\r\n\tOne basic topic is that of expression manipulation: combining, expanding etc, and the applications of this scholar topic needs focusing on.
\r\n\r\n\tThe general topic of "polynomials" is very large, and here the focus is both on scholar/student basics of it, and on applications of some special polynomials in science and research.
\r\n\r\n\tAn important topic of the book is "algebraic curve". Here the approaches are multiple: basic/scholar on one hand, and applications on the other hand. It must be noticed the use of algebraic curves properties in the field of differential equations, for example for finding the singularities.
\r\n\r\n\tGrobner basis is a very modern and applied topic of algebra. Here we must outline the great importance of Grobner basis and polynomial ideals manipulation, in the differential equations field, an example being in fast finding normal forms of differential systems.
\r\n\r\n\tRelated to this last topic of the book, but applying to all specified topics, it must be noticed the importance of numeric algorithms. The importance of software algorithms in all fields of science is continuously increasing. Therefore, computational approach of the specified algebraic topics is very useful, with applications in other mathematical and scientific fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-393-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-392-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-394-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2a81efb05ce334905cc672188033b15d",bookSignature:"Dr. Adela Ionescu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9907.jpg",keywords:"expand, factoring, combining, simplifying, random polynomials, special polynomials, orthogonal polynomials, polynomial factorization, two variables polynomials, homogenization, parameterization, singularity, monomial order, polynomial ideal, leading monomial, normal form",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 26th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 4th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"146822",title:"Dr.",name:"Adela",middleName:null,surname:"Ionescu",slug:"adela-ionescu",fullName:"Adela Ionescu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/146822/images/system/146822.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adela Ionescu is a lecturer at the University of Craiova, Romania. She received her PhD degree from the Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania. Her research focuses on development and implementation of new methods in the qualitative and computational analysis of differential equations and their applications. This includes constructing adequate models for approaching the study of different industrial phenomena from a dynamical system standpoint and also from a computational fluid dynamics standpoint. By its optimizing techniques, the aim of the modeling is to facilitate the high understanding of the experimental phenomena and to implement new methods, techniques, and processes. Currently, Dr. Ionescu is working in developing new analytical techniques for linearizing nonlinear dynamical systems, with subsequent applications in experimental cases. The bifurcation theory and its applications in related fields is also a domain of interest for her. She has published six monographs and few scientific papers in high-impact journals. She is also a member of few scientific international associations and has attended more than 45 international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Craiova",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Craiova",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"287827",firstName:"Gordan",lastName:"Tot",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287827/images/8493_n.png",email:"gordan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6217",title:"Computational Fluid Dynamics",subtitle:"Basic Instruments and Applications in Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0fb7b242fd063d519b361e5c2c99187b",slug:"computational-fluid-dynamics-basic-instruments-and-applications-in-science",bookSignature:"Adela Ionescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6217.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146822",title:"Dr.",name:"Adela",surname:"Ionescu",slug:"adela-ionescu",fullName:"Adela Ionescu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64115",title:"Fusion Neutronics Experiments for Thorium Assemblies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81582",slug:"fusion-neutronics-experiments-for-thorium-assemblies",body:'The fusion-fission hybrid energy reactor, consisting of a low-power magnetic confinement fusion assembly and a subcritical blanket, is one of the advanced reactors of applying fusion technology to solve the present energy crisis. Natural thorium contains one isotope 232Th. Thorium is a fertile element that can be applied in the conceptual blanket design of a fusion-fission hybrid reactor [1, 2]. The actual neutron spectrum in the subcritical blanket based on the Th/U fuel cycle is composed of fast and thermal spectra. The 232Th capture cross section at fast neutron is slightly larger than that of 238U, and 232Th is more suitable to breed 233U under fast spectrum. Since 232Th capture cross section for thermal neutron is about 2.7 times larger than that of 238U, the conversion rate in the Th/U fuel cycle is more than that in the U/Pu fuel cycle and the neutron economy of thorium is better. Moreover, the 233U capture cross section for thermal neutron is smaller than that of 239Pu and 233U needs to absorb neutrons many times to produce Pu and long-life Minor Actinides (MA, such as 237Np, 241Am, and 242Cm), whereas Pu and MA produced in the Th/U fuel cycle are one order of magnitude less than those in the U/Pu fuel cycle. Therefore, the Th/U fuel cycle is beneficial to reduce the long-life nuclear waste and prevent nuclear proliferation. The feasibility and reliability of the physical design for the subcritical blanket based on thorium depend on the accuracy of 232Th nuclear data and calculational tool. It is essential to carry out the fusion neutronics experiments for validating the evaluated 232Th nuclear data and studying the breeding properties.
A small number of fusion neutronics experiments on thorium were carried out, and there exist essential differences between the calculations and experiments [3, 4, 5]. The 232Th fission rate with fast neutrons was determined by detecting the gamma rays emitted from 140Ba and 140La, and the calculated-to-experimental ratio was 0.9 based on ENDF/B-IV [4]. The thorium fission reaction rate in a metallic sphere setup was determined by absolute measurement of the gamma-emission from 143Ce, the experimental uncertainty was 5.2%, and the calculation to experiment ratio was 1.17 employing ENDF/B-IV [5].
The integral fusion neutronics benchmark experiments for macroscopic thorium assemblies with a D-T fusion neutron source were carried out at Institute of Nuclear Physics and Chemistry (INPC) [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. The method for measuring integral 232Th reaction rate and its application in an experimental assembly were developed and investigated [6, 7, 8]. In this chapter, the progress in the fusion neutronics experiments for thorium assemblies is described. The overview of main results is presented. The thorium assemblies with a D-T fusion neutron source consist of a polyethylene shell, depleted uranium shell, and thorium oxide cylinder. The 232Th reaction rates in the assemblies and leakage neutron spectra are measured separately. The benchmark experiments on fuel and neutron breeding properties derived from the 232Th reaction rates in representative thorium assemblies are carried out and analyzed. The breeding properties are valuable to the breeding ratio in the conceptual design of subcritical blanket based on the Th/U fuel cycle. The experimental results are simulated by using the MC code with different evaluated data. The ratios of calculation to experimental values are analyzed.
The fusion neutronics experiments contain the measurements of the 232Th(n,γ), 232Th(n, f), and 232Th(n,2n) reaction rates, and the neutron spectra for thorium assemblies with a D-T fusion neutron source.
The experimental method of activation of γ-ray off-line measurement of 232Th reaction rates is used. The activation γ-rays are measured by using an HPGe γ spectrometer.
The 232Th capture reaction rate (THCR) indicates the fuel breeding, that is, the production rate of fissile 233U (233Pa decay). THCR can be deduced by measuring 311.98 keV γ rays emitted from 233Pa [6, 7]. The reaction process is as follows:
The 232Th fission (with threshold of 0.7 MeV) reaction rate (THFR) indicates energy amplification and neutron breeding. The fission fragment yield correction method is used [8]. THCR can be deduced by measuring 151.16 keV γ rays emitted from the decay of 85mKr from 232Th (n, f) reaction. The reaction process is as follows:
The 232Th(n,2n) 231Th (with threshold of 6.5 MeV) reaction rate (THNR) indicates neutron breeding. THNR is obtained from measuring 84.2 keV γ rays emitted from 231Th [9]. The reaction process is as follows:
The 232Th reaction rates are deduced from the measured activity and corrections, which include detection efficiency of the HPGe γ spectrometer, cited value of branching ratio, D-T neutron yield during irradiation, self-absorption of gamma rays in the foils, 85mKr yield only for THFR, etc. The 232Th reaction rates are normalized to one source neutron and one 232Th atom.
The breeding ratio in the conceptual design of subcritical blanket is more than one [1]. The experiment on breeding properties of thorium is used to support the design [17]. The breeding properties are relevant to the reaction type, cross section, and neutron spectrum. The breeding properties contain the fuel breeding and neutron breeding. The fuel breeding is derived from the reaction rate ratio of 232Th capture to fission, and neutron breeding from the 232Th(n,2n) and fission reaction rates. The different neutron spectra are constructed by using the macroscopic assemblies in which the material is relevant to that of the conceptual design. The breeding properties under different assemblies are obtained and analyzed from the measured 232Th reaction rates.
The neutron spectra leaking from the ThO2 cylinders of different thickness are measured by the proton recoil method and the liquid scintillator [16]. The n-γ pulse shape discrimination is based on the cross-zero method. The spectra are resolved by using iterative method, and their range is from 0.5 to 16 MeV.
The experimental assemblies are composed of polyethylene shell, depleted uranium shell, and ThO2 cylinder with a D-T fusion neutron source and thorium samples.
One can assume the elastic scattering cross sections of H and C, which are widely used as standard cross sections [18] to be reliable. The polyethylene (PE) shell is adopted for checking the method of measuring the 232Th reaction rates. The inner radius (IR) and the outer radius (OR) of the PE shell are 80 and 230 mm [11], respectively. Five slices of ThO2 (concentration > 99.95%) foils are put in the radial channel at 0° to the incident D+ beam, as shown in Figure 1. The mass and size of foils are about 4.2 g and ϕ30 × 1 mm, respectively.
Polyethylene shell assembly.
A D-T fusion neutron source is located in the center of the shell. The 14 MeV neutrons are produced by a neutron generator at INPC. The energy of D+ beam bombarding a T-Ti target is 225 keV. An Au-Si surface barrier semiconductor detector is at an angle of 178.2° to the incident D+ beam in the drift tube and used to measure the absolute yield by counting associated α particles [19, 20]. D-T neutron yield is about 3 × 1010/s.
In the conceptual design of a subcritical blanket based on thorium, the neutrons from the U reaction process are used to maintain the Th/U fuel cycle. The depleted uranium (DU) shell is adopted for studying Th reaction. The IR/OR of the DU shell is 131/300 mm [12]. Six slices of ThO2 samples are put in the radial channel at 90° to the incident D+ beam, as shown in Figure 2. ThO2 samples are foils made from ThO2 powder filling a plexiglass box with IR/OR of 9/9.5 mm. The mass of ThO2 powder is about 0.45 g, and the thickness is about 0.7 mm. The D-T neutron source is located in the center of the shell.
Depleted uranium shell assembly.
The thorium oxide (ThO2) cylindrical assembly with the thickness of 150 mm is produced and consists of three ThO2 cylinders with the thickness of 50 mm and the diameter of 300 mm. The ThO2 cylinders are made by pressing ThO2 powder using PEO (CH2CH2O) as the binder and their densities are 4.25–5.59 g/cm3 [9, 10]. The structure of the ThO2 cylinders as benchmark is simple. To change neutron spectra in ThO2 cylinders, the latter can be combined with DU cylinders. The combination of two ThO2 cylinders and one DU cylinders is shown in Figure 3. Three slices of the ThO2 samples are put in axial channel of the assembly. The front surface of the assembly is 113 mm from the center of a tritium target.
ThO2/DU assembly.
Based on thorium oxide powder, the ThO2 assembly is produced, as shown in Figure 4 [13, 14, 15]. ThO2 powder fills a stainless steel/aluminum cylinder container with IR/OR of 93.4/96.2 mm. The height of the ThO2 cylinder is 168.9 mm and the density 1.5 g/cm3. Five pieces of ThO2 foils are put at 0° to the incident D+ beam and fixed using holders consisting of aluminum plate and stainless steel. The mass and size of ThO2 foils are about 5.0 g and ϕ30 × 1 mm, respectively. The distance between the tritium target center and the front end of the cylinder is 78.8 mm.
ThO2 powder cylindrical assembly.
The neutron spectra in PE, DU, and ThO2 assemblies are simulated by using the MCNP4B code [21] with ENDF/B-VII.0 [22], in which the S (α, β) thermal scattering model in PE is considered. The angular dependences of the source neutron energy and intensity are calculated by “DROSG-2000” code [23]. The neutron spectra at foils with different distances d to the neutron source in three assemblies are relatively compared, as shown in Figure 5. The ordinate is a normalized neutron fraction, that is, the proportion of the neutron number in each energy segment to the one in the whole energy range [11, 13]. The results show that the differences of the fractions are very obvious, especially in the low-energy region.
Neutron spectra at foils in three assemblies.
The PE shell assembly for measuring 232Th reaction rates is shown in Figure 1. THCR is deduced from measuring 311.98 keV γ rays emitted from 233Pa (its half-life is 26.967 days, it is obtained from 233Th decay). THFR is deduced from measuring 151.16 keV γ rays emitted from 85mKr decay (its half-life is 4.48 hour), which is one of the fragments of 232Th(n,f) reaction, and using the fragment yield correction method. THNR is deduced from measuring 84.2 keV γ rays emitted from 231Th (its half-life is 25.52 hour).
The experimental uncertainty of THCR is 3.1%, including neutron yield 2.5%, γ-ray detection efficiency 1.0% (HPGe-GEM 60P), self-absorption 1.0%, characteristic gamma branch ratio 1.0%, 232Th nucleus number 0.5%, and counting statistics 0.3–0.6%.
The experimental uncertainty of THFR is 5.3%, including neutron yield 2.5%, γ-ray detection efficiency 1.0%, self-absorption 1.0%, average fission yield of 85mKr 4.3%, characteristic gamma branch ratio 0.7%, 232Th nucleus number 0.5%, and counting statistics 0.8–1.0%.
The experimental uncertainty of THNR is 6.8%, including neutron yield 2.5%, γ-ray detection efficiency 1.0%, self-absorption 1.0%, characteristic gamma branch ratio 6.1%, 232Th nucleus number 0.5%, and counting statistics 0.5–0.6%.
The experiment is simulated by using the MCNP code with evaluated nuclear data from different libraries, including ENDF/B-VII.0, ENDF/B-VII.1 [24] and JENDL-4.0 [25]. The model is completely consistent with the structure of the assembly; it takes into account the target chamber and experimental hall. The calculated statistical uncertainty is less than 1%. The ranges of C/E with ENDF/B-VII.0 are 0.96–1.02 for THCR, 0.95–0.97 for THFR, and 0.89–0.91 for THNR. The results show that the experiment and calculation for THCR and THFR are well consistent within the range of experimental uncertainties, respectively. It is shown that the γ-ray off-line method is feasible for determining the 232Th reaction rates.
The distributions of 232Th reaction rates obtained from the experiments and calculations with ENDF/B-VII.0 are shown in Figure 6. The reaction rate ratio of 232Th capture to fission gives fissile production rate in unit of fuel burn-up [12]. The relative ratios measured are about 10.76–20.17 with the increase of radius in PE shell.
232Th reaction rates in PE shell.
The ratios of calculation to experimental values (C/E) are analyzed. The C/E ratios of 232Th reaction rates are shown in Figure 7, and the 232Th(n,f) reaction results for different evaluated nuclear data are shown in Ref. [11]. The calculations with ENDF/B-VII.0 and ENDF/B-VII.1 for THNR underestimate the experimental values. Meanwhile, large differences still exist in the 232Th(n,2n)231Th cross sections among different evaluated data [26]. Fractions with different energies in the PE shell are calculated by using ENDF/B-VII.0, and neutrons of energy more than 6.5 MeV account for 33–48% in the whole energy range, as shown in Figure 5. Since the neutron spectra in the PE shell are reliable, it is suggested that 232Th(n,2n) reaction cross sections should be studied further.
C/E ratio of 232Th reaction rates in PE shell.
The DU shell assembly for measuring 232Th reaction rates is shown in Figure 2. The 232Th reaction rates are measured by the same method as described above.
The experimental uncertainties are 3.1% for THCR, 5.3–5.5% for THFR [6, 8], and 6.8% for THNR in DU shell.
The experiment is simulated using the MCNP code with different evaluated data, including ENDF/B-VII.0, ENDF/B-VII.1, JENDL-4.0, and CENDL-3.1 [27]. The distributions of 232Th reaction rates from the experiments and calculations with ENDF/B-VII.0 are shown in Figure 8. The ranges of C/E ratios with ENDF/B-VII.0 are 0.97–1.04 for THCR and 0.95–1.02 for THFR [8, 12], respectively. The results show that calculations and experiments are well consistent within the range of experimental uncertainties. The ratio of 232Th capture to fission is about 6.71–12.23 with the increase of radius in DU shell.
232Th reaction rates in DU shell.
The C/E ratios of 232Th reaction rates with different evaluated data are shown in Figure 9. The calculations for THNR overestimate the experiments. Meanwhile, large differences still exist in C/E of THNR. The range of C/E with ENDF/B-VII.0 is 1.07–1.12. Fractions with different energies in DU shell are calculated by using ENDF/B-VII.0, and neutrons of energy more than 6.5 MeV account for 4–9% in the whole energy range, as shown in Figure 5. Since U(n,f) cross sections are standard in the wide energy range, it is suggested that U inelastic cross sections and 232Th(n,2n) reaction cross sections should be studied further.
C/E ratio of 232Th reaction rates in the DU shell.
The ThO2 assembly for measuring 232Th reaction rates in three ThO2 cylinders with the thickness of 150 mm (without DU cylinder) is shown in Figure 3. The 232Th fission and (n,2n) reaction rates are measured by the same method as described above.
The experimental uncertainties are 5.3–5.5% for THFR and 7.1% for THNR [9, 10].
The 232Th reaction rates are calculated by using MCNP code with ENDF/B-VII.0. The ranges of C/E are 0.77–0.91 for THFR, and 0.92–1.0 [12] for THNR, respectively. The results show that the calculations generally underestimate the experiments for THFR. The PEO influence on THFR is described below. The distributions of 232Th reaction rates by the experiments and calculations are shown in Figure 10.
232Th reaction rates in ThO2 cylinder.
Experimental and simulative studies of THFR are carried out on three sets of ThO2/DU cylinder assemblies to validate the evaluated thorium fission cross section and code [9, 10]. The size of each ThO2 cylinder and DU cylinder is ϕ300 × 50 mm. The ThO2 cylinders with PEO contents of 7.28, 1.1, and 0.55% are named as number 1, number 2, and number 3, respectively. The DU cylinder is named as number 4. Three sets of cylinder assemblies are combined with different cylinders, and named as “3 + 2 + 1,” “4 + 2 + 1” (as shown in Figure 3) and “3 + 4 + 2 + 1” assembly, respectively.
THFR in the axial direction of the assemblies is obtained by using the activation method as described above, with experimental uncertainties about 5.6–5.9%.
THFRs are calculated by using MCNP code with ENDF/B-VII.0 and ENDF/B-VII.1. The calculations are 5–21% smaller than experimental ones, while the calculations with ENDF/B-VII.0 show better agreement with experimental ones. C/E distributions in the three assemblies are presented in Figure 11. The influence of the PEO in the ThO2 cylinders is also evaluated by MCNP simulation employing ENDF/B-VII.0. The results show that the PEO influence on THFR under the measured level is negligible.
C/E distribution in the three sets of assemblies.
In order to gain more experimental results, it is necessary to design a new integral experiment employing thorium transport medium in which the ingredient is single and precisely known, and to determine THFR based on more kinds of fission products, as described below. The stage results could provide reference for the evaluation of neutron-induced thorium fission cross section, and the conceptual design margin of the subcritical blanket.
The ThO2 power cylinder assembly for measuring 232Th reaction rates is shown in Figure 4. The 232Th reaction rates are measured by the same method as described above.
The experimental uncertainties are 3.1% for THCR, 5.5% for THFR, and 7.0% for THNR in the ThO2 powder cylinder.
The experiment is simulated by using the MCNP code with different evaluated data [10, 11]. The C/E ratio of 232Th reaction rates with ENDF/B-VII.0 are shown in Figure 12. The ranges of C/E ratio are 0.96–0.98 for THCR, 0.96–0.99 for THFR, and 0.74–0.76 for THNR. The results show that calculations and experiments for THCR and THFR are well consistent within the range of experimental uncertainties. The distributions of 232Th reaction rates in the experiments and calculations are shown in [13, 14, 15].
C/E ratio of 232Th reaction rates in ThO2 powder cylinder.
The calculations for THNR underestimate the experiments. Fractions with different energies in ThO2 powder cylinder are calculated by using ENDF/B-VII.0, and neutrons of energy more than 6.5 MeV account for 62–72% in the whole energy range, which is the largest among the assemblies, as shown in Figure 5. The suggestion described above is that 232Th(n,2n) reaction cross sections should be studied further.
The ThO2 power cylinder assembly for developing the activation method of measuring THFR is shown in Figure 4. THFR in the axial direction of the cylinder is determined by measuring the 1260.409 keV gamma emitted from 232Th fission product 135I, with experimental uncertainties of 6.2% [14]. The experiment is simulated by using the MCNP code with ENDF/B-VII.0, ENDF/B-VII.1, JENDL-4.0, and CENDL-3.1. The calculations and experiments are in good agreement within experimental uncertainties. The activation method to determine THFR is developed and the data obtained in this work could provide reference for the validation of thorium fission parameters. The C/E ratio of 232Th fission rates based on different evaluated data is presented in the [14].
The primary conversion rate is one of the important parameters in the conceptual design of subcritical blanket. The relative reaction rate ratio of 232Th capture to fission as the fissile production rate indicates fuel breeding in the fuel burn-up unit [12]. The ratios of 232Th capture to fission measured in PE shell, DU shell, and ThO2 powder cylinder are obtained.
The ratios are about 10.76–20.17 with the increase in radius of the PE shell. It is demonstrated that the fuel breeding efficiency under the neutron spectra in the PE shell is quite high.
The ratios are about 6.71–12.23 with the increase in radius of the DU shell. It is demonstrated that the fuel breeding efficiency under the neutron spectra in DU shell is high.
The ratios are only about 0.11–0.19 with the increase in radius of the ThO2 powder cylinder. It is demonstrated that the fuel breeding efficiency under the neutron spectra in ThO2 powder cylinder is low.
The results show that the ratios are relevant to neutron spectra in the assemblies. The ratios in the three assemblies are compared and shown in Figure 13.
Ratios of 232Th capture to fission in the three assemblies.
The bred neutrons from 232Th(n,2n) and 232Th(n,f) react with thorium or relevant nuclides to maintain the Th/U fuel cycle. THNRs in three assemblies, that is, under different neutron spectra, are compared and shown in Figure 14. The results show that the 232Th(n,2n) reaction rates are relevant to the fraction of high-energy neutrons in the assemblies as described above, and the decreasing trend of THNR with the increase in distance to the neutron source are similar for three assemblies.
THNRs in the three assemblies.
Since 230Th half-life (7.54 × 104 years) is very long, measurement of 232Th(n,3n) 230Th (with threshold of 11.6 MeV) reaction rate by the activation method is very difficult. The 232Th(n,4n) reaction has high threshold 19 MeV and is not involved in this work.
The prompt neutron and delayed neutron yields from 232Th(n,f) reaction are about 3.7 and 0.0265 per fission at 14.1 MeV [28], respectively. THFRs in three assemblies, that is, under different neutron spectra, are compared and shown in Figure 15. From Figures 14 and 15, THNRs are higher than THFRs in the three assemblies.
THFRs in the three assemblies.
Three assemblies consist of the ThO2 cylinders with thicknesses of 50, 100, and 150 mm (without DU cylinder), respectively, as shown in Figure 3. The front surface of the assembly is 0.22 m from the center of a T-Ti target. The leakage neutron spectra are measured by using a 50.8 mm diameter and 50.8 mm length BC501A liquid scintillator coupled to a 50.8 mm diameter 9807B photomultiplier [16]. The distance from the detector to the neutron source is 10.75 m. The detector is at a 0° to the incident D+ beam and arranged in shielding room. The influence of background neutrons is negligible.
The leakage neutron spectra from the three assemblies are measured. The spectra are normalized to one source neutron and unit area. The experimental uncertainties are 9.7% for 0.5–1 MeV, 6.7% for 1–3 MeV, and 6.3% for 3–16 MeV. The experiments are calculated by using MCNP code with ENDF/B-VII.0. The results show that the experiments and calculations are generally consistent within the range of experimental uncertainties, and the spectra (<5 MeV) should be analyzed further, as shown in Figure 16.
Leakage neutron spectra from ThO2 cylinders.
To validate 232Th nuclear data, the fusion neutronics experiments for the three kinds of thorium assemblies with a D-T neutron source have been carried out. The two spherical assemblies based on the DU and PE shells, and the cylindrical assemblies based on ThO2 have been designed and established. The assembly materials are referable to the conceptual design of subcritical blanket of a hybrid reactor. The 232Th(n,γ), 232Th(n,f), and 232Th(n,2n) reaction rates in the assemblies are measured by the foil activation technique. The results show that the developed activation approach can work well for the experiments, and the 232Th reaction rates are relevant to neutron spectra in assemblies. The reaction rate ratios of 232Th capture to fission are obtained. The fuel and neutron breeding properties under different neutron spectra are compared and analyzed. The leakage neutron spectra from ThO2 cylinders are measured. The experimental results are compared to the numerical results calculated by using the MCNP code with different evaluated data. The results show that the experiments are benefit to validate Th nuclear data and support the conceptual design of subcritical blanket with thorium in a hybrid reactor. Furthermore, it should be beneficial to measure relevant 232Th excitation curve at white neutron source of China Spallation Neutron Source (CSNS) [29] for verifying 232Th nuclear data.
This work is supported by the National Special Magnetic Confinement Fusion Energy Research of China (No. 2015GB108001B), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 11675155, 91226104), and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2016YFA0401603). The author wishes to acknowledge all participators of the projects, including Dr. Yiwei Yang, Dr. Lei Zheng, Dr. Song Feng, MS. Caifeng Lai, Prof. Xinxin Lu, MS. Zhujun Liu, Prof. Li Jiang, Prof. Mei Wang, MS. Zijie Han, et al. All participators would like to thank Prof. Benchao Lou and his group for operating the neutron generator. The author thanks the reviewers, comments and suggestion.
The drill pipe joint is an important part of drill pipe, which is used to connect the drill pipe to form a drilling string. It always adopts a larger wall thickness and larger outer diameter, which can increase the drill string strength and protect drill pipe. In the process of drilling, when the inclination of the well is larger or the drill string is subjected to larger lateral force, the drill pipe joint will contact with the borehole wall or the inner wall of the casing, which can cause both the serious drill string wear and the heavy casing wear.
\nAt present, there are lots of anti-wear technologies of the drill pipe joint, such as drill string hardbanding, rubber drill pipe protector, casing pipe blast joint, etc. Among them, hardbanding is the process of bonding the hardbanding alloy with the parent steel of the drill pipe (Figure 1), which has the advantages of stable performance, simple operation, and easy maintenance [2]. At the moment, hardbanding is the most effective measure to reduce the wear of drill pipe and casing among these anti-wear technologies [3]. However, with the development of oil and gas exploration and drilling technology, complex well structures, such as deep well, extended reach well, horizontal well, and highly-deviated well, are being used more and more widely. In addition, the formation structures, such as strong abrasive formation, fractured formation, etc., are becoming more and more complex in the process of oil drilling. All of these put forward higher requirements for anti-wear and anti-friction characteristics of hardbandings, so the development of new hardbanding materials has already been the task of top priority [4, 5, 6].
\nHardbanding welding process and morphology after welding [1].
With the gradual solution of the problems in the field application of hardbanding materials, many new hardbanding materials are introduced constantly, and the varieties of hardbandings are becoming more and more abundant. For this paper, the development and application of hardbanding materials for drill pipe joints were reviewed. Furthermore, the development of a new hardbanding material independently developed by our team was reviewed. Finally, the weaknesses and development orientation of hardbanding materials were pointed out.
\nThe development process of the hardbanding material is divided into two stages: the first stage is the cemented carbide material stage (from the 1930s to the early 1990s); the second stage is the “casing-friendly” material stage (from the 1990s to the present) [7].
\nThe cemented carbide hardbanding material was invented and marketed by Hughes Tool Company in the 1930s, which was designed to prevent the abrasive wear of drill pipe joints in the open hole section and improve the service life of drill pipe. This hardbanding material is composed of low carbon steel matrix and carbide particles, which is a very effective method of protecting drill pipe joints in shallow wells (<1500 m) and vertical wells (well deviation below 2°) [8, 9].
\nBut as wells become more complex, the depth of the well is getting deeper, and the angle of the well is getting larger. The casing failures caused by the hardbanding of cemented carbide became more and more serious, which had aroused wide concern [10]. A lot of experimental studies have shown that during rotary drilling and tripping, the cemented carbide particles embedded in it will be soon exposed, because of the relatively soft base alloy of this wear-resistant belt. These exposed cemented carbide particles will cause serious abrasive wear on the casing wall and finally cause the casing failure.
\nIn order to avoid the loss caused by casing failure, it was decided to stop using the cemented carbide hardbandings. Only the smooth drill pipes without hardbanding or other anti-wear technologies (such as rubber drill pipe protector, casing pipe blast joint, etc.) were allowed. Other anti-wear technologies could reduce casing wear to some extent but were generally faced with many problems, such as high cost, complex structure, difficult installation, low life, easy to cause downhole accidents, etc. [11].
\nTherefore, the major technical service companies began to develop new materials to replace the cemented carbide material. These materials are generally characterized by low friction, small wear to the casing, and high hardness, which can protect the drill pipe joint to a certain extent. Since then, the development of drill pipe joint hardbanding material has entered the stage of “casing-friendly” material.
\n“Casing-friendly” material has a low friction factor, resulting in lower casing wear. Small friction and friction heat can be produced when this hardbanding material is in contact with the inner wall of the casing. There are two main types of “casing-friendly” materials: one is the “amorphous” hardbanding material; the other one is the “crystalline” hardbanding material. The crystalline material refers to a material in which atoms follow a certain law in the arrangement. On the other hand, the material whose internal atoms are arranged in an irregular state is called the amorphous material [12, 13].
\nIn 1990, Liquidmetal Technologies LTD developed a chromium alloy hardbanding material, named Armacor MTM. This material is an “amorphous” chromium alloy, the microstructure of which has no grain boundary and is distributed in a single atomic structure. The outstanding feature of this metal structure is that it has a very low friction factor. Therefore, the wear of the casing is very small, which can greatly reduce the wear of the casing. It is the first kind of “casing-friendly” hardbanding material, which represents a significant improvement in hardbanding technology. But because the “amorphous” hardbanding has only a very thin layer with poor abrasion performance under the high pressure, the main shortcoming of this hardbanding material is insufficient wear-resistant ability, which makes the drill pipe joint not well protected [14].
\nSubsequently, the Liquidmetal Technologies company has developed some new hardbanding materials, such as Armacor MStar and Armacor TMax. Till now, Armacor MStar material is their most casing-friendly material [15]. Armacor TMax material is their hardest, most wear-resistant material, which is ideal for open-hole drilling environments. In addition to this, as amorphous materials, these materials can lead to improved corrosion resistance and resistance to reactivity at elevated temperatures (oxidation, vulcanization), which are suitable for geothermal well drilling and deep well drilling.
\nAt the end of 1992, Arnco Technology Trust, Ltd., developed a new generation of chromium carbide hardbanding material—ARNCO 200XT™. The hardbanding can effectively reduce the wear of the casing and ensure the durability of the drill pipe joint in the open hole section, which can minimize the wear of the drill pipe joint. However, with ARNCO 200XT, it is easy to generate micro-cracks in the application and welding process. Although it has no influence in the use process, all the cracked parts should be removed during the reapplication and welding. Subsequently, the company has developed many hardbanding materials, such as ARNCO 100XT, ARNCO 300XT, ARNCO 150XT, and ARNCO 350XT, to overcome the problems existing in ARNCO 200XT [16]. The tool performances of these hardbanding materials are shown in Figure 2.
\nArnco Technology has led the hardbanding industry since pioneering the use of casing-friendly hardbanding two decades ago. To better understand the development of “crystalline” hardbanding materials, a more detailed introduction can be found in the following:
ARNCO 100XT hardbanding alloy [17]. ARNCO 100XT is an iron-base alloy containing chromium, manganese, and molybdenum, which can be welded seamlessly. Because of the above 50 rockwell hardness, the drill pipe joint can be well protected. The inherent low coefficient of friction is the most significant characteristic of Arnco100 XT hardbanding alloy. In the series of products of ARNCO, its anti-friction performance is the best, which can effectively reduce the wear caused by the contact between drilling pipe string and casing to extend the service life.
ARNCO 300XT hardbanding alloy [18]. As the “third-generation” product of Arnco Technology, ARNCO 300XT is an iron-base alloy including nickel, boron, and niobium, which is a chrome-free metal material with little environmental pollution. ARNCO 300XT can be directly welded on the worn 100XT and 150XT hardbandings, which increases its applicability. Because of the above 60 rockwell hardness, its wear resistance is much stronger, which can be used in the open hole in extreme grinding geological structure. Besides, the wear on the casing can be reduced effectively, which can obtain the lowest radial wear on the inside-wall of the casing.
ARNCO 150XT hardbanding alloy [19]. As the “fourth-generation” product of Arnco Technology, ARNCO 150XT is a kind of advanced crack-free and casing-friendly hardbanding, which inherited the advantages of ARNCO 100XT and ARNCO 300XT. The wear-resistant capacity of ARNCO 150XT is between ARNCO 100XT and ARNCO 300XT, and the anti-friction capacity is higher than ARNCO 300XT and ARNCO 100XT. It’s worth mentioning that repair welding can proceed under various external conditions without any crack, which can further enhance its applicability. Specifically, it can prevent the hydrogen sulfide corrosion and withstand high torque and high temperature in severe drilling conditions in extended reach wells, deep wells, and horizontal well, because of its maintaining of a certain toughness.
ARNCO 350XT hardbanding alloy [20]. As the “latest-generation” product of Arnco Technology, the wear resistance of ARNCO 350XT is further enhanced (compared with the ARNCO 300 XT), and the damage to the casing is further reduced, which is at present the strongest wear-resistant performance among Arnco Company’s products. It can be easily welded to new drill pipe joints and can be directly welded to on the ARNCO 100XT, ARNCO 150XT, ARNCO 350XT, and most other crack-free hardbandings without removing the original hardbandings.
NonMagXT™ hardbanding [21]. The appearance of nonmagnetic drill pipes raises an even newer requirement for hardbandings. NonMagXT™ is a newly developed nonmagnetic hardbanding, which is a patent-pending iron-based alloy system. This hardbanding features clear advantages over nickel and other iron-based nonmagnetic hardband products, which can enable easy, crack-free application onto stainless steel. It can also deliver exceptional wear resistance, greater ductility, and resistance to damage while in service.
Tool performances of ARNCO hardbanding materials [16].
The development of new hardbanding materials with high performance has already attracted the attention of the industry. Many technical service companies have developed new materials. Major products can be found in the following:
\nPostle Industries has developed some new hardbanding materials, such as Duraband® NC hardbanding and Tuffband® NC hardbanding:
\nDuraband® NC from Hardbanding Solutions is a 100% crack-free casing-friendly hardbanding, which can provide maximum protection of the tool joint and casing as well as workstring completion tubing [22]. Duraband® NC consists of a hard but tough tool steel matrix with a high volume of tightly packed micro-constituents, which ensures a non-cracking hard band with excellent wear resistance in open hole drilling as well as being casing friendly.
\nTuffband® NC is a high hardness hardbanding which can meet different application requirements [23]. When used by itself, it is especially suitable for casing-friendly hardbanding applications. When casing protection is not a factor, it can be used as a weld matrix with tungsten carbide (WC). Tuffband® NC is applied crack free and prevents spalling even under the most extreme drilling conditions and is 100% rebuildable.
\nTE Metal Works specialize in 100% nonmagnetic applications for all directional and vertical drilling. TE NM1X hardbanding developed by TE Metal Works is an alloy which is 100% nonmagnetic and 100% crack free [24]. This hardbanding will outlast 3 times the length of non-mag welding alloys.
\nHBK series hardbandings are developed by Kooben Technology [25]. Kooben is only one company in China with the ability to research, develop, and manufacture hardbanding. Kooben’s hardbanding product line now has three grades. They are HBK 100, HBK 150, and HBK 300, which are suitable for any application. The performances of their hardbandings are similar to those of Arnco hardbandings. They can offer at the industry’s most competitive prices and are compatible with all Arnco hardbandings. Besides, the client testing phase of nonmagnetic hardbanding wire has begun. In addition, Kooben is also one of the few companies in the world that have nonmagnetic hardbanding wire products.
\nIn addition to Kooben products, some “casing-friendly” materials can be occasionally reported on the Internet, and most of them imitate the foreign products. For example, Nate707J hardbanding material developed by Xi’an Nate Petroleum Technology Co., Ltd., is an iron-based amorphous hardbanding alloy, whose wear resistance is basically equivalent to that of ARMACOR Mstar and 3.8–3.9 times of that of ARNCO 100XT [26]; BoTn3000 hardbanding material produced by Shanghai BoTeng Welding Consumables Co., Ltd., is a chrome-free hardbanding material with high hardness and good wear resistance, which has reached the advanced level of similar products abroad [27]. In addition, some China units, universities, research institutes, and other institutions are studying the production of new hardbanding materials. Although China’s “casing-friendly” hardbanding materials have started, some hardbanding materials have made great progress. Some properties are even better than similar foreign hardbanding materials. However, most of them are still in the research and experimental stage and have not been mass-produced and put into application [28].
\nAt present, mechanical properties and wear resistance of hardbandings have been dramatically advanced. Although such improvements have been made, hardbandings and casings still suffer from friction and wear issues. The materials of existing hardbanding products are mostly iron-base alloy materials, so the problem of wear and tear is always unavoidable because of the pairwise similarity of elements. Therefore, if nonmetallic materials with high wear resistance are used to produce hardbandings, the wear problem will be greatly solved.
\nPolycrystalline diamond (PCD) is widely used in oil and mining explorations due to the advantages of homogeneous hardness, good toughness, and easy processing. And furthermore, PCD has a high wear resistance and low friction coefficient. Even in a high-temperature environment, it can also maintain its excellent performance. Thus PCD is obviously an ideal hardbanding material which could accomplish the optimum balance of drill string improvement and casing wear reduction [29].
\nZhang et al., of the China University of Petroleum, Beijing, has developed a new hardbanding material (shown in Figure 3), called PCD reinforced WC matrix composite (PCD composite for short), which is a kind of homogeneous composite material of fine property [30]. This hardbanding material has a strong resistance to wear, which can be very good to prevent the drilling pipe joint wear in the strong abrasive formation. Because of the extremely weak wear of the iron foundation material, the casing can be well protected with small friction factor and friction resistance.
\nSchematic description of PCD composite hardbanding.
In order to understand the relationship between the raw material’s properties and its tool performance, the material properties and drill pipe hardbanding performance of this PCD composite were investigated [29]. We find that the excellent anti-friction property and reasonable hardness of this PCD composite hardbanding are the primary reasons for its enhanced tool performance. Besides, a height difference was found at the border between the PCD part and the WC matrix part, which is advantageous to form lubricant film to improve the lubricating performance. To better understand its performance, the friction and casing wear properties of PCD composite hardbanding were also investigated. The results indicate that as the applied load and sliding speed steadily increase, the friction coefficients of PCD composites decrease. In addition, the casing wear rates increase with increasing load but decline with sliding velocity. The dominant wear mechanism of the PCD composite is the micro-cutting wear, accompanied by adhesive wear [31].
\nDue to the poor thermal stability of PDC, the performance will be affected in high-temperature geothermal wells and deep wells [32]. In many polycrystalline diamond composites, the thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) diamond can exhibit excellent anti-friction and good anti-abrasion, which also can be achieved in an environment of high temperature and super high pressure and thermally stable up to 1200°C. Thus, in order to improve the thermal stability, the TSP was used to replace the PCD to produce this hardbanding. By proving experimentation, TSP composites could satisfy the requirements of protecting the casing and the drill pipe at the same time when drilling deep holes. This perfect performance is dependent on the adsorbed lubricating liquid on the rubbing surface and the formation of height difference between the TSP part and the WC matrix part [33].
\nThe overall results demonstrate that the PCD composite series hardbandings are extremely promising for drill pipe hardbanding applications.
\n\n
At present, the research on hardbanding materials is still in the stage of “casing-friendly” materials. The hardbanding material is mainly developed to the directions of high wear resistance, high casing friendliness, and high rewelding.
Although more and more hardbanding products appear, ARNCO series hardbandings developed by Arnco Technology companies are still the best hardbanding materials. The latest products ARNCO 350XT and 150XT are the best products with wear-resisting performance, which can guarantee 100% no crack.
In China, some “casing-friendly” hardbanding materials can be occasionally reported on the Internet, and most of them imitate the foreign products. The material performance has still a certain gap compared with mature products. Chinese research institutions should pay attention to the development of new wear-resistant belt materials to accelerate the development of a reasonable price. If the excellent performance of new wear-resistant belt material can be obtained, then China’s capacity for independent research and technology level will be enhanced.
PCD composite series hardbandings, which are extremely promising for drill pipe hardbanding applications. This hardbanding material has a strong resistance to wear, a good casing protected with small friction factor, and friction resistance.
This work was supported by National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFE0202200), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 2652017070), Research Foundation of Key Laboratory of Deep Geo-drilling Technology, Ministry of Land and Resources (Grant No. PY201805), International S&T Cooperation Program of China (Grant No. 2012DFR70160), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41672365).
\nIntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.
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\n\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
\n\nWomen scientists can apply for one book topic, either as an editor or with co-editors, for a publication of an OA book in any of the scientific categories that will be evaluated by The Women in Science Book Collection Committee, led by IntechOpen’s Editorial Board. Submitted proposals will be sent to designated members of the IntechOpen Editorial Advisory Board who will evaluate proposals based on the following parameters: the proposal’s originality, the topic’s relation to recent trends in the corresponding scientific field, and significance to the scientific community.
\n\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. 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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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