior Right Upper Region) (average of 10.68 bernes per animal), as shown in Table 2. It was found that there is significant difference (p <0.001) compared to the amount of bernes related to age.
Average number of nodules per animal according to the age of the animal (A). Variability of the total number of bernes considering the age of animals (B).
\n\t\t\t\tAverage number of grubs per animal\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAge\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tKruskal-Wallis p-value\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\tSuckling\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tWeaned\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAdults\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t | The animal Total | \n\t\t\t8.01 | \n\t\t\t12.21 | \n\t\t\t31.55 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Left quadrant | \n\t\t\tLower Anterior | \n\t\t\t0.47 | \n\t\t\t0.73 | \n\t\t\t2.38 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Upper Posterior | \n\t\t\t1.65 | \n\t\t\t1.83 | \n\t\t\t3.28 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.7614\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Upper Anterior | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t\t3.53 | \n\t\t\t9.37 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Lower Posterior | \n\t\t\t0.29 | \n\t\t\t0.38 | \n\t\t\t0.76 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.0033 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Total | \n\t\t\t4.04 | \n\t\t\t6.47 | \n\t\t\t15.71 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Right quadrant | \n\t\t\tLower Anterior | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\t0.78 | \n\t\t\t2.19 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Upper Posterior | \n\t\t\t1.69 | \n\t\t\t1.38 | \n\t\t\t2.48 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.6788\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Upper Anterior | \n\t\t\t1.69 | \n\t\t\t3.23 | \n\t\t\t10.68 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Lower Posterior | \n\t\t\t12.26 | \n\t\t\t12.43 | \n\t\t\t0.62 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.1312\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Total | \n\t\t\t4.02 | \n\t\t\t5.79 | \n\t\t\t15.68 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Average number of berne per animal in the herd according to age and distribution in their respective quadrants
* Significant values assuming a significance level of 5%
This study regarding the age of the animals, including the evaluation of results referring to the sides in which the highest level of infestations occurred, has shown in the youth group and adult group an agreement with results of previous researches. But, in the adults’ group and in the suckling calves’ group, although presenting a predominance of infestation on the left side (total of 15.71 and 4.02, respectively), it was observed that the most infested body region was the RADS (Anterior Superior Right Region), averaging 10.68 bernes per animal and RPDS (Posterior Superior Right Region), averaging 1.69 bernes per animal, respectively, different from that indicated in previous studies by [19] held in Viamão – RS, as well as [20], which linked the prevalence of parasitism on the left side to the right lateral-sternal decubitus at rest time. [21] also found prevalence of parasitism on the left and [22] in Seropédica – RJ did not find statistically significant difference between the number of nodules on the right and left sides of cattle.
Considering the presence of the larvae of D. hominis and the animal’s coat, it is observed that the coat with a higher level of infestation is the black on white (total 36.69), while showing lesser infestation rates were typical red shades (14.13) and the light and dark brown (12.33).
In Table 3 we observe the average number of bernes per animal according to type of animal coat. There is a significant difference (p-value <0.001) comparing the amount of bernes between the coats. In Figure 5 (A) the average number of bernes per coat type in each animal is shown. Figure 5 (B) shows the variability of the total number of bernes in relation to the type of coat of the animal.
According to a study conducted by [24], the parasite frequency of occurrence was higher in dark-coat animals (black) unlike what was found in this study.
Average number ofwarbles per animal | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCoat color\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tKruskal-Wallis\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\tp-value\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||
\n\t\t\t\tWhite-Black\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tRed\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBlack-White\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBlack\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBrown\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t | Total per animal | \n\t\t\t17.08 | \n\t\t\t14.13 | \n\t\t\t36.69 | \n\t\t\t29.82 | \n\t\t\t12.33 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Left quadrant | \n\t\t\tLower Anterior | \n\t\t\t1.80 | \n\t\t\t0.86 | \n\t\t\t3.37 | \n\t\t\t1.59 | \n\t\t\t0.31 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Upper Posterior | \n\t\t\t1.05 | \n\t\t\t1.70 | \n\t\t\t5.04 | \n\t\t\t2.33 | \n\t\t\t1.98 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.006 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Upper Anterior | \n\t\t\t4.30 | \n\t\t\t4.72 | \n\t\t\t10.69 | \n\t\t\t8.74 | \n\t\t\t2.57 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Lower Posterior | \n\t\t\t0.44 | \n\t\t\t0.38 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t\t0.80 | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.0016 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Total | \n\t\t\t7.59 | \n\t\t\t7.66 | \n\t\t\t19.94 | \n\t\t\t13.46 | \n\t\t\t5.25 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Right quadrant | \n\t\t\tLower Anterior | \n\t\t\t1.26 | \n\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t\t2.79 | \n\t\t\t2.30 | \n\t\t\t0.47 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Upper Posterior | \n\t\t\t1.08 | \n\t\t\t1.07 | \n\t\t\t3.01 | \n\t\t\t2.83 | \n\t\t\t2.44 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.007 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Upper Anterior | \n\t\t\t6.82 | \n\t\t\t4.25 | \n\t\t\t10.22 | \n\t\t\t11.02 | \n\t\t\t3.83 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Lower Posterior | \n\t\t\t0.53 | \n\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t0.83 | \n\t\t\t0.48 | \n\t\t\t0.39 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.0892\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Total | \n\t\t\t9.59 | \n\t\t\t6.52 | \n\t\t\t16.52 | \n\t\t\t16.08 | \n\t\t\t7.07 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<0.001 *\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Average number of bernes per herd animal taking into consideration the coat type and distribution in their respective quadrants
* Significant values assuming a significance level of 5%
Average number of bernes by coat type in each herd animal (A). Variability of the total number of bernes in relation to the type of coat of animals (B).
As shown in Table 4, the months of highest occurrence of dermatobiosis were November and December, 2009, while the lowest levels of infestation by larvae of D. hominis were recorded in June and July, 2010. The period of highest infestation was the rainy season (spring and summer), and the record of the lower parasitism rates occurred during the dry season (fall and winter). The occurrence of parasites was observed throughout the study period. These findings coincide with observations of [6, 7, 10, 13, 16, and 17]. They also coincide with a study made by [14] on the observations of larvae presence throughout the study period, but differing in the months of maximum count. The results of this study also confirmed the observations of [8] in his study in the State of São Paulo, where he found higher occurrence of parasitosis in November, with a decrease until July, as well as the results found by [9] in his study in the state of Paraná, where major infestations in the rainy season period was also noted, differing only in the months of highest and lowest occurrence of dermatobiosis.
\n\t\t\t\tMonths/Years\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tQuantity of Bernes | \n\t\t|||||
\n\t\t\t\tYoung animals\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAdult animals\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||
\n\t\t\t\tAverage\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTotal\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAverage\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTotal\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Rainy season | \n\t\t\tSpring | \n\t\t\tSeptember/2009 | \n\t\t\t26 | \n\t\t\t1.381 | \n\t\t\t63 | \n\t\t\t2.263 | \n\t\t
October/2009 | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t821 | \n\t\t\t52 | \n\t\t\t1.886 | \n\t\t||
November/2009 | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t1.422 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t3.546 | \n\t\t||
Summer | \n\t\t\tDecember/2009 | \n\t\t\t33 | \n\t\t\t1.393 | \n\t\t\t104 | \n\t\t\t3.748 | \n\t\t|
January/2010 | \n\t\t\t5.3 | \n\t\t\t223 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t709 | \n\t\t||
February/2010 | \n\t\t\t3.1 | \n\t\t\t125 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t409 | \n\t\t||
Dry season | \n\t\t\tAutumn | \n\t\t\tMarch/2010 | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t
April/2010 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t1,2 | \n\t\t\t43 | \n\t\t||
May/2010 | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t32 | \n\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t82 | \n\t\t||
Winter | \n\t\t\tJune/2010 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t|
July/2010 | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t||
August/2010 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t209 | \n\t\t\t5.8 | \n\t\t\t198 | \n\t\t
Monthly averages of the average number of larvae Dermatobia hominis from September 2009 to August 2010
The fluctuation of the larvae of D. hominis during the studied period along with the climatic data are found in Figures 6 and 7, which show the highest levels of infestation occurring at the beginning of the study period as well as the highest rates of rainfalls, relative humidity air, and average temperature. The lowest averages in the occurrence of dermatobiosis occurred in the second half of the study period, coinciding with the lowest levels of rainfalls, relative humidity, and average temperature.
(cb) Average number of bernes in adult animals, (tmedia) average temperature, (ur) relative humidity, and (precip) rainfall during the experimental period.
(cb) Average number of bernes in young animals, (tmedia) average temperature, (ur) relative humidity, and (precip) rainfall during the experimental period.
Risks relating to possible risk factors (intrinsic characteristics of the animal itself – gender, age coat, and climatic factors – rainfall, average temperature, and relative humidity) related to the occurrence of dermatobiosis are shown in Table 5. The results found, with reference to climatic variables, showed that with regard to rainfall and relative humidity, each increase of 1 mm³ of water generates an average increase of 1.03 in the relative risk of occurrence of dermatobiosis in the herd, and each increase of 1°C in average temperature generates an average increase of 1.14 of relative risk to infestation by larvae of D. hominis in cattle. The results were significant for all studied weather variables. According to the study made by [15], increased percentages of infestation by larvae of D. hominis are related to the increase in average temperature and rainfall, which favors the penetration of larvae in the soil, reducing its time of pupation. Such observations are confirmed by the results of this study, unlike the findings of [12, 5] in Governador Valadares, Minas, Gerais, and [14] in surveys conducted in Campo Grande – MS, which found no positive relationship between parasitism and average temperature.
Also, with regard to the results shown in Table 5, it was observed that adult females of the herd presented a relative risk 2.63 times higher than males to infestation by larvae of D. hominis.
Adult bovine animals had a relative risk for dermatobiosis 3.94 times higher than suckler calves, while weaned calves showed a relative risk of 1.52 times more than the suckling calves.
The black on white coats were the most susceptible to infestation by larvae of D. hominis.
The white on black coats showed a relative risk 2.98 times higher for developing dermatobiosis than light and dark-brown coated animals.
\n\t\t\t\tVariables\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tRR\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIC 95%\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGender\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Male (ref.) | \n\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t\t[1.00; 1.00] | \n\t\t
Female | \n\t\t\t2.63* | \n\t\t\t[2.47; 2.79] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAge\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Suckler calves (ref.) | \n\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t\t[1.00; 1.00] | \n\t\t
Weaned calves | \n\t\t\t1.52* | \n\t\t\t[1.43; 1.62] | \n\t\t
Adult animals | \n\t\t\t3.94 | \n\t\t\t[3.72; 4.17] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCoat Color\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Brown (ref.) | \n\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t\t[1.00; 1.00] | \n\t\t
Black white | \n\t\t\t2.98* | \n\t\t\t[2.84; 3.12] | \n\t\t
Black | \n\t\t\t2.42* | \n\t\t\t[2.29; 2.56] | \n\t\t
White black | \n\t\t\t1.39* | \n\t\t\t[1.30; 1.48] | \n\t\t
Red | \n\t\t\t1.15* | \n\t\t\t[1.09; 1.20] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRainfall\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.03* | \n\t\t\t[1.02; 1.04] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAverage temperature\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.14* | \n\t\t\t[1.13; 1.15] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRelative humidity\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.03* | \n\t\t\t[1.02; 1.04] | \n\t\t
Estimate of the relative risks (RR) and their respective confidence intervals of 95% (CI 95%) from the bivariate analysis of generalized linear models
* Significant at 0.05 level
The area occupied by Fazendinha Agroecológica Km47 incorporates a fragment of forest, a forest garden, and areas of agroforestry, and the climate is hot and humid with rainfall characterized by a rainy season in summer, and according to [4], the habitat of Dermatobia hominis is in hot and humid regions, with abundant vegetation and [5, 3, 2, and 14] state that there are plenty of those parasites on the margins of tropical forests and areas. It is noteworthy that the area or location of this study presents excellent conditions for the development of dermatobiosis, thus favoring the occurrence of high infestation levels as it was observed in the early months of the study. Also, because it is an organic system, the use of antiparasitic is strictly prohibited and contrary to the national law [1 and 25]; yet, this work observed improvement in the general appearance of the herd and improvement in conditions while handling of animals, as they have become extremely docile and receptive. Beyond these observations, the development of clinical diseases in cattle caused by parasitic load has not been registered.
The ideal coats in this situation are the light and dark red and brown coated in typical shades;
The degree of infestation was significantly higher in females than in males;
It was not possible to say that there is influence of the right external–lateral decubitus in a parasitized body side;
The temperature is the climatic factor that most influenced the parasitosis;
The largest infestation rates occurred during the rainy season between spring and summer.
UTI affects approximately 150 million people worldwide, which is most common infection with female predominance [1]. Around 15–25% hospitalized patients receiving indwelling urinary catheter develops CAUTI with prolonged catheterization and in among 40% nosocomial UTI, 80% is due to CAUTI [2]. CAUTI causes about 20% of episodes of health-care acquired bacteraemia in intensive care facilities and over 50% in long term care facilities [3]. The microbiology of biofilm on an indwelling catheter is dynamic with continuing turnover of organisms in the biofilm. Patients continue to acquire new organisms at a rate of about 3–7%/day. In long term catheterization that is by the end of 30 days CAUTI develops in 100% patients usually with 2 or more symptoms or clinical sign of haematuria, fever, suprapubic or loin pain, visible biofilm in character or catheter tube and acute confusion all state [4]. In CAUTI the incidence of infection is Escherichia coli in 24%, Candida in 24%, Enterococcus in 14% Pseudomonas in 10%, Klebsiella in 10% and remaining part with other organisms [5]. Bacteraemia occurs in 2–4% of CAUTI patients where case fatality is three times higher than nonbacteremic patients [6]. Adhesions in bacteria initiate attachment by recognizing host cell receptors on surfaces of host cell or catheter. Adhesins initiate adherence by overcoming the electrostatic repulsion observed between bacterial cell membranes and surfaces to allow intimate interactions to occur [7]. A biofilm is an aggregate of micro-organisms in which cells adhere to each other on a surface embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance [8]. In biofilm micro-organisms growing in colonies within an extra-cellular mucopolysaccharide substance which they produce. Tamm-Horsfall protein and magnesium and calcium ions are incorporated into this material. Immediately after catheter insertion, biofilm starts to form and organisms adhere to a conditioning film of host proteins along the catheter surface. Both the inner and outer surfaces of catheter are involved. In CAUTI biofilms are initially formed by one organism but in prolonged Catheterization multiple bacteria’s are present. In biofilm main mass is formed by extra cellular polymeric substance (EPS) within which organisms live. So there are three layers in biofilm, where deeper layer is abiotic, than environmental zone and on surface biotic zone [9]. Growth of bacteria in biofilms on the inner surface of catheters promotes encrustation and may protect bacteria from antimicrobial agents and the consequence is more drug resistance of biofilm organisms. When antibiotic treatment ends the biofilm can again shed bacteria, resulting recurrent acute infection. The patients may present as asymptomatic bacteriuria or symptomatic. In symptomatic bacteriuria patient present with fever, suprapubic or costovertebral angle tenderness, and systemic symptoms such as altered mentation, hypotension, or evidence of a systemic inflammatory response syndrome. In asymptomatic CAUTI diagnosis is made with presence of 105 cfu/mL of one bacterial species in a single catheter urine specimen [10]. In symptomatic CAUTI bacteriological criteria is present with clinical symptoms.
It is recommended that urine specimens be obtained through the catheter port using aseptic technique or, if a port is not present, puncturing the catheter tubing with a needle and syringe in patients with short term catheterization [11]. In long term indwelling catheterization, the ideal method of obtaining urine for culture is to replace the catheter and collect the specimen from the freshly placed catheter. In a symptomatic patient, this should be done immediately prior to initiating antimicrobial therapy. Culture specimens from the urine beg should not be obtained [10, 12]. Urine sample can be collected from suprapubic puncture also. Biofilm can be cultured from the catheter, for this swab is taken from inner side of catheter.
Catheter Associated Asymptomatic Bacteriuria (CA-ASB) is diagnosed when one or more organisms are present at quantitative counts ≥105 cfu/mL from an appropriately collected urine specimen in a patient with no symptoms [13]. Lower quantitative counts may be isolated from urine specimens prior to ≥105 cfu/mL being present, but these lower counts likely reflect the presence of organisms in biofilm forming along the catheter, rather than bladder bacteriuria [14]. Thus, it is recommended that the catheter be removed and a new catheter inserted, with specimen collection from the freshly placed catheter, before antimicrobial therapy is initiated for symptomatic infection [13]. In biofilm culture, most biofilm contains mixed bacterial communities meaning polymicrobial colonization.
Patients who remain catheterized without having antimicrobial therapy and who have colony counts ≥10 2 cfu/mL (or even lower colony counts), the level of bacteriuria or candiduria uniformly increases to >105 cfu/mL within 24–48 h [14]. Given that colony counts in bladder urine as low as 102 cfu/mL are associated with symptomatic UTI in non-catheterized patients [15], untreated catheterized patients and those who have colony counts ≥102 cfu/mL or even lower, the level of bacteriuria or candiduria uniformly increases to >105 cfu/mL within 24–48 h [10, 16]. Colony counts as low as 102 cfu/mL in bladder urine may be associated with symptomatic UTI in non-catheterized patients. Whereas low colony counts in catheter urine specimens are likely to be contaminated by periurethral flora, and the colony counts will increase rapidly if untreated. Low colony counts in catheter urine specimens are also reflective of significant bacteriuria in patients with intermittent catheterization [14].
Pyuria is usually present in CA-UTI, as well as in CA-ASB. The sensitivity of pyuria for detecting infections due to enterococci or yeasts appears to be lower than that for gram-negative bacilli. Dipstick testing for nitrites and leukocyte esterase was also shown to be unhelpful in establishing a diagnosis in catheterized patients hospitalized in the ICU [17].
It is the most common cause of CAUTI in 24–60% patients [5, 18]. In CAUTI the source of this organism is usually patients own colonic flora. E. coli is large and diverse group of bacteria found in environment, foods and intestine of human and animal. Among many species of E. coli only a few causes disease in human being. It is beneficial in that it prevents the growth and proliferation of other harmful species of bacteria. Even it plays an important role in current biological engineering.
E. coli was discovered in 1885 by Theodor Escherich, German bacteriologist, is gram negative rod, lactose fermenter, composed of one circular chromosome which is common facultative anaerobes in colon and farces of human. Distribution is diverse and most of them are harmless belonging to genus Escherichia. Harmful species causes infection of urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system and rarely bacteraemia and septicemia. Phylogenetic analysis of E. coli showed majority of the strains responsible for UTI belongs to the phylogenetic group B2 and D, while in smaller percentage belong to A and B1 [19].
It has three antigens O-cell was antigen, H- flagella antigen and k- Capsular antigen. It has pili—a capsule, fimbriae, endotoxins and exotoxins also. Uropathogenic E. coli use P fimbriae (pyelonephritis-associated pili) to bind urinary tract endothelial cells. Vast majority of catheter-colonizing cells (up to 88%) express type 1 fimbriae and around 73% in E. coli causing CAUTI [20]. In UPEC fimbrial genes are ygiL, yadN, yfcV, and c2395 [21]. Pathogenesis of CAUTI initiated with UPEC colonization in periurethral and vaginal areas. Then it ascends to bladder lumen and grows as planktonic cells in urine. Sequentially adherence to bladder epithelium, then biofilm formation and invasion with replication and kidney colonization and finally bacteremia [22] (Figure 1).
Gram stain picture and morphology of E. coli. Adapted from CCBC faculty web. BIOL 230 Lab Manual: gram stain of E. coli and infection landscapes: Escherichia coli. http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/labmanua/lab16/gramstain/gnrod.html.
Diagnosis of E. coli infection is simple, by isolation and laboratory identification of bacterium from urine or biofilm. Laboratory diagnosis by culture of specimen—urine or catheter biofilm in blood agar, MacConkey’s agar or eosin-methylene blue agar (which reveal lactose fermentation). Immunomagnetic separation and specific ELISA, latex agglutination tests, colony immunoblot assays, and other immunological-based detection methods are other ways for diagnosis of E. coli.
Proteus species, member of the Enterobacteriaceae family of gram-negative bacilli are distinguishable from most other genera by their ability to swarm across an agar surface [23, 24]. Proteus species are most widely distributed in environment and as other enterobacteriaceae, this bacteria is part of intestinal flora of human being [25, 26]. Proteus also found in multiple environmental habitats, including long-term care facilities and hospitals. In hospital setting, it is not unusual for proteus species to colonize both the skin and mucosa of hospitalized patient and causing opportunistic nosocomial infections. It is one of the common causes of UTI in hospitalized patients undergoing urinary catheterization [26, 27].
UTIs are the most common manifestation of Proteus infection. Proteus infection accounts for 1–2% of UTIs in healthy women and 5% of hospital acquired UTIs. Catheters associated UTI have a prevalence of 20–45%. Proteus mirabilis causes 90% of proteus infection and proteus vulgaris and proteus penneri also isolated from long-term care facilities and hospital and from patients with underlying disease or specialized care. Most common age group is 20–50 years. More common in female group and the ratio between male female begins to decline after 50 years. UTI in men younger than 50 are usually caused by urologic abnormalities. Patients with recurrent infections, those with structural abnormalities of the urinary tract, those who have had urethral instrumentation or catheterization have an increase frequency of infection caused by proteus species [28].
Proteus mirabilis produces an acidic capsular polysaccharide which was shown from glycose analysis, carboxyl reduction, methylation, periodate oxidation and the application high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. Proteus species possess an extracytoplasmic outer membrane, a common feature shared with other gram-negative bacteria. Infection depends upon the interacting organism and the host defense mechanism. Various component of the membrane interplay with the host to determine virulence. Virulence factors associated with adhesion, motility, biofilm formation, immunoavoidance, nutrient acquisition and as well as factors that cause damage to the host [29, 30] (Figure 2).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Proteus. Adapted from CCBC faculty web. BIOL 230 Lab Manual: gram stain of Proteus mirabilis and Proteus vulgaris bacteria (SEM) | Macro & Micro: Up Close and Personal | Pinterest | Microbiology, Bacteria shapes and Fungi. https://www.pinterest.com › pin.
Certain virulence factors such as adhesin, motility and biofilm formation have been identified in Proteus species that has a positive correlation with risk of infection. After attachment of Proteus with urothelial cells, interleukin 6 and interleukin 8 secreted from the urothelial cells causes apoptosis and mucosal endothelial cell desquamation. Urease production of proteus also augments the risk of UTI. Urease production, together with the presence of bacterial motility and fimbriae or pili, as well as adhesins anchored directly within bacterial cell membrane may favor the upper urinary tract infection. Once firmly attached on the uroepithelium or catheter surface, bacteria begin to phenotypically change, producing exopolysaccharides that entrap and protect bacteria. These attached bacteria replicate and form microcolonies that eventually mature into biofilms [31, 32]. Once established, biofilms inherently protect uropathogens from antibiotic and the host immune response [33, 34]. Proteus mirabilis as with other uropathogens is capable of adapting to the urinary tract environment and acquiring nutrients. And this is accomplished by the production of degradative enzymes such urease and proteases, toxins such as Haemolysin Hpm A and iron nutrient acquisition proteins.
The infection with Proteus can be diagnosed by taking a urine sample for microscopy and culture which is sufficient in most of the cases except in few cases where advanced diagnostic tools are used. If the urine is alkaline, it is suggestive of infection with Proteus sp. The diagnosis of Proteus is made on swarming motility on media, unable to metabolized lactose and has a distinct fishy door. Ultrasound or CT scan to identify renal stone (Struvite stone) or to visualized kidneys or surrounding structures. It will allow to exclude other possible problems, mimicking symptoms of urinary tract infection [35, 36].
Pseudomonas is a gram-negative bacteria belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae and containing 191 validly described species [37]. Because of their widespread occurrence in water and plant seeds, the pseudomonas was observed in early history of microbiology. Pseudomonas is flagellated, motile, aerobic organism with Catalase and oxidase-positive. Pseudomonas may be the most common nuclear or of ice crystals in clouds, thereby being of utmost importance to the formation of snow and rain around the world [38]. All species of Pseudomonas are strict aerobes, and a significant number of organisms can produce exopolysaccharides associated with biofilm formation [39]. Pseudomonas is an opportunistic human pathogen that is especially adept at forming surface associated biofilms. Pseudomonas causes catheter associated urinary tract infection(CAUTIs) through biofilm formation on the surface of indwelling catheters, and biofilm mediated infection including ventilator associated pneumonia, infections related to mechanical heart valves, stents, grafts, sutures, and contract lens associated corneal infection [40].
Pseudomonas is third ranking causes nosocomial UTI about 12%, where E. coli remain on the top [41]. CAUTI is directly associated with duration of catheterization. Within 2–4 days of catheterization 15–25% patients develop bacteriuria [42].
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram-negative, rod shaped, asporogenous and monoflagellated, noncapsular bacterium but many strains have a mucoid slime layer. Pseudomonas has an incredible nutritional versatility. Pseudomonas can catabolize a wide range of organic molecule including organic compounds such as benzoate. This, then make Pseudomonas a very ubiquitous microorganism and Pseudomonas is the most abundant organism on earth [43] (Figure 3).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Pseudomonas aeroginosa. Adapted from Science News. A new antibiotic uses sneaky tactics to kill drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa illustration and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Stock Photos & Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Stock Images—Alams. https://www.alamy.com › stock-photo.
Pseudomonas is widely distributed in nature and is commonly present in moist environment of hospitals. It is pathogenic only when introduce into areas devoid of normal defense such as disruption of mucous membrane and skin, usage of intravenous or urinary catheters and neutropenia due to cancer or in cancer therapy. Its pathogenic activity depends on its antigenic structure, enzymes and toxins [44]. Among the enzymes Catalase, Pyocyanin, Proteases, elastase, haemolysin, Phospholipase C, exoenzyme S and T and endotoxin and endotoxin A play role in disease process and as well as immunosuppression. Pseudomonas can infect almost any organ or external site. Pseudomonas in invasive and toxigenic. It attached to and colonized the mucous membrane of skin. Pseudomonas can invade locally to produce systemic disease and septicemia. Pseudomonal UTs are usually hospital acquired and are associated with catheterization, instrumentation and surgery. These infections can involve the urinary tract through an ascending infection or through bacteriuria spread. These UTIs may be a source of bacteraemia or septicemia [45].
Identification of bacterium with microscopy is simple method of identification of pseudomonas. Culture and antibiotic sensitivity pattern can be done in most laboratory media commonly on blood agar or eosin-methylthionine blue agar. Pseudomonas has inability to ferment lactose and has a positive oxidase reaction. Fluorescence under UV light is helpful in early identification of colonies. Fluorescence is also used to suggest the presence of pseudomonas in wounds [46].
Urinary catheters are standard medical devices utilized in both hospital and nursing home settings are associated with a high frequency of catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI). The contribution of Klebsiella spp. in CAUTI is near about 7.7% [47].
Klebsiella pneumoniae is a gram-negative pathogenic bacterium, is part of the Enterobacteriaceae family. It has got polysaccharide capsule attached to the bacterial outer membrane, and it ferments lactose. Klebsiella species are found ubiquitously in nature, including in plants, animals, and humans. They are the causative agent of several types of infections in humans. It has a large accessory genome of plasmids and chromosomal gene loci. This accessory genome divides K. pneumoniae strains into opportunistic, hyper virulent, and multidrug-resistant groups [48] (Figure 4).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Klebsiella pneumonie. Adapted from studyblue.com. Microbio Lab Practical I—Microbiology 101 with Johnson at University of Vermont—StudyBlue. Study 368 Microbio Lab Practical I flashcards from Tess H. on StudyBlue and Klebsiella Pneumoniae Stock Photos and Pictures. Getty Images https://www.gettyimages.com › photos.
The source of Klebsiella causing CAUTI can be endogenous typically via meatal, rectal, or vaginal colonization or exogenous, such as via equipment or contaminated hands of healthcare personnel. They typically migrate along the outer surface of the indwelling urethral catheter, until they enter the urethra.
Migration of the Klebsiella along the inner surface of the indwelling urethral catheter occurs much less frequently, compared with along the outer surface Internal (intraluminal) bacterial ascension occurs by Klebsiella tend to be introduced when opening the otherwise closed urinary drainage system, ascend from the urine collection bag into the bladder via reflux, biofilm formation occurs.
A critical step in progression to CAUTI by Klebsiella is to adhere to host surfaces, which is frequently achieved using pili (fimbriae) [49]. Pili are filamentous structures extending from the surface of Klebsiella. They can be as long as 10 μm and between 1 and 11 nm in diameter. Among the two types of pili—type 1 (fim) pili and type 3 (mrk) pili, type 1 aids virulence by their ability to adhere with mucosal surfaces and type 3 pili strongly associated with biofilm production [50]. Both fim and mrk pili are considered part of the core genome [51]. It is thought that both types of pili play a role in colonization of urinary catheters, leading to CAUTI [52]. In addition to fim and mrk pili, a number of additional usher-type pili have been identified in Klebsiella with an average of ~8 pili clusters per strain. Based on varying gene frequencies, some of these appear to be part of the accessory genome. Immediately after catheterization Klebsiella starts biofilm production on the inner as well as outer surface of the catheter and on urothelium. Biofilm augments migration of Klebsiella into urethra and urinary bladder. Biofilm formation on the catheter surface by Klebsiella pneumoniae causes severe problem. Type 1 and type 3 fimbriae expressed by K. pneumoniae enhance biofilm formation on urinary catheters in a catheterized bladder model that mirrors the physicochemical conditions present in catheterized patients. These two fimbrial types does not is expressed when cells are grown planktonically. Interestingly, during biofilm formation on catheters, both fimbrial types are expressed, suggesting that they are both important in promoting biofilm formation on catheters [53]. The biofilm life cycle illustrated in three steps: initial attachment events with inert surfaces type 1 and type 3 fimbriae encoded by the mrk ABCDF gene cluster within K. pneumoniae promotes biofilm formation [54, 55]. Detachment events by clumps of Klebsiella or by a ‘swarming’ phenomenon within the interior of bacterial clusters, resulting in so-called ‘seeding dispersal’.
Modifiable risk factor are prolonged catheterization, lack of adherence to aseptic catheter care, insertion of the indwelling urethral catheter in a location other than an operating room, presence of a urethral stent, feecal incontinence. Non-modifiable risk factor—renal disease (i.e., serum creatinine >2 mg/dL), diabetes mellitus, older age (i.e., age > 50 years old), female sex, malnutrition and severe underlying illness [53]. For infection several virulence factors such as surface factors (fimbriae, adhesins, and P and type 1 pili) and extracellular factors toxins, siderophores, enzymes, and polysaccharide coatings are necessary for initial adhesion with colonization of host mucosal surfaces for tissue invasion overcoming the host defense mechanisms, and causing chronic infections [55].
Diagnosis of klebsiella infection is by isolation and laboratory identification of bacterium from urine or biofilm. Laboratory diagnosis can be done by culture of specimen—urine or catheter biofilm in blood agar, MacConkey’s agar. Specific ELISA, latex agglutination tests, PCR and other immunological-based detection methods are sophisticated alternatives for diagnosis of klebsiella. Determination of a gene on capsule of Klebsiella is rapid and simple method for the determination of the K types of most K. pneumoniae clinical isolates [56].
Enterobacter species, particularly Enterobacter cloacae and Enterobacter aerogenes, are important nosocomial pathogens responsible for about 1.9–9% CAUTI, rarely causes bacteremia [57, 58]. Enterobacter cloacae exhibited the highest biofilm production (87.5%) among isolated pathogens [53].
Enterobacter bacteria are motile, rod-shaped cells, facultative anaerobic, non-spore-forming, some of which are encapsulated belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are important opportunistic and multi-resistant bacterial pathogens. As facultative anaerobes, some Enterobacter bacteria ferment both glucose and lactose as a carbon source, presence of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity and the lack of urease activity. In biofilms they secrete various cytotoxins (enterotoxins, hemolysins, pore-forming toxins. Though it is microflora in the intestine of humans, it is pathogens in plants and insects. Amp C β-lactamase production by E. cloacae is responsible for cephalosporin resistance. They possess peritrichous, amphitrichous, lophotrichous, polar flagella. E. aerogenes flagellar genes and its assembly system have been acquired in bloc from the Serratia genus [59] (Figure 5).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Enterobacter species. Adapted from Gram Stain Kit | Microorganism Stain | abcam.comAdwww.abcam.com/ and Science Prof Online. Gram-negative Bacteria Images: photos of Escherichia coli, Salmonella & Enterobacter and Enterobacter aerogenes | Gram-negative microorganism—HPV Decontamination | Hydrogen Peroxide Vapour—Bioquellhealthcare.bioquell.com › microbiology.
The most important test to document Enterobacter infections is culture. Direct gram staining of the specimen is also useful. In the laboratory, growth of Enterobacter isolates is occurs in 24 h or less; Enterobacter species grow rapidly on selective (i.e., MacConkey) and nonselective (i.e., sheep blood) agars.
Enterococci are gram-positive facultative anaerobic cocci, two species are common commensal organisms in the intestines of humans: Enterococcus faecalis (90–95%) and Enterococcus faecium (5–10%) [60]. Though normally a gut commensal, these organisms are commonly responsible for nosocomial infection of urinary tract, biliary tract and blood, particularly in intensive care units (ICU) [61]. E. coli is usually the most frequent species isolated from bacteremic catheter associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI). However, Enterococcus spp. (28.4%) and Candida spp. (19.7%) were also reported to be most common [62]. In another study, E. coli was found the commonest (36%) followed by Enterococcus spp. (25%), Klebsiella species (20%) and Pseudomonas spp. (5%) [63].
The most important cause of bacteriuria is the formation of biofilm along the catheter surface [64]. Enterococcus is gram positive bacteria often found in pairs or short chains. Broadly, Enterococcus is in two groups—faecalis and non-faecalis (E. gallinarum and E. casseliflavus). Enterococcus faecalis formerly classified as part of the group D Streptococcus is a gram-positive, commensal bacterium inhabiting the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other mammals, survive harsh environmental conditions including drying, high temperatures, and exposure to some antiseptics [65]. E. faecalis has the important characteristics of complex set of biochemical reactions, including fermentation of carbohydrates, hydrolysis of arginine, tolerance to tellurite, and motility and pigmentation. Presence of the catheter itself is essential for E. faecalis persistence in the bladder, E. faecalis depends on the catheter implant for persistence via an unknown mechanism that more than likely involves its ability to produce biofilms on the silicone tubing and immune-suppression [66].
E. faecalis produce a heteropolymeric extracellular hair-like fimbrial structure called the endocarditis- and biofilm-associated pilus-Ebp, having three components the organelle (EbpC), a minor subunit that forms the base of the structure (EbpB) and a tip-located adhesin (EbpA) [67]. EbpA is responsible for adhesion in urothelial and catheter surface for biofilm production (Figure 6).
Morphology of Enterococcus. Adapted from Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo Image ID: F6YBC3.
Urine sample and biofilm microscopy can identify this gram positive organism. Culture yields the growth of E. faecalis in appropriate media. Advanced diagnostic methods like immunological-based detection methods and PCR are rarely needed for diagnosis.
One of the common causes of catheter associated urinary tract infection is fungal infection. Bacterial infections are accounted for 70.9% of catheter associated urinary infection. E. coli is the most commonly isolated organism (41.6%) whereas fungal infections are accounted for 16.6% and mixed fungal and bacterial infections accounted for 12.5% [68]. The National nosocomial infections surveillance (NNIS) data indicated that C. albicans caused 21% of catheter-associated urinary tract infections, in contrast to 13% of non-catheter-associated infections [69]. In one study 24% of the cases showing fungal yeast growth. Candida spp. was the commonest. Non-albicans Candida (86%) isolated more commonly than Candida albicans (14%) [70]. Candida are commensals, and to be pathogenic, interruption of normal host defenses is crucial which is facilitated in conditions like immunocompromised states as AIDS, diabetes mellitus, prolonged broad spectrum antibiotic use, indwelling devices, intravenous drug use and hyperalimentation fluids [71]. Diabetes mellitus has been reported as the most common risk factor for fungal infection [72, 73]. The duration of catheterization is also an important risk factor as the duration increases the incidence of fungal infection is increased [74].
Candida albicans is an oval, budding yeast, which is a member of the normal flora of mucocutaneous membrane. Twenty species of Candida yeasts can cause in human infection but most common is Candida albicans. Sometimes it can gain predominance and can produce disease. Other candida species that can cause disease occasionally are Candida parapsilosis, Candida tropicalis and Candida krusei [75]. Although Candida albicans are common isolates in CAUTI, Candida tropicalis is increasingly reported in CAUTI [76]. The majority of Candida albicans infections are associated with biofilm formation on host or abiotic surfaces such as indwelling medical devices, which carry high morbidity and mortality [63, 77]. Several factors and activities contribute to the pathogenesis of this fungus which mediate adhesion to and invasion into host cells, which are in sequences are the secretion of hydrolases, the yeast-to-hypha transition, contact sensing and thigmotropism, biofilm formation, phenotypic switching and a range of fitness attributes [78] (Figure 7).
Morphology of Candida albicans. Adapted from biomedik8888, Aug 24, 2011. http://www.BioMedik.com.au3.
Urine and materials removed from catheter are needed. Microscopic examinations of gram-stained specimen showed pseudohyphae and budding cells. Culture on Sabouraud’s agar at room temperature and at 37°C showed typical colonies and budding pseudomycelia [79].
It is facultative anaerobic bacilli gram-negative rod of Enterobacteriaceae family considered opportunistic human pathogen but not a component of human facial flora. It is capable of producing a pigment called prodigiosin, which ranges in color from dark red to pale pink. It is ubiquitously spent in nature and has preference for damp conditions. Though previously known as nonpathogenic, but since 1970s it is associated with multi drug resistant infection due to presence of R factor—a plasmid. A study in Japan showed 6.8% incidence of UTI with this organism [80]. It also causes bacteraemia rarely. Diagnosis is confirmed by culture of the urine specimen or catheter biofilm. Automated bacterial identification systems and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is the other modality for diagnosis of serratia as well as other enterobacteriaceae [81].
This non-fermentative gram-negative rod discovered as plant growth-promoting bacterium and potential biocontrol agent against plant pathogens. Infection with this uncommon organism in CAUTI occurs in combination with commonest bacteria E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. D. tsuruhatensis and E. coli coexist and tend to co-aggregate over time and also cooperate synergistically [82]. D. tsuruhatensis metabolized citric acid more rapidly leaving more uric acid available in the medium to be used by E. coli for dynamic growth of both organisms. Identification of this organism is not confirmatory with culture, so molecular methods are more reliable [83].
Achromobacter denitrificans is gram negative bacterium formerly known as Alcaligenes denitrificans. Infection with this organism predominantly observed in elderly patients with predisposing factors as urological abnormalities, malignancies and immune-suppression. Rarely it causes bacteraemia. This bacterium has high level of antibiotic resistance [84].
In polymicrobial biofilm, Achromobacter xylosoxidans cohabits with common organisms E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Diagnosis is by bacterial culture and molecular methods.
Staphylococci (methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus [MSSA] and methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA], Staphylococcus saprophyticus. These are the common gram positive bacteria usually responsible for skin and soft tissue infections but rarely cause CAUTI and bacteraemia [85].
The incidence of Staphylococcal UTI as well as CAUTI is increasing and the organisms carry wide variety of multidrug-resistant genes on plasmids, which augment spread of resistance among other species [86].
Diagnosis is easy, gram stain of the sample, culture is sufficient. Advanced techniques rarely needed (Figure 8).
Morphology of Staphylococcus aureus. Adapted from abcam.comAdwww.abcam.com/ pharmacist-driven intervention improves care of patients with S aureus Bacteremia/Staph aureus. Nebraska Medicine https://asap.nebraskamed.com.
CAUTI is one of the most nosocomial Infection worldwide resulting from rational as well as sometimes irrational use of indwelling urinary catheter. Cause of CAUTI is formation of pathogenic biofilm commonly due to UPEC, Proteus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter rarely Candida and other uncommon opportunistic organisms. CAUTI has got high impact on morbidity and mortality as biofilm producing organisms are more antibiotic resistant. Antibiotic resistance is a global problem. Early detection of CAUTI is simple by examination of urine and catheter biofilm with microscopy as well as culture with antibiogram. It is easy and cost effective with early diagnosis and treatment for good clinical outcome. Advanced and sophisticated methods like Immunomagnetic separation, specific ELISA, colony immunoblot assays and PCR for diagnosis of CAUTI is seldom necessary.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish",topicid:"16"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"853",title:"Air Pollution",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health-air-pollution",parent:{title:"Environmental Health",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:49,numberOfWosCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitations:44,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health-air-pollution",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8529",title:"Indoor Environment and Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99968fde3ae52288a9cb40a75993159e",slug:"indoor-environment-and-health",bookSignature:"Orhan Korhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8529.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101698",title:"Dr.",name:"Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Korhan",slug:"orhan-korhan",fullName:"Orhan Korhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"488",title:"Air Pollution",subtitle:"New Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"429ab66bc7d190e166a708478a7be9a6",slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",bookSignature:"Anca Maria Moldoveanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/488.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25924",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"anca-moldoveanu",fullName:"Anca Moldoveanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19147",doi:"10.5772/17999",title:"Molecular Markers Associated with the Biological Response to Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Urban Air in Humans",slug:"molecular-markers-associated-with-the-biological-response-to-aromatic-hydrocarbons-from-urban-air-in",totalDownloads:2708,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Francisco Arenas-Huertero, Elisa Apátiga-Vega, Gabriela Miguel-Pérez, David Villeda-Cuevas and Jimena Trillo-Tinoco",authors:[{id:"30081",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Arenas-Huertero",slug:"francisco-arenas-huertero",fullName:"Francisco Arenas-Huertero"},{id:"42240",title:"MSc.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Apatiga-Vega",slug:"elisa-apatiga-vega",fullName:"Elisa Apatiga-Vega"},{id:"82569",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Miguel-Perez",slug:"gabriela-miguel-perez",fullName:"Gabriela Miguel-Perez"},{id:"82570",title:"BSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Villeda-Cuevas",slug:"david-villeda-cuevas",fullName:"David Villeda-Cuevas"},{id:"82571",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimena",middleName:null,surname:"Trillo-Tinoco",slug:"jimena-trillo-tinoco",fullName:"Jimena Trillo-Tinoco"}]},{id:"19156",doi:"10.5772/18348",title:"Removal Mechanisms in a Tropical Boundary Layer: Quantification of Air Pollutant Removal Rates Around a Heavily Afforested Power Plant",slug:"removal-mechanisms-in-a-tropical-boundary-layer-quantification-of-air-pollutant-removal-rates-around",totalDownloads:1814,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"J. R. Picardo and S. Ghosh",authors:[{id:"31216",title:"Prof.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"s.-ghosh",fullName:"S. Ghosh"},{id:"38126",title:"Mr",name:"Jason",middleName:"Ryan",surname:"Picardo",slug:"jason-picardo",fullName:"Jason Picardo"}]},{id:"19154",doi:"10.5772/17959",title:"Use of the Micronucleus Test on Tradescantia (Trad-MCN) to Evaluate the Genotoxic Effects of Air Pollution",slug:"use-of-the-micronucleus-test-on-tradescantia-trad-mcn-to-evaluate-the-genotoxic-effects-of-air-pollu",totalDownloads:3209,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"José Roberto Cardoso Meireles and Eneida de Moraes Marcílio Cerqueira",authors:[{id:"29961",title:"Prof.",name:"José Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Meireles",slug:"jose-roberto-meireles",fullName:"José Roberto Meireles"},{id:"39850",title:"Prof.",name:"Eneida",middleName:null,surname:"Cerqueira",slug:"eneida-cerqueira",fullName:"Eneida Cerqueira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67688",title:"Workplace Health and Its Impact on Human Capital: Seven Key Performance Indicators of Workplace Health",slug:"workplace-health-and-its-impact-on-human-capital-seven-key-performance-indicators-of-workplace-healt",totalDownloads:1404,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"indoor-environment-and-health",title:"Indoor Environment and Health",fullTitle:"Indoor Environment and Health"},signatures:"Young Lee",authors:null},{id:"19154",title:"Use of the Micronucleus Test on Tradescantia (Trad-MCN) to Evaluate the Genotoxic Effects of Air Pollution",slug:"use-of-the-micronucleus-test-on-tradescantia-trad-mcn-to-evaluate-the-genotoxic-effects-of-air-pollu",totalDownloads:3207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"José Roberto Cardoso Meireles and Eneida de Moraes Marcílio Cerqueira",authors:[{id:"29961",title:"Prof.",name:"José Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Meireles",slug:"jose-roberto-meireles",fullName:"José Roberto Meireles"},{id:"39850",title:"Prof.",name:"Eneida",middleName:null,surname:"Cerqueira",slug:"eneida-cerqueira",fullName:"Eneida Cerqueira"}]},{id:"19152",title:"Comparative Analysis of Bioindicator and Genotoxicity Indicator Capacity of Lichens Exposed to Air Pollution",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-bioindicator-and-genotoxicity-indicator-capacity-of-lichens-exposed-to-air-p",totalDownloads:2234,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Sümer Aras, Demet Cansaran-Duman, Çiğdem Vardar and Esin Başaran",authors:[{id:"40615",title:"Prof.",name:"Sumer",middleName:null,surname:"Aras",slug:"sumer-aras",fullName:"Sumer Aras"},{id:"42154",title:"Prof.",name:"Çiğdem",middleName:null,surname:"Kanlıtepe Vardar",slug:"cigdem-kanlitepe-vardar",fullName:"Çiğdem Kanlıtepe Vardar"},{id:"42155",title:"MSc.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Başaran",slug:"esin-basaran",fullName:"Esin Başaran"},{id:"42156",title:"Dr.",name:"Demet",middleName:null,surname:"Cansaran",slug:"demet-cansaran",fullName:"Demet Cansaran"}]},{id:"67373",title:"Noise Calculation Charts and Indoor Environmental Quality for Evaluating Industrial Indoor Environment and Health",slug:"noise-calculation-charts-and-indoor-environmental-quality-for-evaluating-industrial-indoor-environme",totalDownloads:506,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"indoor-environment-and-health",title:"Indoor Environment and Health",fullTitle:"Indoor Environment and Health"},signatures:"Himanshu Dehra",authors:[{id:"12304",title:"Mr.",name:"Himanshu",middleName:null,surname:"Dehra",slug:"himanshu-dehra",fullName:"Himanshu Dehra"}]},{id:"19147",title:"Molecular Markers Associated with the Biological Response to Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Urban Air in Humans",slug:"molecular-markers-associated-with-the-biological-response-to-aromatic-hydrocarbons-from-urban-air-in",totalDownloads:2706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Francisco Arenas-Huertero, Elisa Apátiga-Vega, Gabriela Miguel-Pérez, David Villeda-Cuevas and Jimena Trillo-Tinoco",authors:[{id:"30081",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Arenas-Huertero",slug:"francisco-arenas-huertero",fullName:"Francisco Arenas-Huertero"},{id:"42240",title:"MSc.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Apatiga-Vega",slug:"elisa-apatiga-vega",fullName:"Elisa Apatiga-Vega"},{id:"82569",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Miguel-Perez",slug:"gabriela-miguel-perez",fullName:"Gabriela Miguel-Perez"},{id:"82570",title:"BSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Villeda-Cuevas",slug:"david-villeda-cuevas",fullName:"David Villeda-Cuevas"},{id:"82571",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimena",middleName:null,surname:"Trillo-Tinoco",slug:"jimena-trillo-tinoco",fullName:"Jimena Trillo-Tinoco"}]},{id:"19155",title:"Silver Fir Decline in Mixed Old-Growth Forests in Slovenia: an Interaction of Air Pollution, Changing Forest Matrix and Climate",slug:"silver-fir-decline-in-mixed-old-growth-forests-in-slovenia-an-interaction-of-air-pollution-changing-",totalDownloads:2151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Jurij Diaci",authors:[{id:"29968",title:"Dr.",name:"Jurij",middleName:null,surname:"Diaci",slug:"jurij-diaci",fullName:"Jurij Diaci"}]},{id:"19157",title:"Interaction of Urban Vegetation Cover to Sequester Air Pollutants from Ambient Air Environment",slug:"interaction-of-urban-vegetation-cover-to-sequester-air-pollutants-from-ambient-air-environment",totalDownloads:3380,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Sharda Dhadse, D. G. Gajghate, P.R. Chaudhari, D. R. Satapathy and S. R. Wate",authors:[{id:"43737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharda",middleName:null,surname:"Dhadse",slug:"sharda-dhadse",fullName:"Sharda Dhadse"},{id:"43750",title:"Dr.",name:"D.",middleName:null,surname:"Gajghate",slug:"d.-gajghate",fullName:"D. Gajghate"},{id:"43751",title:"Dr.",name:"P.",middleName:"R",surname:"Chaudhari",slug:"p.-chaudhari",fullName:"P. Chaudhari"},{id:"43752",title:"Dr.",name:"D.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Satapathy",slug:"d.r.-satapathy",fullName:"D.R. Satapathy"},{id:"43753",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Wate",slug:"s.-wate",fullName:"S. Wate"}]},{id:"19158",title:"Method OF INAA for Critical Evaluation Pollution of Ecosystem",slug:"method-of-inaa-for-critical-evaluation-pollution-of-ecosystem",totalDownloads:1508,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Blanka Maňkovská and Július Oszlányi",authors:[{id:"40808",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanka",middleName:null,surname:"Mankovska",slug:"blanka-mankovska",fullName:"Blanka Mankovska"}]},{id:"19149",title:"Respiratory Health Effects of Air Pollution and Climate Parameters in the Population of Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Romania",slug:"respiratory-health-effects-of-air-pollution-and-climate-parameters-in-the-population-of-drobeta-turn",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Cristina Petrescu, Oana Suciu, Romanita Ionovici, Olf Herbarth, Ulrich Franck and Uwe Schlink",authors:[{id:"28627",title:"Prof.",name:"Uwe",middleName:null,surname:"Schlink",slug:"uwe-schlink",fullName:"Uwe Schlink"},{id:"41440",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Petrescu",slug:"cristina-petrescu",fullName:"Cristina Petrescu"},{id:"41563",title:"Ms.",name:"Oana",middleName:null,surname:"Suciu",slug:"oana-suciu",fullName:"Oana Suciu"},{id:"41564",title:"Ms.",name:"Romanita",middleName:null,surname:"Ionovici",slug:"romanita-ionovici",fullName:"Romanita Ionovici"},{id:"41566",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Franck",slug:"ulrich-franck",fullName:"Ulrich Franck"},{id:"83237",title:"Prof.",name:"Olf",middleName:null,surname:"Herbarth",slug:"olf-herbarth",fullName:"Olf Herbarth"}]},{id:"19153",title:"Monitoring Epiphytic Lichen Biodiversity to Detect Environmental Quality and Air Pollution: the Case Study of Roccamonfina Park (Campania Region - Italy)",slug:"monitoring-epiphytic-lichen-biodiversity-to-detect-environmental-quality-and-air-pollution-the-case-",totalDownloads:3309,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"air-pollution-new-developments",title:"Air Pollution",fullTitle:"Air Pollution - New Developments"},signatures:"Aprile G. G., Catalano I., Migliozzi A. and Mingo A.",authors:[{id:"29795",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppa Grazia",middleName:null,surname:"Aprile",slug:"giuseppa-grazia-aprile",fullName:"Giuseppa Grazia Aprile"},{id:"42174",title:"MSc.",name:"Immacolata",middleName:null,surname:"Catalano",slug:"immacolata-catalano",fullName:"Immacolata Catalano"},{id:"42175",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonello",middleName:null,surname:"Migliozzi",slug:"antonello-migliozzi",fullName:"Antonello Migliozzi"},{id:"42176",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Mingo",slug:"antonio-mingo",fullName:"Antonio Mingo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-health-air-pollution",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/organic-farming-a-promising-way-of-food-production/abundance-and-risk-factors-for-dermatobiosis-in-dairy-cattle-of-an-organic-farm-in-the-tropical-regi",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"organic-farming-a-promising-way-of-food-production",chapter:"abundance-and-risk-factors-for-dermatobiosis-in-dairy-cattle-of-an-organic-farm-in-the-tropical-regi"},fullPath:"/books/organic-farming-a-promising-way-of-food-production/abundance-and-risk-factors-for-dermatobiosis-in-dairy-cattle-of-an-organic-farm-in-the-tropical-regi",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()